Q.

Operating system

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer

hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer
programs.
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and
may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass
storage, printing, and other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the
operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer
hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the
hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is interrupted by it.
Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular
phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
The dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of
around 82.74%. macOS by Apple Inc. is in second place (13.23%), and the varieties
of Linux are collectively in third place (1.57%).[3] In
the mobile (including smartphones and tablets) sector, Google Android's share is up
to 70% in the year 2017.[4] According to third quarter 2016 data, Android's share on
smartphones is dominant with 87.5 percent with also a growth rate of 10.3 percent per
year, followed by Apple's iOS with 12.1 percent with per year decrease in market
share of 5.2 percent, while other operating systems amount to just 0.3 percent.
[5]
 Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors. Other
specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems,
exist for many applications.

Contents

 1Types of operating systems

o 1.1Single-tasking and multi-tasking
o 1.2Single- and multi-user
o 1.3Distributed
o 1.4Templated
o 1.5Embedded
o 1.6Real-time
o 1.7Library
 2History
o 2.1Mainframes
o 2.2Microcomputers
 3Examples
o 3.1Unix and Unix-like operating systems
 3.1.1BSD and its descendants
 3.1.2macOS
  3.1.3Linux
o 3.2Microsoft Windows
o 3.3Other
 4Components
o 4.1Kernel
 4.1.1Program execution
 4.1.2Interrupts
 4.1.3Modes
 4.1.4Memory management
 4.1.5Virtual memory
 4.1.6Multitasking
 4.1.7Disk access and file systems
 4.1.8Device drivers
o 4.2Networking
o 4.3Security
o 4.4User interface
 4.4.1Graphical user interfaces
 5Real-time operating systems
 6Operating system development as a hobby
 7Diversity of operating systems and portability
 8Market share
 9See also
 10References
 11Further reading
 12External links

Q. Types of operating systems

Single-tasking and multi-tasking
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-
tasking operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency.
This is achieved by time-sharing, where the available processor time is divided
between multiple processes. These processes are each interrupted repeatedly in time
slices by a task-scheduling subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be
characterized in preemptive and co-operative types. In preemptive multitasking, the
operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs.
Unix-like operating systems, such as Solaris and Linux—as well as non-Unix-like,
such as AmigaOS—support preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is
achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a
defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-
tasking. 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-
tasking.
Single- and multi-user
Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow
multiple programs to run in tandem.[6] A multi-user operating system extends the basic
concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as
disk space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to
interact with the system at the same time. Time-sharing operating systems schedule
tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost
allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources to multiple
users.
Distributed
A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes
them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that
could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing.
Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers
in a group work in cooperation, they form a distributed system.[7]
Templated
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a
single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for
multiple running virtual machines. The technique is used both in virtualization and
cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses.[8]
Embedded
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer
systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less
autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very
compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some
examples of embedded operating systems.
Real-time
A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process
events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be
single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling
algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event-driven
system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-
sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
Library
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system
provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and composed with
the application and configuration code to construct a unikernel: a specialized, single
address space, machine image that can be deployed to cloud or embedded
environments.
Unix and Unix-like operating systems
Main article: Unix
Evolution of Unix systems
Unix was originally written in assembly language.[13] Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly
based on BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced
by C, and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related
operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system
(see History).
The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-
categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark
of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been
shown to conform to their definitions. "UNIX-like" is commonly used to refer to the
large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.
Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used
heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering
environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these
areas.
Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix
trademark) as Unix. HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are both descendants of the original
System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In
contrast, Sun Microsystems's Solaris can run on multiple types of hardware,
including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple's macOS, a replacement for Apple's
earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived
from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX
standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created
for various Unix variants.
Linux
Main articles: Linux and Linux kernel

Ubuntu, desktop Linux distribution

The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university
student in Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for
computer students and programmers, and received support and assistance from
volunteers who succeeded in creating a complete and functional kernel.
Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its
variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for
study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing
machinery from supercomputers to smart-watches. Although estimates suggest that
Linux is used on only 1.82% of all "desktop" (or laptop) PCs,[15] it has been widely
adopted for use in servers[16] and embedded systems[17] such as cell phones. Linux
has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most supercomputers
including the top 385.[18] Many of the same computers are also on Green500 (but in
different order), and Linux runs on the top 10. Linux is also commonly used on other
small energy-efficient computers, such as smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux
kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux
Mint and Google's Android, Chrome OS, and Chromium OS.
Microsoft Windows
Main article: Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft

Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an
estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected computers.[15][19][20][21] The
latest version is Windows 10.
In 2011, Windows 7 overtook Windows XP as most common version in use.[22][23][24]
Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985, as an operating environment running
on top of MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel
architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released
which only used MS-DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could
run real-mode MS-DOS[25][26] and 16-bit Windows 3.x[27] drivers. Windows ME,
released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all
been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of Windows run on IA-
32, x86-64 and 32-bit ARM microprocessors.[28] In addition Itanium is still supported in
older server version Windows Server 2008 R2. In the past, Windows NT supported
additional architectures.
Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended
significant capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating
system. However, Windows' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal
computers as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share.[29]
[30]

ReactOS is a Windows-alternative operating system, which is being developed on the

principles of Windows – without using any of Microsoft's code.
Other
There have been many operating systems that were significant in their day but are no
longer so, such as AmigaOS; OS/2 from IBM and Microsoft; classic Mac OS, the non-
Unix precursor to Apple's macOS; BeOS; XTS-300; RISC
OS; MorphOS; Haiku; BareMetal and FreeMint. Some are still used in niche markets
and continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and
specialist applications. OpenVMS, formerly from DEC, is still under active
development by Hewlett-Packard. Yet other operating systems are used almost
exclusively in academia, for operating systems education or to do research on
operating system concepts. A typical example of a system that fulfills both roles
is MINIX, while for example Singularity is used purely for research. Another example
is the Oberon System designed at ETH Zürich by Niklaus Wirth, Jürg Gutknecht and a
group of students at the former Computer Systems Institute in the 1980s. It was used
mainly for research, teaching, and daily work in Wirth's group.
Other operating systems have failed to win significant market share, but have
introduced innovations that have influenced mainstream operating systems, not least
Bell Labs' Plan 9.

Real-time operating systems

Main article: Real-time operating system

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications

with fixed deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some
small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft,
industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems.
An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction
Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline
Reservations System.
Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real-time operating system such
as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux. Windows CE is
a real-time operating system that shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares
none of desktop Windows' codebase.[33] Symbian OS also has an RTOS kernel
(EKA2) starting with version 8.0b.
Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, BSD, and Linux,
although such operating systems do not support real-time computing.

Operating system development as a hobby

See also: Hobbyist operating system development

Operating system development is one of the most complicated activities in which a

computing hobbyist may engage.[citation needed] A hobby operating system may be
classified as one whose code has not been directly derived from an existing operating
system, and has few users and active developers.[34]
In some cases, hobby development is in support of a "homebrew" computing device,
for example, a simple single-board computer powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or,
development may be for an architecture already in widespread use. Operating system
development may come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by modeling
an existing operating system. In either case, the hobbyist is his/her own developer, or
may interact with a small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals who have
like interests.
Examples of a hobby operating system include Syllable and TempleOS.
Diversity of operating systems and portability
Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and
sometimes even for specific hardware.[citation needed] When porting the application to run
on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented
differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring
the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained.
Unix was the first operating system not written in assembly language, making it
very portable to systems different from its native PDP-11.[35]
This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing
applications against software platforms such as Java or Qt. These abstractions have
already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system
libraries.
Another approach is for operating system vendors to adopt standards. For
example, POSIX and OS abstraction layers provide commonalities that reduce porting
costs.

2.
Operating System (OS)

Definition - What does Operating System (OS) mean?

An operating system (OS), in its most general sense, is software that allows a user to
run other applications on a computing device. While it is possible for a software
application to interface directly with hardware, the vast majority of applications are
written for an OS, which allows them to take advantage of common libraries and not
worry about specific hardware details.
The operating system manages a computer's hardware resources, including:

 Input devices such as a keyboard and mouse.

 Output devices such as display monitors, printers and scanners.
 Network devices such as modems, routers and network connections.
 Storage devices such as internal and external drives.

The OS also provides services to facilitate the efficient execution and management of,
and memory allocations for, any additional installed software application programs.

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Techopedia explains Operating System (OS)

Some operating systems were developed in the 1950s, when computers could only
execute one program at a time. Later in the decade, computers included many
software programs, sometimes called libraries, which were linked together to create
the beginning of today's operating systems.
The OS consists of many components and features. Which features are defined as
part of the OS vary with each OS. However, the three most easily defined
components are:

 Kernel: This provides basic-level control over all of the computer hardware

devices. Main roles include reading data from memory and writing data to
memory, processing execution orders, determining how data is received and
sent by devices such as the monitor, keyboard and mouse, and determining
how to interpret data received from networks.
 User Interface: This component allows interaction with the user, which may
occur through graphical icons and a desktop or through a command line.
 Application Programming Interfaces: This component allows application
developers to write modular code.

Examples for OSs include Android, iOS, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows and Linux.

3.
What is Operating System? Definition

Operating System Definition: It is a software that works as an interface between a

user and the computer hardware. The primary objective of an operating system is to
make computer system convenient to use and to utilize computer hardware in an
efficient manner. The operating system performs the basic tasks such as receiving
input from the keyboard, processing instructions and sending output to the screen.

What is Operating System

The Software is the Non-Touchable Parts of the Computer , and Software’s are those
which are used for Performing an Operation So that Software’s are just used for
Making an Application but hardware’s are those which are used for Performing an
Operation .
Operating system is software that is required in order to run application programs and
utilities. It works as a bridge to perform better interaction between application
programs and hardware of the computer. Examples of operating system are UNIX,
MS-DOS, MS-Windows - 98/XP/Vista, Windows-NT/2000, OS/2 and Mac OS.

Functions of operating system

Operating System Means that Resource Manager, that manage all the Resources
those are Attached to the System,like Memory,Processor,Input/output Devices.
Storage Management:It manage all the Storing and Accessing Files and Directories 
Reading/Writing Operations.
Operating system manages overall activities of a computer and the input/output
devices attached to the computer. It is the first software you see when you turn on the
computer, and the last software you see when the computer is turned off. It is the
software that enables all the programs you use. At the simplest level, an operating
system does two things:
                                 
The first, it manages the hardware and software resources of the computer system.
These resources include the processor, memory, disk space, etc. The second, it
provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without
having-to know all the details of the hardware. 
The first task is very important i.e. managing the hardware and software resources, as
various processes compete to each other for getting the CPU time and memory space
to complete the task. In this regard; the operating system acts as a manager to
allocate the available resources to 'satisfy the requirements of each process. 
The second task i.e. providing a consistent application interface is especially
important. A consistent application program interface (API) allows a user
(or S/W developer) to write an application program on any computer and to run this
program on another computer, even if the hardware configuration is different like as
amount of memory, type of CPU or storage disk. It shields the user of the machine
from the low-level details of the machine's operation and provides frequently needed
facilities.
Process Management:It manage all the User and system Process.
Memory Management: Operating System also Manages the Computer Memory that
is provided to the process.
Extended Machine: It is behaves like an Extended Machine that Provides us Sharing
of Files between Multiple Users.
Mastermind: It performs Many Functions that's why we can say that Operating
System is a Mastermind.

Different types of operating system

There are different types of operating system those are organized by their Working.
Serial Processing:In Serial Processing operating system that use FIFO (First in First
Out) technique for processing the process.
Batch Processing:In batch processing a similar type of jobs prepared and
processed.
Multi-Programming:In Multi programming Operating System Multiple Programs are
Executed on the System at a Time.
Real Time System: Real Time System are used there Requires higher and Timely
Response.
Distributed Operating System: In this Operating system Data is Stored and
Processed on Multiple Locations.
Multiprocessing: In This type of operating system there are two or More CPU in a
Single OS.
Parallel operating systems: It manage parallely all running resources of the computer
system.

How Operating System Work

When you turn on the computer, the operating system program is loaded into the
main memory. This program is called the kernel. Once initialized, the system program
is prepared to run the user programs and permits them to use the hardware
efficiently. Windows 98/XP is an excellent example that supports different types of
hardware configurations from thousands of vendors and accommodates thousands of
different I/O devices like printers, disk drives, scanners and cameras.
Operating systems may be classified based on if multiple tasks can be performed
simultaneously, and if the system can be used by multiple users. It can be termed as
single-user or multi-user OS, and single-tasking or multi-tasking OS.A multi-user
system must be multi-tasking. MS-DOS and Windows 3x are examples of single user
operating system. Whereas UNIX is an example of multi-user and multitasking
operating system.
For Example if we want to Perform Some Paintings on the Screen, then we must use
the Application Software as Paint and Hardware as a Mouse for Drawing an Object.
But how the System knows what to do when Mouse Moves on the Screen and When
the Mouse Draws a Line on the System so that Operating System is Necessary which
Interact between or which Communicates with the Hardware and the Software. For
Better understanding you can see the Working of the Operating System.

Characteristics of Operating System

1) Operating System is a Collection of Programs those are Responsible for the
Execution of other Programs.
2) Operating System is that which Responsible is for Controlling all the Input and
Output Devices those are connected to the System.
3) Operating System is that which Responsible is for Running all the Application
Software’s.
4) Operating System is that which Provides Scheduling to the Various Processes
Means Allocates the Memory to various Process those Wants to Execute.
5) Operating System is that which provides the Communication between the user and
the System.
6) Operating System is Stored into the BIOS Means in the Basic Input and Output
System means when a user Starts his System then this will Read all the instructions
those are Necessary for Executing the System Means for Running the Operating
System, Operating System Must be Loaded into the Computer For this, this will use
the Floppy or Hard Disks Which Stores the Operating System.

4
Operating system
An operating system, or "OS," is software that communicates with the hardware and
allows other programs to run. It is comprised of system software, or the fundamental
files your computer needs to boot up and function. Every desktop computer, tablet,
and smartphone includes an operating system that provides basic functionality for the
device.
Common desktop operating systems include Windows, OS X, and Linux. While each
OS is different, most provide a graphical user interface, or GUI, that includes
a desktop and the ability to manage files and folders. They also allow you
to install and run programs written for the operating system. Windows and Linux can
be installed on standard PC hardware, while OS X is designed to run on Apple
systems. Therefore, the hardware you choose affects what operating system(s) you
can run.
Mobile devices, such as tablets and smartphones also include operating systems that
provide a GUI and can run applications. Common mobile OSes include Android, iOS,
and Windows Phone. These OSes are developed specifically for portable devices and
therefore are designed around touchscreen input. While early mobile operating
systems lacked many features found in desktop OSes, they now include advanced
capabilities, such as the ability to run third-party apps and run multiple apps at once.
Since the operating system serves as a computer's fundamental user interface, it
significantly affects how you interact with the device. Therefore, many users prefer to
use a specific operating system. For example, one user may prefer to use a computer
with OS X instead of a Windows-based PC. Another user may prefer an Android-
based smartphone instead of an iPhone, which runs the iOS.
When software developers create applications, they must be write and compile them
for a specific operating system. This is because each OS communicates with the
hardware differently and has a specific application program interface, or API, that the
programmer must use. While many popular programs are crossplatform, meaning
they have been developed for multiple OSes, some are only available for a single
operating system. Therefore, when choosing a computer, it is important to make sure
the operating system supports the programs you want to run.

5.
What is meant by an operating system?

An Operating System is an piece of software which runs the computer. User’s DONT
use operating system. It’s invisible !!! The other software and tools that we use talk to
the OS and make things happen.

consider the analogy of car:

A driver (user) drives the car (computer).

But actually it’s the engine (OS) which rolls the car

Driver DO NOT interact with the engine directly

Instead he/she interacts with steering, brake, accelerator, clutch, gear etc. (other
softwares)

These are then connected with the engine and let’s the driver control the car.

What essential roles does an operating system play on a computer?

 An operating system is the “glue” that provides a common interface to the hardware
and software services of a computer. It makes interfacing to those items standard in
that an api is provided which communicates to the system that you wish to perform
some operation on a hardware device or a software interface. In addition the OS may
provide a method of running multiple instances of a program on the same machine.
The operating system also manages memory allocation and deallocation.

Without an operating system the CPU becomes much more limited in what it can do
because each program is required ...

6.
An operating system is a collection of software that manages computer hardware
resources and provides a common services for computer programs.The operating
system is vital component of the system software in a computer system.

operating system manage the computer ‘s hardware resources.

1)Input devices such as a keyword and mouse.

2)Output devices such as display monitors,printers,and scanners.

3)Network devices such as modems,routers and connections.

4)storage devices such as internal and external drives.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q. Five Common Operating Systems

Whether it's a desktop or laptop computer, a smartphone or a video game system,
every modern computer needs an operating system. That's the core software on the
computer that sits between application software and the hardware, distributing
memory and computing resources to apps, managing files and enforcing security
rules.
Tip

 Five of the most common operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Apple
macOS, Linux, Android and Apple's iOS.
What Operating Systems Do

Operating systems define how a computer stores files, switches between different
applications, manages memory, keeps itself secure, and interacts with peripherals like
printers and cameras. Different operating systems take different approaches to all of
these, which is why you normally can't run a Windows program on a Macintosh
computer and why permissions look different on an Android phone than on an iPhone.

Some operating systems are designed by groups of people around the world, like the
open source, freely available operating system Linux, while others are commercial
products made by one company, such as Microsoft's Windows and Apple's macOS.

Different operating systems run on different types of hardware and are designed for
different types of applications. For example, iOS is designed for iPhones and iPad
tablets, while Mac desktops and laptops use macOS. Your computer or smartphone
comes equipped with an OS, but you can install another one in some cases.
Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows has existed in one form or another since 1985, and it remains the
most popular operating system for home and office computers. Its latest versions,
including Windows 10, are also used on some tablets, and the OS is used on some
web and number-crunching server computers as well. Computers from a wide variety
of manufacturers can use Windows.

Initial versions of Windows worked with an earlier Microsoft operating system called
MS-DOS, providing a modern graphical interface on top of DOS's traditional text-
based commands. Signature features of Microsoft Windows's user interface include
windows themselves – rectangle-shaped, on-panel screens that represent individual
applications. The Windows Start menu has helped generations of users find programs
and files on their devices.

Efforts to use versions of the Windows OS for smartphones have been less
successful.
Apple iOS

Apple's iOS is one of the most popular smartphone operating systems, second only to
Android. It runs on Apple hardware, including iPhones, iPad tablets and iPod Touch
media players.

Signature features of iOS include the App Store where users buy apps and download
free software, an emphasis on security including strong encryption to limit what
unauthorized users can extract from the phone, and a simple, streamlined interface
with minimal hardware buttons.
Google's Android OS

Android is the most popular operating system in the world judging by the number of
devices installed. Largely developed by Google, it's chiefly used on smartphones and
tablets. Unlike iOS, it can be used on devices made by a variety of different
manufacturers, and those makers can tweak parts of its interface to suit their own
needs.

Users can download custom versions of the operating system because large portions
of it are open source, meaning anyone can legally modify it and publish their own.
However, most people prefer to stick with the version that comes on their devices.

Android, like iOS, comes with an application and media store called the Play Store
built by Google. Some phone manufacturers and other organizations also offer their
own stores to install software and media.
Apple macOS

Apple's macOS, successor to the popular OS X operating system, runs on Apple

laptops and desktops. Based in part on the historic family of Unix operating systems
dating back to research in the 1960s at AT&T's Bell Labs, macOS shares some
features with other Unix-related operating systems including Linux. While the
graphical interfaces are different, many of the underlying programming interfaces and
command line features are the same.

Signature elements of macOS include the dock used to find programs and frequently
used files, unique keyboard keys including the Command key, and the stoplight-
colored buttons used to resize open program windows. MacOS is known for its user-
friendly features, which include Siri, a natural-voice personal assistant, and
FaceTime, Apple's video-calling application.
Linux Operating System

Unlike many other operating systems, development on Linux isn't led by any one
company. The operating system was created by Finnish programmer Linus Torvalds
in 1991. Nowadays, programmers from all over the world collaborate on its open
source code and submit tweaks to the central kernel software and other programs.

A wide assortment of commercial and open source software is available for Linux,
and various Linux distributions provide custom user interfaces and tools for installing
software onto machines running the operating system. A favorite of many
programmers, Linux is widely used on corporate and scientific servers, including
cloud computing environments. Linux can be run on a wide variety of hardware and is
available free of charge over the internet.
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Q. What is the definition of a batch operating system?

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator
and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.

To avoid the problems of early systems the batch processing systems were
introduced. The problem of early systems was more setup time. So the problem of
more set up time was reduced by processing the jobs in batches, known as batch

processing system. In this approach similar jobs were submitted to the CPU for
processing and were run together.

The main role of a batch operating system is to automatically executing the jobs in a
batch. This is the primary task of a batch processing system i.e. performed by the
'Batch Monitor' resides in the low end of main memory.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is
slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority
Advantages:

 Repeated jobs are done fast in batch systems without user interaction.
 You don’t need special hardware and system support to input data in batch
systems.
 Best for large organizations but small organizations can also benefit from it.
 Batch systems can work offline so it makes less stress on processor.
other definition:

In early days computer work was given on punch cards and then these punch cards
behave as input to the computer. These jobs or batch jobs were then executed by the
computer one by one. So that computers were called as batch computers or batch
 systems. The work done by batch systems are in parts i.e. one job is processed then
another job in the queue is processed and so on.

2.
What is a batch operating system, time sharing operating system, distributed
operating system, network operating system and an embedded system?

BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM:

 In this, jobs which are of similar type are grouped together and treated as
a batch. Now, they are stored on the Punch card (a stiff paper in which digital
data is stored and represented using some specific sequence of holes) which
will be submitted to the system for processing. The system will then perform
all the required operations in a sequence. So, we consider this as a type of
Serial processing.
Eg: Bank Statements

 Advantages:
 1. Suppose a job takes a very long time(1 day or so). Then, such processes
can be performed even in the absence of humans.
 2. They does...
3.

Q.
 What is the definition of a batch operating system?
 What is time sharing operating system (with example)?
 What is batch processing operating system?
 What is a Batch Operating System? Please provide an example.
 What is an operating system, what are types of operating systems?

Batch Operating System : A batch operating system is an operating system in which
same type of processes are batched together for execution. Its a relatively faster
system than traditional system.

Time Sharing System: Time sharing system is where each process is alloted a

particular time span and the process has to finish its completion within that time span.
If it is failed to complete its execution then CPU control goes to the immidiate next
process.
Distributed Operating System: Distributed Operating System is a system in which
the operating system are distributed through several workstations. All nodes have
their own memory and own copy of operating systems.

Network Operating System : An operating system oriented to computer networking,

to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, to
enable the sharing of data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions.Typically over a local area network (LAN), or private network.

Embedded System : An embedded operating system is a operating system which is

used in embedded system. These operating systems are put into the large systems.
They are efficient in resource usage and gives specialized services. These operating
systems are also known as Real Time Operating System.

4.
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep
evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of
operating systems which are most commonly used.
Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to
the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the
operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into
batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower
than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or
multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is
shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing
Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to
maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to
minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches
occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For
example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in
a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each
user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response
time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily
as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines
(such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely
coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may
vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers,
and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability
to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared
file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area
network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is
very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation
of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control
device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-
defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems,
robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-
time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM.
In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.