Chapter 2: Basics of Controllers

Chapter 2: Basics of Controllers

Objectives

The objectives for this chapter are as follows:

• Discover the different types of voltage signals used in proportional valves.

• Understand what threshold and maximum current are.

• Learn about voltage and current control.

• Recognize a potentiometer and what it is used for.

• Discover what electronic controllers are.

• Learn about features available in controllers, such as ramp, IMIN, IMAX and dither.

Introduction

This chapter will outline some of the basic electrical terminology associated with the
control of proportional valves. PWM and Dither, which are the voltage signals
applied to the coil, will be discussed first. Following, the different current levels
associated with the control of the valve will be discussed. Finally, the differences
behind voltage and current control as well as devices designed for each, will be
discussed.

HydraForce and the HydraForce logo are registered trademarks of HydraForce, Inc.
The entire content of this manual is copyright 2001 HydraForce, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Chapter 2: Basics of Controllers

Voltage Signals

Proportional valves are made up of mechanical and electromechanical components.

The mechanical components include the spool and cage, which control the oil
pressure and flow. The electromechanical components include the coil, plunger and
pole piece, which control the spool. In order to create the magnetic force which the
plunger applies to the spool, voltage must be applied to the coil. There are several
variations of voltage that can be applied to the coil, including smooth DC, PWM and
dither. These will be discussed in the following section. In each of these cases, the
voltage is DC or non-alternating current.

Smooth DC

Smooth DC is available from a battery and is the first of the three variations of
voltage we will discuss. Graphed against time, the steady state or constant level of
voltage and current appear as a straight line. For this reason it is called smooth DC.
The graph below shows the current and voltage recorded when 12 V from a battery is
applied to a 6 ohm coil.

12V

12V 6 Ohms
2 Amps

Time

The following graph shows that the voltage and current remain smooth even as the
voltage is varied or ramped from 0 to 12V.

12V

2 Amps

Time

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PWM

The second type of voltage signal we will consider is PWM, which is an acronym for
Pulse Width Modulation. It can be defined as the rapid turning on and off (pulsing) of
voltage within a fixed amount of time (width of modulation). The graph below shows
several voltage pulses recorded vs. time.

Voltage

ton Time

t: The time period of one full cycle is the frequency in which the voltage is turned on
and off. This time is typically measured in cycles per second or Hz (Hertz). The
frequency used with HydraForce valves is typically between 75 to 400 Hz.

ton: This is the amount of time that power is applied to the coil during the above time
periods.

The two time periods above are typically combined to define what is known as the
duty cycle. The duty cycle is found using the following equation:
(ton / t) x 100 = duty cycle %
Simply stated, duty cycle is the percentage of time that power is applied to the coil.

The current is varied by changing the duty cycle or the percentage of on time. If the
duty cycle is low, (the voltage is on for a short time), then the current is low. When
the duty cycle is high, the current is high. The graph below shows how the current in
the coil increases as the duty cycle increases.

PWM

Current

25% on 100% on
Time

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Chapter 2: Basics of Controllers

PWM is used to keep the plunger constantly moving. Basically, by using PWM,
the magnetic solenoid force continuously builds and falls. This means that for a brief
moment, the armature is attracted to the pole piece and then it is no longer attracted.
The amount of magnetic force generated during each pulse is high because the
voltage level (amplitude) at the top of each pulse, is typically the system voltage.
This constant moving of the armature reduces the viscous and mechanical friction
forces between the moving and fixed parts of the valve. This in turn reduces
hysteresis (hysteresis will be described in the following chapter). PWM is used
in the majority of proportional valve applications, rather than straight DC because
it reduces hysteresis.

Dither

The third type of voltage variation we will consider is dither. It can be defined as a
state of indecisive action. The indecisive action in our discussion is the voltage level.
Dither is similar to PWM in the fact that the voltage is dithered, or turned on and off
rapidly. Like PWM, dither keeps the actuator moving to reduce hysteresis. There are
two factors which distinguish it from PWM. The first factor is that the amplitude or
level of the pulse is smaller in dither. The second factor is that the duty cycle is fixed
at 50%. This smaller, fixed pulse or dither is added to smooth DC. Smooth DC is also
known as bias. It is called this because the dither is shifted by increasing or decreas-
ing the smooth DC. In other words, it is biased by the level of the smooth DC. The
combined output is then applied to the proportional valve. The graphs below are of
voltage vs. time, and illustrate this concept.

Dither
Voltage

Amplitude

t Time

Voltage Smooth DC (Bias)

Time

Combined Dither
Voltage and Smooth DC

Time

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In order to vary the current, the smooth DC level must be varied, not the dither.
This is shown in the following graph. Notice that the dither, amplitude and frequency
remain the same, but the DC bias is increased.

Voltage

Current

IMIN & IMAX

The terms threshold current and maximum current are sometimes referred to as IMIN
and IMAX. These points typically define the operating limits of a proportional valve.

Threshold Current

Threshold current (IMIN), is the current applied to the proportional solenoid coil,
which results in the initial change in pressure or flow. (Note: IMIN is related to a
setting available on electronic controllers. This will be discussed later in this chapter)

Maximum Current

Maximum current (IMAX), is the level of current applied to the coil that results in the
maximum rated output from the proportional valve. The following pressure vs current
graph, gives an example using these two operating points.

Maximum

Pressure
or Flow

Minimum
Current
Threshold Maximum
Current Current

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Ramp

Ramp is a term associated with controlling the voltage applied to the coil, over a
given amount of time. The ramping function allows the voltage to build or fall
gradually and evenly. Without this function, the voltage could build or fall instantly
when the switch is closed. The following graphs illustrate how the voltage increases
and decreases quickly, as with a switch, as well as changing gradually. A ramp
function can either be created manually by varying the input voltage slowly, or
through electronics available on an electronic controller.

Voltage Voltage

Time Time
(No Ramp) (Ramp)

Voltage vs. Current

The power applied to a solenoid coil can be controlled by varying the voltage or the
current. These methods are known as voltage driven and current driven systems. Each
system is described in the following section as well as the devices used to vary or
regulate the power applied to the coil. The first method, voltage driven, is less costly
because of the simple device used to regulate the input to the coil. The second
method, current driven, regulates the force the solenoid creates, by regulating the
current. While the current driven method regulates the output from the valve better, it
is more complex than the voltage driven method because it involves electronics.

Voltage Driven

The term voltage driven is associated with powering the coil from a source which has
no control on current, such as a battery. When the battery (shown in the following
circuit) is connected to the coil, the current draw in the circuit is limited by the
resistance in the coil (V = IR). As the coil heats up over time, from the power applied,
the resistance goes up and the current goes down. Eventually, the temperature and
resistance stabilize and the voltage, current and power stay the same. In addition, the
force developed by the solenoid decreases in proportion to the current, as shown in
the following graph.

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Coil
Temperature
I

R Coil Force
V Current
Power

Voltage

Time

Current Driven

Current driven refers to applying a source to the coil which regulates current rather
than voltage. This type of source is better suited for proportional valves than voltage
driven because although the coil heats up, the current remains the same, as does the
force from the solenoid. This is shown in the diagram below. However, the power
available must be sufficient to increase the voltage to maintain the current level. If it
is not, the current will begin to decrease as in the voltage driven coil.

Power

Coil Temperature
Coil Force
Current

Voltage

Time

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Potentiometers vs. Electronic Controls

Proportional valves work with variable current or voltage applied to the solenoid coil.
In order to take a fixed voltage level and vary it, for example from a 12 V battery, a
device is required between the battery and the coil. This device can be as simple as a
potentiometer or as complex as an electronic closed loop current controller.

Potentiometer

The full voltage from the battery is not directly applied to the proportional valve as
shown in the Voltage Driven section of this chapter. A potentiometer can be con-
nected between the battery and coil to vary the voltage. The potentiometer is simply a
variable resistor. The symbol and how it is connected in a circuit is shown below.

2 Coil
Battery
Source

3
Potentiometer

As shown in the diagram, the source is connected across terminals 1 and 3. Between
terminals 1 and 3 there is a resistor. The size of the resistor or the amount of voltage
drop across this resistor varies with the position of the wiper connected at terminal 2.
The wiper is a part of the potentiometer that varies the resistance between terminals
1 and 2 from a small amount to a large amount. When the resistance is small, or the
wiper is close to terminal 1, all the current flows through the potentiometer because
the current wants to flow through the path of least resistance. When the wiper is
closest to terminal 3, the resistance between terminal 1 and 2 is larger than the coil,
so the majority of the current will flow through the coil.

This is further explained in the following example. The diagrams represent two
extremes of the resistance, regulated by the wiper. Assume that the total resistance
of the potentiometer is 10 ohms and the resistance of the coil is 5 ohms. Also assume
that the wiper shown in the following diagram is moved to a position in which it cuts
the resistor between terminals 1 and 3. With this configuration, the resistance
between terminal 1 and 2 is 1 ohm and the resistance between terminal 2 and 3 is 9
ohms. In this case, most of the current from the battery will flow through the 1 ohm
resistor rather than through the 5 ohm coil because the current takes the path of least
resistance. A small portion of the current also flows through the coil.

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(The number of tails attached to the arrow head is

an indication of the relative amount of current
flowing through the circuit)

I
5 Ohms
I I
10 Ohms 5 Ohms
1 Ohm
The 10 Ohm resistor
is split by the wiper I
and the circuit can 9 Ohms
be redrawn as:

The next circuit, shows the potentiometer with most of the current flowing through
the coil.

I I
5 Ohms 5 Ohms
9 Ohms

10 Ohms
I
1 Ohm

Again, the current takes the path of least resistance. In this case, the 5 ohm coil has a
lower resistance than the 9 ohm portion of the potentiometer in parallel with the coil.

An example of a potentiometer in use is a dimmer switch. When the dimmer switch is

first turned on the light is very low (little current is flowing through the light bulb). At
this point, the current is flowing through the potentiometer which is rationing current
to the light bulb. When the switch is turned, the brightness of the bulb increases until
the knob cannot be turned farther.

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Chapter 2: Basics of Controllers

Controller

The electronic controller or amplifier is used to regulate the current applied to the
coil. By regulating the current, the solenoid actuator force is regulated. Therefore the
output from the valve is better regulated than by just controlling the voltage through a
potentiometer. In addition to regulating the current, controllers are equipped with
features which improve the performance of the system.

The performance of the valve is improved because the controller has dither or PWM
built in. The performance of the system is improved because of enhanced features in
the controller, such as ramping. For example, if the flow control is controlling a
motor, ramping allows for a slow increase in current, which translates into a slow
increase in speed. Additional features are described in the following sections. The
following block diagram shows an electronic controller with several features built in.

Emergency
Switch

Ramp I-Min I-Max

Potentiometer

Coil
External

Dither
Stable or
Voltage PWM

Battery
Controller
Fuse

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The function of each of the components in the block diagram is described below.

Emergency The emergency or disable switch disconnects the coil from the output of the control-
Switch ler. This switch will connect the output from the ramp, IMIN, IMAX portion of the
circuit to ground so there is no output to the coil. The controller works or is enabled
when the emergency switch is open.

Potentiometer The function of the potentiometer is to interface between the operator and the
controller. A more detailed explanation can be found in the previous section. The
potentiometer can take several different forms such as in a joystick or a rotating knob.

Battery This symbol represents a battery or DC voltage source.

The fuse is located in the circuit to protect the electronics in case the coil draws too
much current. This could occur if the coil shorts. The fuse is typically made from a
Fuse thin wire. As more current flows through the fuse, this wire heats up. If too much
current flows, the wire burns and opens, or disconnects the battery from the circuit.

This device provides constant voltage to the electronics inside the controller. It is
Stable needed because electronic devices perform better with a set voltage level. This is
Voltage typically not available with a battery because voltage varies as the battery begins
to drain.

Ramp The ramp function controls the rate at which the current applied to the coil, will
increase or decrease (known as ramp time). Some controllers have two adjustments
for the ramp. These are known as independent ramps. If one potentiometer is used, it
controls one or both of the ramps. If it controls both, then the increasing and decreas-
ing ramp are known as dependent ramps. One controls the time it takes for current to
increase and the other controls the time it takes the current to decrease. A small
potentiometer is built into the controller to vary the ramp. Depending on the direction
in which it is turned, it either increases or decreases the ramp time.

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I-Min
The IMIN adjustment is used to modify the minimum current applied to the
solenoid, in relation to the minimum setting of the external potentiometer or joystick.
For example, the external potentiometer could be turned to the minimum setting
(to give 0.0 Amps), but the IMIN could be set to 200 mAmps. The adjustment of
IMIN, as in the ramp function, is accomplished by turning a potentiometer, which is
built into the controller.

I-Max This adjustment is used to limit the output from the controller when the setting of
the external potentiometer is at its maximum. For example, assume that when the
potentiometer is set to maximum, the maximum output from the controller could be
2.0 Amps (or whatever current gives the maximum desired output from the valve).
With the IMAX adjustment, the output could be limited to 1.0 Amp. IMAX can also be
varied by a potentiometer on the controller.

The box marked Dither represents either Dither or PWM (both are explained in detail
Dither in the previous section). In each, this box controls the frequency of the signal which
or is varied by a potentiometer located on the controller.
PWM

The voltage to current converter takes all the preceding signals or inputs along with
I the system voltage, adds them together and outputs a regulated current. Regulated
current is used because the force of the solenoid is determined by the current multi-
U plied by the number of turns on the coil. If the output was in volts, the external
potentiometer would constantly need to be adjusted, to maintain a constant current at
the coil. This is discussed in more detail in the previous section of voltage vs. current.

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Summary

In this chapter the following concepts were presented:

• Smooth DC, PWM and Dither are different voltage signals that could be
applied to the coil.

• How the coil force would decrease if constant voltage was used to control a
proportional valve.

• How a potentiometer works.

• The features built into an electronic control such as IMIN, IMAX and Ramp.

• Why PWM and Dither are used to decrease hysteresis in a valve.

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Review Questions

Use the following review questions as a measure of your understanding of the chapter material.
Answers are provided in the appendix.

1. Why would a potentiometer be used instead of an electronic controller?

2. What source does smooth DC come from?

3. What does the acronym PWM designate?

4. Define PWM.

5. At what percentage is the duty cycle of dither fixed.

6. Threshold and maximum current can also be referred to as?

7. True or False. Maximum current is the level of current applied to the coil
that results in the maximum rated output for proportional valves.

8. What does the ramp function do?

9. What are dependent ramps? Independent ramps?

10. True or False. Current driven is associated with powering the coil
from a source which has no control on current, such as a battery.

11. What is the advantage of using current control over voltage control?

12. Which type of source is better suited for proportional valves,

voltage or current driven? Why?

13. What is the function of a potentiometer?

14. Give an example of a potentiometer.

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