Equilibrium

Dr. Rakesh K Kapania

Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Department
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA

AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures

Summer, 2016

2016
c Rakesh K. Kapania, Mitchell Professor, Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061-0203.
Gauss Divergence Theorem

Let D ba a closed bounded region in space whose boundary is piece wise

smooth orientable surface S.
~ (x1, x2, x3) be a vector function which is continuous and has contin-
Let T
uous first partial derivatives in some domain containing D. Then
Z Z Z Z Z
~ dD =
div T Tv dS
D S
Where
~ .~v
Tv = T
is component of T~ in the direction of the outer normal of S with respect to
D and ~v is the outer unit normal vector of S.
Z Z Z Z Z
Ti,i dD = Ti vi dA
D S

Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 2
Equilibrium Equation

Recall, d ~f = dm ~
V̇ ; d ~f = include internal forces, and body forces.
~ ~
d f = d fi when we integrate over the body, all internal forces will cancel
out as then forces are equal and opposite on neighboring particles.
RR (ν) RRR RRR
s
Ti dA + D
Bi dx1 dx2 dx3 = V̇i ρdx1 dx2 dx3

Tiν = τji νj
RR RRR RRR
s
τji νj dA + D
Bi dx1 dx2 dx3 = D
V̇i ρ dx1 dx2 dx3

Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 3
Equilibrium Equation

Let us prove τij = τji

From Rigid Body Dynamics: Moment = Rate of change of Moment

of Momentum
~ = ~Ḣ
M

~ = Moment
M

~ = moment of momentum
H

~ = ~ (ν) dA + ~ dx1 dx2 dx3

RR RRR
M s
~r × T D
~r × B

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 4
Equilibrium Equation

~ (v ) and that of ~r × B
Recall that the ith component of ~r × T ~ to be eijk xj Bk .
Using Gauss Divergence Theorem the integral over the surface S can be
converted into an integral over the domain, D.

Z Z Z Z Z
~ (v ) dS +
~r × T ~
~r × BdD = 0
Z Z S Z Z Z D

⇒ ~ (v ) dS +
eijk xj T eijk xj Bk dD = 0
S D

Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 5
Equilibrium Equation

Using Cauchy’s equation:

Z Z Z Z Z
⇒ eijk xj τlk vl dS + eijk xj Bk dD = 0
S D

Using Gauss Divergence Theorem:

Z Z Z Z Z
⇒ eijk (xj τlk ),l dD + eijk xj Bk dD = 0
Z Z D Z Z ZD
⇒ eijk (xj,l τlk + xj τlk,l )dD + eijk xj Bk dD = 0
DZ Z Z Z Z D

⇒ eijk τjk dD + eijk xj (τlk,l + Bk )dD = 0

D D

Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 6
Equilibrium Equation

Using:
Bi + τji,j = 0
xj,l = δjl
eijk xj,l τlk = eijk δjl τlk
δlj τlk = τjk
We get: eijk τjk = 0
Note that these are three equations, one for each i.
Let i = 1
eijk τjk = 0
e123 τ23 + e132 τ32 = 0
Note that all other e1jk vanish and e123 = −e132 = 1. So,
τ23 = τ32
Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 7
Equilibrium Equation

Similarly you can prove all the others

τij = τji
τji,j + Bi = 0 becomes Bi + τij,j = 0
∂τ11 ∂τ12 ∂τ13
+ + + B1 = 0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂τ21 ∂τ22 ∂τ23
+ + + B2 = 0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂τ31 ∂τ32 ∂τ13
+ + + B3 = 0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
For a 2.D. case, if B1 = B2 = 0 (no body forces)
∂τ11 ∂τ12
+ = 0
∂x1 ∂x2
∂τ21 ∂τ22
+ = 0
∂x1 ∂x2
Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 8
Equilibrium Equation

You can easily prove

Satisfy (1) Equilibrium (2) Take a moment at any point and equate = 0
Rakesh
c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 9
Strain Displacement Relations

How to express deformation of a body?

For rigid body motion, no change in length or shape occurs. For restrained
flexible bodies , both the length and the orientation of a vanishingly small
fiber, lying between two neighboring points, A and B, would change. Strain,
a point function like the stress, is a measure of these changes.

A(x1 , x2 , x3 )
B (x1 + dx1 , x2 + dx2 , x3 + dx3 )
¯ )2 = (ds )2 = dxi dxi
(AB

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 10
Strain (contd...)

It is convenient to consider that the xi reference is labelled the ξ i when

considering the deformed state. The point A originally at x1 , x2 and, x3 has
moved to ξ 1 , ξ 2 and, ξ 3 . This is expressed as a mapping; ξ i = ξ i (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
We assume one to one mapping i.e. one point in xi system maps to only
one point in ξ i system, and vice-versa.

xi = xi (ξ 1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 )
ξ k = ξ k (x1 , x2 , x3 )

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 11
Strain (contd...)

∂xi ∂xi ∂xi

dxi = d ξi + d ξ2 + d ξ3
∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 2 ∂ξ 3
∂xi
dxi = d ξj
∂ξ j
∂ξ i
d ξi = dxj
∂xj
∂xi ∂xi
ds 2 = = dxi dxi = d ξm d ξk
∂ξ m ∂ξ k

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 12
Strain (contd...)

In the deformed state

∂xii ∂xii
(A? B ? )2 = (ds ? )2 = d ξ i d ξ i = dxk dxl
∂xk ∂xl
Change in Length:

= d ξ i d ξ i − dxi dxi
 
∂xik ∂xik
(ds ? )2 − (ds )2 = − δij dxi dxj
∂xi ∂xj

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 13
Strain (contd...)

Or
∂xi ∂xi
= d ξi d ξi − d ξmd ξk
∂ξ m ∂ξ k
∂x ∂x
= δij d ξ i d ξ j − k k d ξ i d ξ j
∂ξ i ∂ξ j
 
∂xk ∂xk
= δij − d ξi d ξj
∂ξ i ∂ξ j

Similarly:
(ds ? )2 − (ds )2 = 2eij dxi dxj
where
 
1 ∂ξ k ∂ξ k
eij = − δij is called Green Tensor
2 ∂xi ∂xj
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 14
Strain (contd...)

Or
(ds ? )2 − (ds )2 = 2ηij d ξ i d ξ j
where  
1 ∂xk ∂xk
ηij = δij −
2 ∂ξ i ∂ξ j
If ξ k is known as a function of co-ordinate of the undeformed state, i.e.
Lagrangian coordinates, x1 , x2 , and, x3 , the strain tensor is called Green’s
Strain Tensor.
If xk is known as a function of co-ordinate of the deformed state i.e. Eulerian
coordinates, ξ 1 , ξ 2 and, ξ 3 ,the strain tensor is called Almansi’s Strain
Tensor

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 15
Strain Displacement Relations

Let ui is displacement Field. ui = ξ i − xi

ui = Displacement of each point in the body form the initial unde-
formed configuration to the deformed configuration.
ui = ui (x1 , x2 , x3 ) or ui = ui (ξ 1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 ) in terms of underformed
coordinate or Lagrangian coordinates and expressed in terms of de-
formed coordinate or Eulerian co-ordinates respectively.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 16
Strain Displacement Relations

 
1 ∂ξ k ∂ξ k
eij = − δij
2 ∂xi ∂xj
   
1 ∂uk ∂uk
= δki + δkj + − δij
2 ∂xi ∂xj
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk
= δij + + + − δij
2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk
eij = + +
2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 17
Strain Displacement Relations (contd...)

 
1 ∂xk ∂xk
ηij = δij −
2 ∂ξ i ∂ξ j
   
1 ∂uk ∂uk
= δij − δki − δkj −
2 ∂ξ i ∂ξ j
 
1 ∂uk ∂uk ∂uk ∂uk
= δij − δki δkj + δki + δkj −
2 ∂ξ j ∂ξ i ∂ξ i ∂ξ j
 
1 ∂ui ∂u j ∂u ∂u
ηij = + − k k
2 ∂ξ j ∂ξ i ∂ξ i ∂ξ j

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 18
Strain Displacement Relations (contd...)

In deriving these equations, we have used the properties of the Kronecker

Delta, including,
δki δkj = δij

Note: In the above expressions, no restrictions were put on the magnitude

of the deformation. Therefore the above expression are quite general. These
are called finite strains.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 19
Infinitesimal Strains

In many practical applications, the deformation gradients are extremely

small, of the prder of 10−4 . We can, in these cases, ignore the nonlin-
ear terms. We assume that

∂ui
1
∂ξ j
And
∂ui
1
∂ξ j

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 20
Infinitesimal Strains (contd...)

∂ ∂xj ∂
=
∂ξ i ∂ξ i ∂xj
∂ ∂xj
=
∂xj ∂ξ i
 
∂ ∂ui
= δij −
∂xj ∂ξ j
     
∂ (.) ∂ (.) ∂u1 ∂ (.) ∂u2 ∂ (.) ∂u3
= δ11 − + δ12 − + δ13 −
∂ξ 1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x3 ∂x1
∂(.) ∂u1 ∂(.) ∂u2 ∂() ∂u3 ∂(.)
= − − −
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x3

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 21
Infinitesimal Strains (contd...)

∂ (.) ∂ (.) ∂ (.)

If is of the same order as ≈ . Then,
∂xi ∂xj ∂x1

∂ (.) ∂ (.)
=
∂ξ i ∂xi

Secondly:
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij = +
∂uk ∂uk ∂ui 2 ∂xj ∂xi
  
∂ξ i ∂ξ j ∂ξ j 1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij = + = ηij
2 ∂ξ j ∂ξ i
For infinitesimal strains, the Greens and Almansi Strain tensors are same.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 22
Infinitesimal Strains (contd...)

EXTENSIONAL STRAINS
∂u1
e11 =
∂x1
∂u2
e22 =
∂x2
∂u3
e33 =
∂x3

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 23
Infinitesimal Strains (contd...)

SHEAR STRAINS
 
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 1
e12 = + = γ12
2 ∂x2 ∂x1 2
 
1 ∂u2 ∂u3 1
e23 = + = γ23
2 ∂x3 ∂x2 2
 
1 ∂u3 ∂u1 1
e13 = + = γ31
2 ∂x1 ∂x3 2

∂ui ∂uj
γij = + i 6= j are called engineering shear strains.
∂xj ∂xi

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 24
Example

Given: u1 = ex1 ; Find strain components.

Solution:

Lagrangian strain

∂u1
e11 = =e
∂x1
For small strains.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 25
Example (contd...)

Eulerian strain

ξ 1 = x1 + u1 = x1 (1 + e)
ξ1
x1 =
1+e
e
u1 = ξ1
1+e
∂u1 e
η11 = =
∂ξ 1 1+e

For e  1, we get: e11 ≈ η11 ≈ e. All other components will be zero.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 26
Example (contd...)

Given:

ux = (x 2 + 20) × 10−4 uy = 2yz × 10−3 uz = (z 2 − xy ) × 10−3

Find Strain Components

∂ux
exx = = 2x × 10−4
∂x
∂uy
eyy = = 2z × 10−3
∂y
∂uz
ezz = = 2z × 10−3
∂z

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 27
Example (contd...)

 
1 1 ∂ux ∂uy 1
exy = γxy = + = [0 + 0]
2 2 ∂y ∂x 2
 
1 1 ∂uy ∂uz 1
eyz = γyz = + = [2y + (−x )] × 10−3
2 2 ∂z ∂y 2
 
1 1 ∂ux ∂uz 1
(−y ) × 10−3

exz = γxz = + =
2 2 ∂z ∂x 2

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 28
Physical Interpretation of Strain Terms

Let
PQ = Originally along x2 − axis
= dx2 = ∆x2
dx1 = dx3 = 0
ds = dx2

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 29
Physical Interpretation of Strain Terms (contd...)

After Deformation, PQ becomes P ? Q ? . Let P ? Qx2

? be the projection of

P Q on to the x2 − axis. (P Q )x2 = (uQ )2 − (uP )2 + ∆x2

? ? ? ?

(uQ )2 = Deformation of point Q in the x2 − direction.

(uP )2 = Deformation of point P in the x2 − direction.
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 30
Physical Interpretation of Strain Terms (contd...)

Expand (uQ )2 in terms of (uP )2


∂u2
( uQ ) 2 = uP2 + ∆x2 + · · ·
∂x2 P
 
∂u2
(P ? Q ? )x2 = ∆x2 + ∆x2 + · · ·
∂x2 P
(P ? Q ? )x2 − ∆x2
 
∂u2
=
∂x2 P ∆x2

As ∆x2 → 0, and P → Q, we get:

∂u2
e22 =
∂x2

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 31
Physical Interpretation of Strain Terms (contd...)

This is the change in length in the x2 -direction of a vanishingly

small line segment originally in the x2 -direction divided by the original
length.

Similarly, we can interpret e11 and e33 .

This definition of the normal strain is valid for normal strain com-
ponent along any directon p. As a result, the normal strain in the
direction p, denoted as epp , is defined as the change in the length
of the fiber of vanishingly small length initially placed along the p-
direction divided by the original length of the fiber.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 32
Shearing Strains

Take PQ to be a fibre of infinitisimal length ∆x2 placed along the x2 direction

and PR be an infintisimal fibre of length ∆x1 lying along the x1 -direction.
Recall infinitisimal implies ∆x1 → 0, and ∆x2 → 0.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 33
Shearing Strains (contd...)

Let uP , uQ , and uR represent the displacement vector of points P,

Q, and R; respectively. using Taylor’s expansion, both uQ and uR
can be expressed in terms of uP .
 
∂u 
uQ = uP + ∆x2 + · · · H.O.T.
∂x2 P
 
∂u 
uR = uP + ∆x1 + · · · H.O.T.
∂x1 P

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 34
Shearing Strains (contd...)

Let P 0 , Q 0 and R 0 represents the location of the points P, Q, and

R after deformation. Let P 00 , Q 00 , and R 00 are the projections of the
three points on the x1 -x2 plane. Using the Taylor’s expansion, as
described above, we can write the displacement u1 of Q 00 as:
 
∂u1 
(u1 )Q = (u1 )P + ∆x2 + · · · H.O.T.
∂x2 P

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 35
Shearing Strains (contd...)

Similarly,  
∂u2  ∆x1 + · · · H.O.T.

(u2 )R = (u2 )P +
∂x1 
P
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 36
Shearing Strains (contd...)

Let θ is the angle that P 00 Q 00 makes with the x2 axis and β is the
angle that P 00 R 00 make with the x1 -direction. These angles can be
expressed as:
∂u1
tan θ = ≈θ
∂x2
∂u2
tan β = ≈β
∂x1
The shear strain component γxy or using our notation γ12 can be
expressed as:
∂u1 ∂u2
γ12 = + =θ+β
∂x2 ∂x1
= Change in the right angle before and after
deformation
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 37
Principal Strains

Similar to case for principal strains, we might expect an analogous

situation for principal strains. We might expect the existence of three
mutually orthogonal planes that remain mutually orthogonal after
deformation, i.e. all shearing strains vanish corresponding to those
directions.
Principal strains can be obtained from |eij − e δij | = 0
Eigenvectors an given by

(eij − e δij )ni = 0

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 38
Principal Strains (contd...)

The principal directions are mutually orthogonal, and it can be shown

that for isotropic, elastic materials, these coincide within the principal
axes of stress.
Since shearing strains are absent in the case of principal strains, line
elements oriented in the three principal directions remain mutually
orthogonal after deformation. Further largest extension experienced
by any line element.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 39