CS375:

Logic and Theory of Computing

Fuhua (Frank) Cheng

Department of Computer Science

University of Kentucky

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 Table of Contents:

◼ Week 1: Preliminaries (set algebra, relations,

functions) (read Chapters 1-4)
◼ Weeks 2-5: Regular Languages, Finite
Automata (Chapter 11)
◼ Weeks 6-8: Context-Free Languages,
Pushdown Automata (Chapters 12)
◼ Weeks 9-11: Turing Machines (Chapter 13)

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 Table of Contents (conti):

▪ Weeks 12-13: Propositional Logic (Chapter

6), Predicate Logic (Chapter 7),
Computational Logic (Chapter 9),
Algebraic Structures (Chapter 10)

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata algorithm
Can a machine recognize a regular language?
Yes

Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

A finite digraph over an alphabet A (vertices are called
states).
Each state emits one labeled edge for each letter of A.
One state is defined as the start state and several
states may be final states.
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circles
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example.
Either one is acceptable

A={a, b}
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
The execution of DFA for input string w ∈ A* begins at
the start state and follows a path whose edges
concatenate to w.
The DFA accepts w if the path ends in a final state.
Otherwise the DFA rejects w.
The language of a DFA is the set of accepted strings.

an empty string will

enter the start state
but the empty set
Input string: abab
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will not. 6
6. Regular Lan|guages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata

Example. The example DFA accepts the strings

The language of the DFA is { abn, bbm | n ϵ N, m ϵ N }

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata

Example. The example DFA accepts the strings

The regular expression of the language of the DFA is

(a + b)b* Why?

a+b (a+b)b (a+b)b2 (a+b)bn

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Theorem (Kleene) The class of regular languages is
exactly the same as the class of languages accepted
by DFAs.
Proof. Need three lemmas or by induction.
accepts 

accepts {}

a
accepts {a}
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Specifically, say A = {a, b}, then
1 accepts 

a, b
a, b

1 2 accepts {}
a, b

a
1 2 accepts {a}
b a, b
3
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University of Kentucky 10
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Theorem (Kleene) The class of regular languages is
exactly the same as the class of languages accepted
by DFAs.
Proof. (conti.)

together with the basis step would prove the theorem.

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
For instance, if 𝐿1 = {a} and 𝐿2 = {b}
a, b
a a

b a, b b
a, b
accepts {a} a, b accepts {b}

a, b
a
then a, b
b
a, b
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accepts {a, b}
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
For instance, if 𝐿1 = {a} and 𝐿2 = {b}
a, b
a a

b a, b b
a, b
accepts {a} a, b accepts {b}

a b

then a
b
a, b
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accepts {ab}
a, b
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
For instance, if 𝐿1 = {a} and 𝐿2 = {b}
a, b
a a

b a, b b
a, b
accepts {a} a, b accepts {b}

a, b

then a, b
b b
a a
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
For instance, if 𝐿1 = {a} and 𝐿2 = {b}
a, b
a a

b a, b b
a, b
accepts {a} a, b accepts {b}

a, b

a, b
or b b b
a a a
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accepts {aaa}
15
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Find a DFA for each language over the alphabet {a,b}.
n
(a) ∅. (b) {Λ}. (c) { (ab) | n ∈ N}, which has regular
expression (ab)*.
Solution:

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Find a DFA for the language of a + aa*b.

a, b

a, b

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What is the problem with the
following approach?
Example. Find a DFA for the language of a + aa*b.

a, b

a, b

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What is the problem with the
following approach?
Example. Find a DFA for the language of a + aa*b.
Solution:

Question:
Would this DFA work?
aa is accepted by this
DFA, but …
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata

Loops are dangerous because if a path

contains a loop then the length of that
path is not unique!

You use an internal or external loop in a

DFA only if you want to recognize an
expression with variable length.
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 A DFA that recognizes A DFA that recognizes
bc* + ac bc* + abc* + ac

c c

b
b b
a a
start start
c c c c

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 A DFA that recognizes A DFA that recognizes
bc* + ac bc* + abc* + ac

a, b, c a, b, c
c c
a,b a,b

b
b a,b b a
a a, a a,
b, b,
start start
c c
c c c c

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 A DFA that recognizes A DFA that recognizes
bc* + ac bc* + abc* + ac

c c

a, b a, b
b
b b
a a
start start
a, b a
c c c c
a, a, a, a,
b, b, b, b,
c c c c
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To make each of these FA’s a DFA, you either
create a new state or use a non-final state as
the sink of all the remaining edges of the FA.

That state should not have outgoing edges.

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Would the following DFA recognize a*bc* + ac ?

c In addition to
a*bc* and ac,
does it recognize
b
anything else?
b
a
a
start Yes, such as
c c aac, aaac, …

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A DFA that recognizes bc* + abc* + 𝑎2 bc* + ac

b
b b
a a
start
c c c

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A DFA that recognizes a*bc* + ac

bc* + abc* + 𝑎2 bc* + 𝑎𝑛 bc*

c

n≥3
b
b b a
a a
start How to make
c c c this FA a real
DFA?

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 A DFA that recognizes a*bc* + ac

c One option:
a,b
b
b b
a
a a
start a real DFA now
a,b,c c c c

a,b,c a,b,c
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Table Representation of a DFA
DFA over A can be represented by a transition function
T : States × A → States,
where T(i, a) is the state reached from state i along the edge
labeled a, and we mark the start and final states.

Example:

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata

Note: T can be extended to T : States × A* → States

by T(i, Λ) = i , T(i, aw) = T(T(i, a), w) a ∈ A, w ∈ A*

Question: T(0, bba) =? or

T(0, bba) = T(1, ba) = T(1, a) = T(2, Λ) = 2.
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Find a DFA to recognize (a + ba)*bb(a + ab)*.
A solution:
{bb}
a a
a,b
After excuting (a+ba)*,
return to start point of bb

{( a + ba) bb}
a,b
any combination a
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example (conti). Find a DFA to recognize (a + ba)*bb(a + ab)*.
A solution:

{(a + ba) bb (a + ab)} a

b b

any combination
of a* and (ab)* a,b a

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Would the following approach work?
Example (conti). Find a DFA to recognize (a + ba)*bb(a + ab)*.
A solution:

a,b

{(a + ba) bb (a + ab)}

b

any combination
of a* and (ab)*

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA)
An NFA over an alphabet A is similar to a DFA except that
Λ-edges are allowed,
there is no requirement to emit edges from a state, and
multiple edges with the same letter can be emitted from a state.
Example. The following NFA recognizes the language of
a + aa*b + a*b.
a ?
aa*b: ab, aab ?
a*b: b, ab ?
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Intuitive examples
A = { d, g, m, o, r}
NFA
d o g

m r

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Intuitive examples
DFA A = { d, g, m, o, r}

d o g

o
d,g,m,r d,g,m,o,r
d,m,r
g,m,o,r
d,g,o
m r
d,g,m,o
d,g,m,o,r
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Intuitive examples
Actually, the NFA can also be defined as follow:

d o g
o

A = { d, g, m, o, r}
o

m r

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Example. NFA for the language of a + aa*b + a*b.

a, b, ab,
DFA for the language of a + aa*b + a*b. aab, aaab,
a …

a b a, b

Start
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b a, b
DFA and NFA are equivalent concept.

A DFA is also an NFA.

But actually for every NFA there's a

corresponding DFA that accepts the same
language, but if the NFA has n states, the
DFA could have O(2𝑛 ) states.

So we work with NFAs because they’re

usually a lot smaller than DFAs.
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A few points about NFA’s.

The existence of Ʌ-edges implicitly creates the

concept of an extended state (a multiple-node
state) of a given state.

a c d

Ʌ Ʌ e
0 1 2

b d f

Extended
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state of 0
 Edges a, b, c, d, e, f, g are edges of the
extended state of 0.
Each edge of the extended state of 0 can be
used by state 0 through some Ʌ-edges.
So essentially state 0 has 7 edges to use
even though there are only 2 real edges
emitted from state 0.
a c e

Ʌ Ʌ f
0 1 2

Extended d g
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b University of Kentucky 41

state of 0
For an NFA, only edges really needed for its
function have to be designed.

NFA for the language of a + aa*b + a*b.

We don’t
need to
design any
edges for
state 2.
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Why do we need “multiple edges with the
same letter”?

NFA for the language of a + aa*b + a*b.

A letter can be used

as the lead symbol
for disjoint paths

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Question: can you think of a DFA that
would recognize a+ aa*b + a*b ?
How about:
a,b
a,b

b
b b
a a a
start

a b ab aab aaab
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Table representation of NFA
An NFA over A can be represented by a function
T : States × A ∪ {Λ} → power(States),
where T(i, a) is the set of states reached from state i along the
edge(s) labeled a, and we mark the start and final states.

Example:
0

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
the proof is similar to Kleene’s theorem
- Finite Automata
Theorem (Rabin and Scott): The class of regular languages is
exactly the same as the class of languages accepted by NFAs.

Questions. Find an NFA for each of the languages over {a, b}.

{a  , b , (ab)}

a,b
=
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? 46
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Find an NFA to recognize (a + ba)*bb(a + ab)*.
A solution:
{bb}

{( a + ba) bb}
any combination
of a* and (ba)*

{( a + ba) bb(a + ab)}

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any combination University of Kentucky 47
of a* and (ab)*
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example (conti). Find an NFA to recognize (a + ba)*bb(a + ab)*.
A solution:

But not

{( a + ba ) bb (aa b)*}

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
(DFA or NFA)
- Finite Automata
Algorithm: Transform a Regular Expression (RE) into a Finite
Automaton
(1) Placing the RE on the edge between a start and final state:

(2) Apply the following rules to obtain a finite automaton after

erasing any ∅-edges.

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Use the algorithm to construct a finite automaton for
(ab)* + ba.
Solution:

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Algorithm: Transform a Finite Automaton to a Regular
Expression

Connect a new start state s to the start state of the FA

and connect each final state of the FA to a new final state ƒ
as shown in the figure.

Ʌ Given Ʌ
s FA f

Connect to start Connect from each

state of FA final state of FA
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
If needed, combine all multiple edges between the same
two nodes into one edge with label the sum of the
labels on the multiple edges.
If there is no edge between two states, assume there is
an ∅-edge.

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Φ
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Now eliminate each state k of the FA by constructing a
new edge (i, j) for each pair of edges (i, k) and (k, j)
where i ≠ k and j ≠ k.
New label new(i, j) is defined as follows:

new(i, j) = old(i, j) + old(i, k) old(k, k)* old(k, j)

Example:

A A+ BC*D

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Think of the process of eliminating state k as a
two-step procedure:

A
i j
B k D

A
i j Put Φ here if
BC*D there was not
a direct edge
between i and
j originally
A + BC*D
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Transform the following NFA into a regular expression.

a*a(ba*a)*

Solution I (eliminate state 1 first):

State 1 is considered a state
between state 0 and state f
State 1 is also considered a
state between state 0 and
0 a state 0
a 1
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0 b
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Transform the following NFA into a regular expression.

Solution I (eliminate state 1 first): new( 0, f ) =  + a = a

new (0,0) = a + ab = a + ab

0 a
a 1
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0 b
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Transform the following NFA into a regular expression.

Solution I (eliminate state 1 first):

new ( s, f ) =  + (a + ab) a = (a + ab) a

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Or, eliminate state 1 first, the
following way:
You can think of the given
NFA as an NFA of the
following form

a
Ʌ a Ʌ
s 0 1 f
b a

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1 University of Kentucky 58
Or, eliminate state 1 first, the
following way:
a
Ʌ a Ʌ
s 0 1 f
b a
aɅ*Ʌ
1
a
Ʌ a
s 0 f
aɅ*b ab

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Or, eliminate state 1 first, the
following way:
a
Why?
Ʌ a
s 0 f a

ab 0 ab 0

0 a+ab 0
a + ab
Ʌ a
s 0 f
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Or, eliminate state 1 first, the
following way:
a + ab
Ʌ a
s 0 f

Ʌ(a+ab)*a
s f

(a+ab)*a
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s
University of Kentucky
f 61
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Transform the following NFA into a regular expression.

Solution II (eliminate state 0 first):

State 0 is considered a state
between state s and state 1
State 0 is also considered a
state between state 1 and
a
1 state 1
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0 University of Kentucky 62
b 1
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Transform the following NFA into a regular expression.

Solution II (eliminate state 0 first):

new( s,1) =  + a a = a a

new (1, 1) =  + baa = baa

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Example. Transform the following NFA into a regular expression.

Solution II (eliminate state 0 first):

new( s, f ) =  + a a(baa)  = aa(baa)

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Or, eliminate state 0 first, the
following way:
You can think of the given
NFA as an NFA of the
following form

a
Ʌ a Ʌ
s 0 1 f
a b

0
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a
Or, eliminate state 0 first, the
following way:
a
Ʌ a Ʌ
s 0 1 f
a b

Ʌa*a
0

a*a Ʌ
s 1 f
ba*a

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ba*a University of Kentucky 66
Or, eliminate state 0 first, the
following way:
a*a Ʌ
s 1 f

ba*a

a*a(ba*a)*Ʌ
s f

a*a(ba*a)*
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sUniversity of Kentucky f 67
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Note. The two regular expressions obtained in the previous
example are equal, i.e., a*a( ba* a)* = (a + ab)*a.
Proof I.
( a + ab )* a ( R + S )* = R* (S R* )*

= [ a* ( (ab) a* )* ] a · is associative

= a* [ ( ( a b ) a* )* a ] · is associative

= a* [ ( a ( b a* ) )* a ] (R S )* R = R (S R )*

= a* [ a (( ba* ) a )* ] · is associative
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= a* a (ba* a)*
6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Note. The two regular expressions obtained in the previous
example are equal, i.e., a*a(ba*a)* = (a + ab)*a.
Proof II.
a* a ( ba*a )* = a*[a(( ba* ) a)*] · is associative
= a*[( a (ba*) )*a ] R(SR)* = (RS)*R
= a*[ ( (ab)a* )* a] · is associative
= [a* ((ab) a*)* ] a · is associative
= (a + ab)*a R*(SR*)* = (R + S)*
QED.

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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata any combinations of
a* and (ab)*
- Finite Automata
Note. The two regular expressions obtained in the previous
example are equal, i.e., a*a(ba*a)* = (a + ab)*a.
Intuitive Proof.
LHS = a* a ( ba*a )* = a*a(ba*a)(ba*a)(ba*a) ⋯ (ba*a)
RHS = (a + ab)*a = a*(ab)*a*(ab)* ⋯ a*(ab)*a
LHS ⊆ RHS Why?
a*a(ba*a)(ba*a)(ba*a) ϵ LHS
= a*(ab)a*(ab)a*(ab)a*a
= a*(ab)a*(ab)a*(ab)a*(𝑎𝑏)0 a ϵ RHS
Hence, LHS ⊆ RHS
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6. Regular Languages & Finite Automata
- Finite Automata
Note. The two regular expressions obtained in the previous
example are equal, i.e., a*a(ba*a)* = (a + ab)*a.
Intuitive Proof (conti).
LHS = a* a ( ba*a )* = a*a(ba*a)(ba*a)(ba*a) ⋯ (ba*a)
RHS = (a + ab)*a = a*(ab)*a*(ab)* ⋯ a*(ab)*a
RHS ⊆ 𝐿HS Why?
a*(𝑎𝑏)2 a*(𝑎𝑏)2 a*(𝑎𝑏)2 a ϵ RHS
= a*(ab)(ab)a*(ab)(ab)a*(ab)(ab)a
= a*a(ba)(ba*a)(ba)(ba*a)(ba)(ba)
= a*a(b𝑎0 a)(ba*a)(b𝑎0 a)(ba*a)(b𝑎0 a)(b𝑎0 a) ϵ LHS
Hence,
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RHS ⊆ LHS University of Kentucky 71
 End of Regular
Languages and Finite
Automata II

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Regular expression of this NFA:
a*a(ba*a)*

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