Fluid Machinery

Temporary Lecture notes

Csaba Hős
[email protected]

Budapest University of Technology and Economics

Dept. of Hydrodynamic Systems

with major contributaions by

Csaba Bazsó, Roxána Varga, Richárd Wéber

February 6, 2017
Contents

1 Some basic relationships of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics 4

1.1 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Bernoulli’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Energy equation for compressible flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Specific heat capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.2 Some basic thermodynamic relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.3 Input shaft work and useful work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.4 Specific work for hydraulic machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.5 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Incompressible turbomachinery 11
2.1 Euler’s turbine equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Velocity triangles and performance curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 Radial (centrifugal) machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.3 Axial machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.5 Real performance curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Losses and efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Dimensionless numbers and affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Forces on the impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5.1 Axial force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
Fluid Machinery 2

2.7.1 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.7.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 Hydraulic Systems 30
3.1 Frictional head loss in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Head-discharge curves and operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Control 34
4.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5 Positive displacement pumps 38

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.1.1 Pumps - general introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.1.2 Basic characteristics of positive displacement machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Reciprocating Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2.1 Single-acting piston pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2.2 Multiple piston pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.3 Axial piston pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.4 Radial piston pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.5 Diaphragm pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3 Rotary pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.1 Gear pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.2 Screw pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.3 Vane pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3.4 Progressing cavity pump (eccentric screw pump) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.5 Peristaltic pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.6 Pulsation dampener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.4 Pressure relief valves (PRV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4.1 Direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4.2 Pilot operated pressure relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.5 Sizing of simple hydraulic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.5.1 System with motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.5.2 System with cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.5.3 Control techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6 Hydro- and wind power 72

Fluid Machinery 3

6.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Chapter 1

Some basic relationships of fluid

mechanics and thermodynamics

1.1 Continuity equation

In the absence of nuclear reactions, matter can neither be created or destroyed. This is the principle of mass
conservation and gives the continuity equation. Its general form is

∂ρ
+ div(ρv) = 0 (1.1)
∂t
where div(v) = ∇v = ∂vx /∂x + ∂vy /∂y + ∂vz /∂z. If the flow is steady (∂ . . . /∂t = 0) , we have

div(ρv) = 0. (1.2)

Moreover, in many engineering applications the density can be considered to be constant, leading to

div(v) = 0. (1.3)

The above forms are so-called differential forms of the continuity equation. However, one can derive the
so-called integral forms. For example, for the steady-state case, if we integrate (1.3) on a closed surface A,
we obtain
Z Z
ρvdA = ρv⊥ dA. (1.4)
A A

Note that the surface is defined by its normal unit vector dA and one has to compute the scalar product
vdA. One can resolve the velocity to a component parallel to and another perpendicular to the surface as
v = v ⊥ + v k . Thus vdA = |v| |dA| cos α = v⊥ dA.
In many engineering applications, there is an inflow A1 and an outflow A2 , between which we have rigid walls,
e.g. pumps, compressors, pipes, etc. Let us denote the average perpendicular velocities and the densities at
the inlet A1 and outlet A2 by v1 , ρ1 and v2 , ρ2 respectively. Than, we have

ṁ = ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2 = const. (1.5)
The quantity ṁ is called mass flow rate (kg/s) and it simply reflects to the fact that under steady-state
conditions the amount of mass entering the machine per unti time has to leave it, also. If the density is

4
Fluid Machinery 5

constant, we have
Q = ṁ/ρ = v1 A1 = v2 A2 = const., (1.6)
where Q (m3 /s) is the volumetric flow rate.

1.2 Bernoulli’s equation

In the case of steady frictionless flow, the energy of the fluid along a streamline remains constant. Mostly
we deal with incompressible fluids, for which the energy content per unit volume is

mgh + 12 mv 2 + pV ρ
Energy per unit volume = = p + v 2 + ρgh = constant. (1.7)
V 2

Considering two points of the streamline (the flow is from 1 to 2), we have

ρ ρ
p1 + v12 + ρgh1 = p2 + v22 + ρgh2 . (1.8)
2 2
Note that the above form can only applied if

• the flow is incompressible, i.e. ρ = const,

• the flow is ideal, i.e. there are no losses (friction, separation, etc.),
• points 1 and 2 refer to two points on the same streamline and

• the fluid is Newtonian, i.e. the stress versus strain rate curve is linear and passes through the origin.
The constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity: τ = µγ̇. (In common terms, this means the
fluid continues to flow, regardless of the forces acting on it. For example, water is Newtonian, because
it continues to exemplify fluid properties no matter how fast it is stirred or mixed.)

The Bernoulli equation can be extended to include friction and unsteady effects:
ρ ρ X ρ dv
p1 + v12 + ρgh1 = p2 + v22 + ρgh2 + ζi vi2 + ρL . (1.9)
2 2 | {z2 } | {zdt}
friction unsteady term

1.3 Energy equation for compressible flow

Without derivation, we simply state that the energy equation for frictionless, stationary flow of a compressible
ideal gas without heat transfer takes the following form

v2
+ cp T = constant, (1.10)
2

where cp [J/kgK] is the specific heat capacity taken at constant pressure and T [K] is the absolute (!) tem-
perature.
Fluid Machinery 6

1.4 Thermodynamics

1.4.1 Specific heat capacities

Assume that a definite mass of gas m is heated from T1 to T2 at constant volume and thus its internal energy
is raised from U1 to U2 . We have

mcV ∆T = ∆U or cV ∆T = ∆u, (1.11)

where u is the internal energy per unit mass and cV (J/(kgK)) is the specific heat capacity measured at
constant volume.
Now we do the same experiment but now at constant pressure, thus its volume changes and work is done on
the fluid:
mcp ∆T = ∆U + mp∆V, (1.12)
which, after rewriting for unit mass and combining with the previous equation for constant volume process,
also using the ideal gas model RdT = pdV gives

cp ∆T = ∆u + p∆V = cV ∆T + R∆T → cp = R + cV . (1.13)

Thus we see that it is useful to define a new quantity which includes both the change of the internal energy
u and the pressure work p dv = p d (1/ρ). Some useful equations:
cp κ 1
R = cp − cV , κ= , cp = R and cV = R . (1.14)
cV κ−1 κ−1

1.4.2 Some basic thermodynamic relationships

One possible form of the energy equation for a steady, open system in differential form is

c2
 
δY + δq = d h + + gz , (1.15)
2
| {z }
e

δY is the elementary shaft work, δq is the elementary heat transferred towards the fluid, both of them being
processes, which is emphasised by the δ symbol. And

c2
e=h+ + gz
2
is the energy. Note that the above equation describes an elementary process, however, to compute the overall
process (to integrate the above equation), one has to know what kind of process takes place in the machine
(adiabatic, isentropic, isotherm, etc.) and the results depends on it (thus, the integral is inexact).
The term enthalpy is often used in thermodynamics. It expresses the sum of the internal energy u and the
ability to do hydrodynamic work p

p
h=u+ . (1.16)
ρ

Note that h = cp T and u = cV T . There are some forms of expressing the change in enthalpy (v = 1/ρ):

dh = d(u + pv) = δq + vdp = T ds + vdp. (1.17)

Fluid Machinery 7

The entropy 1 is for an elementary change in the equilibrium is

δq
ds = + dsirrev , (1.18)
T
with which, using (1.17) we obtain

dh = δq + T dsirrev + vdp, (1.19)

with which (1.15) turns into

 2 
c
δY = vdp + d + gz + T dsirrev. (1.20)
2 | {z }
| {z } losses
δYu(sef ul)

1.4.3 Input shaft work and useful work

The input shaft power is simply the work needed to change the enthalpy of the fluid:
c22 − c21
 

Pin = ṁ∆e = ṁ h2 − h1 + + g(z2 − z1 )  = ṁcp (T2 − T1 ) (1.21)
2 z1 ≈z2 ,c1 ≈c2

When computing the useful work, we integrate the Yu part of (1.20) between points 1 and 2 (e.g. between
the suction and pressure side of a compressor). We still assume that z1 ≈ z2 and c1 ≈ c2 .
Z 2 Z 2
1
Yu = vdp = dp (1.22)
1 1 ρ

In the case of an isentropic process, we have p/ρ = RT (ideal gas law) and p/ρκ = const. (κ is the isentropic
exponent), thus

Z 2 Z 2 1/κ 1/κ Z 2
"  κ−1 #
1 p1 p κ p1 p2 κ
Yisentr. = dp = p−1/κ dp = 1 −1/κ
p dp = −1 . (1.23)
1 ρ 1 ρ1 ρ 1 κ − 1 ρ1 p1
Note that the above equation gives
 
  κ−1
κ  p2 κ
p1   κ
Yisentr. = −1 = R (T2 − T1 ) , (1.24)

κ − 1 ρ1  p1  |κ −{z1 }

|{z} | {z }
RT1 T2 /T1 cp

which is exactly the input specific work defined by (1.21).

A typical compression system consists of a compressor and a pressure vessel, which stores the compressed
gas. Although the gas heats up during the compression but in the vessel it will cool back to the pressure of
the surroundings. In other words, we loose the heat energy and the ’useful’ process is isotherm. We have
p/ρ = RT (ideal gas law) and T =const., thus

p1 2 1
Z  
p2
Yisotherm = dp = RT1 ln (1.25)
ρ1 1 p p1
1 Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that seems to imply a particular direction of progress, sometimes called

an arrow of time. As time progresses, the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never
decreases. Hence, from this perspective, entropy measurement is thought of as a kind of clock.
Fluid Machinery 8

The real processes are usually described by polytropic processes but formally we use the same equations
as in the isentropic case, with the slight change of using the polytropic exponent n instead of κ. We have
p/ρ = RT (ideal gas law) and p/ρn =const., thus
Z 2  "  n−1 #
1  n p1 p2 n n
dp = −1 = R (T2 − T1 ) . (1.26)
1 ρ polytropic n − 1 ρ 1 p 1 n − 1

Polytropic processes are real, non-adiabatic processes. Note that the polytropic exponent n is typically a
result of curve fit that allows the accurate computation of the outlet temperature.
Finally, if the fluid is incompressible, we have
2
p2 − p1
Z
1
Yincomp. = 1 dp = . (1.27)
ρ 1 ρ

In conclusion we have discussed four different case:

  κ−1
κ

κ p1 p2 κ
Isentropic: Y = κ−1 ρ1 p1 −1 = κ−1 R (T2 − T1 ) ,

 
p2
Isotherm: Y = RT1 ln p1 ,

  n−1
n

n p1 p2 n
Polytropic: Y = n−1 ρ1 p1 −1 = n−1 R (T2 − T1 ) ,

p2 −p1
Incompressible: Yu = ρ .

1.4.4 Specific work for hydraulic machines

In the case of pumps, the fluid can be considered as incompressible. However, instead of Y usually the head
is used:

c22 − c21
 
Yu p2 − p1 J
H= = + + z2 − z1 . [m] = (1.28)
g ρg 2g N

In the case of ventilators, the energy change due to the geodetic heigth difference between the suction and
pressure side is neglegible (z2 ≈ z1 ) and usually the change of total pressure is used:

c22 − c21
 
J
∆pt = Yu ρ = p2 − p1 + ρ = pt,2 − pt,1 . [P a] = (1.29)
2 m3

In the case of compressors, the fluid cannot be considered as incompressible. When neglecting the losses,
the specific work is:

c22 − c21
Yu,isentropic = cp (T2s − T1 ) + = h2s,t − h1,t . (1.30)
2
Fluid Machinery 9

1.4.5 Efficiency

The ratio of the useful power and the input power is efficiency. For a given T2 compression final temperature,
we have

T2s − T1
ηisentropic = , (1.31)
T2 − T1

for a polytropic process, we have

n
n−1 R(T2 − T1 ) n κ−1
ηpolytropic = = . (1.32)
cp (T2 − T1 ) n−1 κ

1.5 Problems

Problem 1.5.1
The turbomachines conveying air are classified usually as fans (p2 /p1 < 1.3), blowers (1.3 < p2 /p1 < 3) and
compressors (3 < p2 /p1 ). Assuming p1 = 1 bar inlet pressure, t1 = 20o C inlet temperature and isentropic
process (κ = 1.4), find the the relative density change (ρ2 − ρ1 )/ρ1 at the fan-blower border and the t2 outlet
temperature at the blower-compressor border. (Solution: (ρ2 − ρ1 )/ρ1 = 20.6%, t2 = 128.1o C)

Problem 1.5.2
Assuming isentropic process of an ideal gas, find the inlet cross section area and the isotherm useful power
of a compressor conveying ṁ = 3 kg/s mass flow rate. The velocity in the inlet section is c = 180 m/s. The
surrounding air is at rest with p0 = 1 bar and T0 = 290 K. cp = 1000J/kgK, κ = 1.4. The pressure at the
outlet is equal to p2 = 4 bar. (Solution: A1 = 0.016 m2 , Pisoth,u = 346.5 kW)

Problem 1.5.3
Gas is compressed from 1 bar absolute pressure to 4 bar relative pressure. The gas constant is 288J/kgK, the
specific heat at constant pressure is cp = 1005 J/kgK. The exponent describing the polytropic compression is
n = 1.54. Find the isentropic exponent. Find the isentropic specific useful work, the specific input work and
the isentropic efficiency. The density of atmospheric air is 1.16 kg/m3 . ht ≈ h is a reasonable approximation.
(Solution: κ = 1.402, Yisentropic = 146.729 kJ/kg, Yinput = 188.289 kJ/kg, ηisentropic = 77.9%.)

Problem 1.5.4
Ideal gas (gas constant R = 288 J/kgK, specific heat at constant pressure is cp = 1005 J/kgK) with 27o C
and 1 bar pressure is compressed to 3 bar with compressor. The exponent describing the real state of change
is n = 1.5. Find the absolute temperature and density of the air at the outlet. Find the isentropic outlet
temperature, the isentropic efficiency and the isentropic useful specific work. Find the power needed to cover
the losses, if the mass flow is 3 kg/s. (Solution: Treal = 432.7K, ρ = 2.407 kg/m3 , Tisentropic = 410.6K,
ηisentropic = 83.3%, Yisentropic = 111.48 kJ/kg, Ploss = 66.8kW)
Fluid Machinery 10

Problem 1.5.5
Gas is compressed from 1 bar to 5 bar. The ambient air temperature at the inlet t1 = 22◦ C while at the
outlet t2 = 231◦ C. Gas constant R = 288 J/kgK. Find the exponent describing the politropic compression
and the density of air at the inlet and the outlet. (Solution: n = 1.5, ρ1 = 1.177kg/m3 , ρ2 = 3.44kg/m3 .)

Problem 1.5.6
Along a natural gas pipeline compressor stations are installed L = 75 km distance far from each other. On
the pressure side of the compressor the pressure is pp = 80 bar, the density is ρp = 85 kg/m3 , while the
velocity of the gas is vp = 6.4 m/s. The diameter of the pipe is D = 600 mm the friction loss coefficient is
λ = 0.018. Assuming that the process along the pipeline is isotherm, the pressure loss is calculated
p2beg −p2end L ρbeg 2
as 2 = pbeg λ D 2 vbeg .

• Find the pressure, the density, and the velocity at the end of pipeline.
• Find the mass flow through the pipeline.
• Find the needed compressor power assuming that the compression is a politropic process and n = 1.45.

• Find the ratio of the compressor power and the power that could be released by the complete combustion
of the transported natural gas. The heating value of the natural gas is H = 43 MJ/kg. (Hint:
Pcomb = ṁH)

(Solution: ps = 11.54 bar, ρs = 12.26 kg/m3 , vs = 44.4 m/s, ṁ = 153.8 kg/s, Pcomp = 38.42 MW, Pcomp /Pcomb =
0.58%)
Chapter 2

Incompressible turbomachinery

We classify as turbomachines all those devices in which energy is transferred either to, or from, a continuously
flowing fluid by the dynamic action of one ore moving blase rows. Essentially, a rotating blade row, a rotor
or an impeller changes the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid moving through it. These enthalpy changes are
intimately linked with the pressure changes in the fluid.
Up to 20% relative density change, also gases are considered to be incompressible. Assuming isentropic
process and ideal gas, this corresponds to p2 /p1 ≈ 1.3. Thus, pumps, fans, water and wind turbines are
essentially the same machines.

2.1 Euler’s turbine equation

Euler’s turbine equation (sometimes called Euler’s pump equation) plays a central role in turbomachinery
as it connects the specific work Y and the geometry and velocities in the impeller. In what follows, we give
two derivations of the equation.

Figure 2.1: Generalized turbomachine

Derivation 1: Moment of momentum

Let us compute the moment of the force that is applied at the inlet and outlet of the generalized turbomachine

11
Fluid Machinery 12

shown in figure 2.1:

d d
F = (mc) → M= (r × mc) = ṁ (r × c) (2.1)
dt dt
where m is the mass flow, and c is the velocity of the fluid on the radius r. We consider the following
assumptions:

• The inlet of the turbomachine is a circle with radius r1 , and the outlet with radius r2 .
• c velocity is considered constant in the sense that its length and angle are constant.

Thus
M = M out − M in = ṁ (r2 × c2 ) − ṁ (r1 × c1 )
. With this the power need of driving the machine is
ṁY = P = ωM = (M out − M in ) ω = ṁ [ω (r2 × c2 ) − ω (r1 × c1 )]
= ṁ [c2 (ω × r2 ) − c1 (ω × r1 )] = ṁ [c2 u2 − c1 u1 ]
= ṁ [|c2 ||u2 | − |c1 ||u1 |] = ṁ (c2u u2 − c1u u1 ) (2.2)
where ui = |ui |, and ci = |c2u |cos(α). Comparing the beginning and the end of the equation, we see that
the specific work is
Y = c2u u2 − c1u u1 . (2.3)

Derivation 2: Rotating frame and reference and rothalpy

The Bernoulli equation in a rotating frame of reference reads
p w2
+ + U = const., (2.4)
ρ 2
where U is the potential associated with the conservative force field, which is the potential of a rotating
frame for reference: U = −r2 ω 2 /2. Let w stand for the relative velocity, c for the absolute velocity and
u = rω for the ’transport’ velocity. We have c = u + w, thus w2 = u2 + c2 − 2u c = u2 + c2 − 2u cu , which
gives
p w2 r2 ω2 p c2 + u2 − 2cu u2 p c2
+ − = + − = + − |{z}
c u = const. (2.5)
ρ 2 2 ρ 2 2 ρ 2
cu u

Thus we see that the above quantity is conserved in a rotating frame of reference, which we refer to as
rothalpy (abbreviation of rotational enthalpy). Let us find now the change of energy inside the machine:
p c2
 
Y =∆ + = ∆ (cu u) , (2.6)
ρ 2
c2
which is exactly Euler’s turbine equation. (For compressible fluids, rothalpy is I = cp T + 2 − ucu .)

2.2 Velocity triangles and performance curves

From the Euler turbine equation we have:
∆pe = ρgH = ρ (c2u u2 − c1u u1 )
where H is the head of the pump. Known the velocity triangle’s components and the density of the fluid,
we get:
c2u u2 − c1u u1
H= (2.7)
g
Fluid Machinery 13

Figure 2.2: Velocity triangles at the inlet and at the outlet

The volume flow rate is

Q = c2m A2 = c2m D2 πb2 , (2.8)
where D2 is the impeller outer diameter, b2 is its flow-through width at the outlet. From 2.7 and 2.8 we
have that c outlet absolute velocity is the connection between the head and the flow rate of the pump. Also
one can notice, that if ∆pe increased, that is when c2u is increased than Q decreases (c2m decreases). And
if ∆pe decreased (c2u decreased) than Q increases (c2m increases). So our goal now is to find a relationship
between the head and the flow rate of the pump.

2.2.1 Radial (centrifugal) machines

Let us consider a centrifugal pump and the velocity triangles at the impeller inlet and outlet, see Fig. 2.3.
The theoretical volume flow rate is

Qth = c2m A2 Ψ = c2m D2 πb2 Ψ, (2.9)

where D2 is the impeller outer diameter, b2 is its flow-through width at the outlet and c2m is the radial
component of the outlet absolute velocity. Ψ < 1 is a constant called blockage factor that takes into account
that the real flow through area is smaller due to the blockage of the blade width at the outlet.
The velocity triangle describes the relationship between the absolute velocity c, the circumferential velocity
u and the relative velocity w. Obviously, we have ~c = ~u + w.
~ Moreover, we know that (a) the circumferential
velocity is u = Dπn and that (b) the relative velocity is tangent to the blade, i.e. the angle between u and
w is approximately the blade angle β.
Basic trigonometrical identities show that c2u = u2 − c2m / tan β2 . It is usual to assume that the flow has
no swirling (circumferential) component at the inlet (due to Helmholtz’s third theorem). In the reality, the
outlet flow angle is not exactly β2 , thus the head is decreased, which is taken into account with the help of
the slip factor λ (sometimes denoted by σ in the literature).
If there is no prerotation (i.e. c1u = 0), we have
 2   2 
c2u u2 u2 u2 w2u u2 u2 c2m
Hth = λ =λ − =λ −
g g g g g g tan β2
 2 
u2 u2
=λ − Qth . (2.10)
g g tan β2 D2 πb2 Ψ

Thus, the theoretical performance curve Hth (Qth ) of a centrifugal machine is a straight line, which is (see
Figure 2.5)
Fluid Machinery 14

Figure 2.3: Centrifugal pumps

• decreasing as Q is increased, for backward curved blades, i.e. β2 < 90o ,

• horizontal, for radial blades (β2 = 90o ) and
• increasing (as Q is increased) for forward curved blades, i.e. β2 > 90o .

2.2.2 Problems

Problem 2.2.7
A radial impeller runs at n=1440/min revolution speed and conveys Q = 40 l/s of water. The diameter of
the impeller is D = 240 mm, the outlet width is b2 = 20 mm. The blade angle at the outlet is β2 = 25
degrees. The inlet is prerotation-free. Find the theoretical head and draw a qualitatively proper sketch of
the velocity triangle at the outlet. (Solution: Hth = 22.9m)

Problem 2.2.8
The mean meridian velocity component of a radial impeller with D2 = 400 mm diameter at n = 1440rpm
revolution speed is cm = 2.5 m/s. The angle between the relative and circumferential velocity components
is β2 = 25 degrees. With a geometrical change of the blade shape, this angle is increased to to 28 degrees,
that results in 10% drop of the meridian velocity component. The inlet is prerotation-free. Find the relative
head change. (Solution: (H25o − H28o )/H25o = 4.6%)

2.2.3 Axial machines

In the case

of axial machines the flow leaves the impeller axially, see Fig. 2.6. The flow-through area is
Do2 − Di2 π/4, where Do and Di stand for the outer and inner diameter of the lade, respectively. Notice
Fluid Machinery 15

Figure 2.4: Centrifugal impeller with outlet velocity components.

Figure 2.5: Effect of blade shapes β2 angle on the performance curve.

that in this case, u1 = u2 because it is assumed that the flow moves along a constant radius. Assuming
(again) prerotation-free inlet (c1u = 0), we have c2m = c1 (due to continuity).
However, an important difference between axial and centrifugal pumps (fans) is that in the case of axial
machines, the pressure rise changes along the radial coordinate of the blade:
 
c2m
∆pt (r) = ρu(r) (c2u (r) − c1u (r))|c1u =0 = ρ (2rπn) 2rπn − . (2.11)
tan β2

Thus, if we wanted to obtain constant ∆pt along the radial coordinate, the change of the circumferential
velocity has to be compensated by varying β2 .

2.2.4 Problems

Problem 2.2.9
Fluid Machinery 16

Figure 2.6: Axial pump (left) and axial fan (right)

Figure 2.7: Axial impeller with outlet velocity components.

The outer diameter of a CPU axial cooler ventilator is Do = 47 mm the inner diameter is Di = 21.5 mm the
revolution speed is n = 2740 rpm. Due to the careful design the hydraulic efficiency is ηh = 85% however
the volumetric efficiency as consequence of leakage flow rate between the housing and the impeller is just
ηvol = 75%. The blade angle at the suction side is β1 = 20◦ while at the pressure side β2 = 40◦ . Find the
flow rate and the total pressure rise on the impeller. The density of the air is ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 . Draw the
velocity triangles at the inlet and the outlet at the mean diameter.

(Do2 −Di2 )π
• Aring = 4 = 0.00137 m2
Do +Di
• Dmean = 2 = 0.03425 m
• umean = u1 = u2 = Dmean πn = 4.913 ms
• cax = c1,ax = c2,ax = u tan β1 = 1.788 ms
3
• q = ηvol Aring cax = 0.00184 ms
cax
• w2u = tan β2 = 2.131 ms
• ∆cu = u − q2u = 2.782 ms
Fluid Machinery 17

• ∆ptotal,ideal = ρu∆cu = 17.1 Pa

• ∆ptotal = ηh ∆ptotal,ideal = 14.5 Pa

Problem 2.2.10
The inner diameter of an axial impeller is Di = 250 mm, while the outer one is Do = 400mm. The revolution
number of the impeller is 1470rpm. The inlet is prerotation-free. At Q = 0.36 m3 /s the hydraulic efficiency
is 85%, the head is 6 m. The specific work along the radius is constant. Find the angles β1,2 at the inner
and outer diameter. (Solution: β1,i = 13.7, β2,i = 16.7, β1,o = 8.7 and β2,o = 9.4 degrees)
Fluid Machinery 18

2.2.5 Real performance curves

Our analysis so far assumed that the flow inside the impeller is ideal (no losses) and that the streamlines
are following the blade shape (thus, blade angles are also the streamline angles). However neither of these
assumptions are true.
There are significant friction losses inside the impeller, the narrower the flow passage is, the higher the
friction losses will be. Moreover, the volute also introduces friction losses. These losses are proportional to
the velocity squared, thus Hf0 riction ∝ Q2 .
On the other hand, if the angle of attack deviates from the ideal one, one experiences separation on the two
sides of the blade. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8 for a constant circumferential velocity u as the flow rate
and thus the inlet velocity c is varied, the relative velocity w also varies. At the design flow rate Qd the
angle of attack ideal. For small flow rates, we have separation on the suction side of the blade, while for
0
larger flow rates the separation is on the pressure side of the blade. Thus we have Hseparation ∝ (Q − Qd )2 .
To obtain the real performance curve, one has to subtract the above two losses from the theoretical head:
H = Hth (Q) − K1 Q2 − K2 (Q − Qd )2 , which is illustrated in 2.8. Note that at the design point and close to
it, the friction losses are moderate and no separation occurs. For lower flow rates, the friction loss decreases
while separation increases. For higher flow rates, both friction and separation losses increase.

Figure 2.8: Friction and separation losses in the impeller.

Fluid Machinery 19

2.3 Losses and efficiencies

Let us analyse the losses that decrease the efficiency of a turbomachine (see Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9: Losses of the pump.

Let the input mechanical power transmitted by the shaft be denoted by Pinput . We have than

0
Mechanical losses Pm These represent the friction loss in the bearings and the mechanical sealing losses
0
(if any). The remaining power is called internal power Pi = Pinput − Pm .
0
Disc friction losses Pdf A significant shear force appears in the fluid entrapped between the housing and
0
the impeller, which is taken into account by the disc friction coefficient: Pdf = νdf Pi . The remaining
0
power is the theoretical power of the impeller: Pth = Pi − Pdf = (1 − νdf )Pi .
Hydraulic and volumetric losses Ph0 , Pv0 The theoretical head Hth and flow rate Qth and is further
decreased by the leakage flow rates (Ql(eakage) ) inside the pump (flow across the gaps between the
impeller and the housing) and the internal frictional losses h0 (e.g. in the impeller and volute). We
have
Pth = Qth ρgHth = (Q + Ql ) ρg (H + h0 ) = QρgH + Ql ρgH + Qth ρgh0
| {z } | {z } | {z }
Pu Pv0 Ph0

Q + Ql H + h0 Qth Hth
= QρgH = QρgH → Pu = Pth ηh ηv (2.12)
Q H Q H
|{z} |{z}
−1
ηv−1 ηh

2.3.1 Problems

Problem 2.3.11
Fluid Machinery 20

The revolution number of a water pump is 1470 rpm, the flow rate is Q = 0.055m3 /s and the head is
H = 45m. The hydraulic power loss is Ph0 = 2.5kW, the mechanical power loss is Pm 0
= 1.3kW, the disc
friction coefficient is νt = 0.065. The input power at this operating point is Pin = 32kW. Make a complete
analysis of the losses, including leakage flow rate and the theoretical head.
Solution:
0 0
The power flow chart is: Pinput (Pm ) → Pi (Pdf ) → Pth (Pv0 , Ph0 ) → Pu(sef ul)

0
• Pi = Pinput − Pm = 30.7 kW → ηm = 95.9%
• Pth = (1 − ν)Pi = 28.7 kW
Ph0
• h0h = ρgQ = 4.63 m → Hth = 45 + 4.63 = 49.63 m → ηhydr = 90.6%
Pth
• Qth = ρgHth = 0.0589 m3 /s → Qleakage = 0.00395 m3 /s → ηv = 93.2%

• ηoverall = ηv · ηh · (1 − ν) · ηm = 75.9%

Problem 2.3.12
Calculate the theoretical head, the theoretical volume flow rate, the hydraulic efficiency and the volumetric
0
efficiency based on the data of the water pump. Pinput = 43.5 kW, Q = 1100 dm3 /h, H = 180 m, Pmech =
0 3
1.6 kW, νdf = 0.03, h = 32 m. (Solution: Hth = 212 m, Qth = 0.01954 m /s ηhydr = 84.9% ηvol = 93.8%)
Fluid Machinery 21

2.4 Dimensionless numbers and affinity

Based on the previously obtained formulae for theoretical head, we define dimensionless numbers as

c2u u22 u2
H = ηh Hth = 2ηh := ψ 2 (2.13)
u2 2g 2g
or, in the case of fans
ρ
∆pt = ψ u22 , (2.14)
2
where ψ is a dimensionless pressure rise. Similarly, we have

4D2 πb2 c2m D2 π

Q = ηv Qth = ηv D2 πb2 c2m = ηv 2 u2 D22 := ϕ 2 u2 (2.15)
4D2 u2 4

These dimensionless quantities are called pressure number ψ and flow number ϕ. What we found is that
H ∝ n2 and Q ∝ n allowing the transformation of the performance curve given at n1 to be computed to
another revolution number n2 . This is called affinity law :
 2  3
H1 n1 Q1 n1 P1 n1
= , = → = (2.16)
H2 n2 Q2 n2 P2 n2

As we have seen, both ψ and ϕ contains two parameters, D2 and u2 , out of which one can be eliminated,
resulting in new dimensionless numbers. Let us start with the elimination of D2 .
Q 4Q
ϕ= = (2.17)
D22 π D23 π 2 n
4 u2
H 2gH
ψ= = (2.18)
u22 D22 π 2 n2
2g

from which we have √ √

3/2
ϕ1/2 2 Q D2 π 3/2 n3/2 π Q1/2
σ= 3/4
= 3/2 √ 3/4
= √
4
n 3/4 (2.19)
ψ D2 π n (2gH) 2g 3/4
| H{z }
nq

Note that σ depends only on the revolution number but takes different values along the performance curve.
Thus when actually computing√
it, one takes the data of the best-efficiency point. Moreover, we do not
π
include the constant term 4 2g3/4 . Finally, by definition, the specific speed of a turbomachine is
√

1/2
Qopt. [m3 /s]
nq = n[rpm] 3/4
(2.20)
(Hopt. [m])

Specific speed defines the shape of the impeller, low specific speed means low flow rate and high pressure
rise (radial impeller) while high specific speed occurs when the flow rate is high and the pressure rise is low,
see Fig. 5.4.
Based on experience the available maximum efficiency can be estimated in the knowledge of Qopt and nq as
follows

  n 2
−0.32 q
ηmax = 0.94 − 0.048Qopt − 0.29 log . (2.21)
44

Representing δopt (σopt ), turbomachines having good efficiency pass a narrow path. This diagram is called
Cordier-diagram. The centre of the path can be assumed with
Fluid Machinery 22

Figure 2.10: Specific speed and shape of the impeller.

 1.34
2.1
δ= . (2.22)
1.41 log(σ)

Experience moreover shows that for a given nq estimation can be given for the ideal value of ψ as follows

 9/4
300
ψ= . (2.23)
270 + nq

2.4.1 Problems

Problem 2.4.13
The input mechanical power of a water pump is 25 kW, the revolution number is 1440 rpm, the flow rate
is 0.06 m3 /s. The volumetric efficiency is estimated as ηv = 0.92, the hydraulic efficiency is ηh = 0.85, the
0 0
disc friction power loss is Pdf = 0.9 kW, the mechanical loss is Pm = 1.3 kW. Find the head and the specific
speed and make a sketch of the impeller. (Solution: H=30.3m, nq =27.3, the impeller is a thin radial one.)

Problem 2.4.14
The revolution number of a pump is 1450 rpm, the head and flow rate at the best-efficiency point are 17m
and 0.03 m3 /s. Find the specific speed. Find the diameter of the impeller if, based on industrial experience,
the pressure number at the best-efficiency point should be ψ = 1. Find the flow number ϕ. Find the head and
flow rate at 970rpm. (Solution: nq = 30, D2 = 240mm, ϕ = 0.036, Q970rpm = 0.02m3 /s, H970rpm = 7.61m)

Problem 2.4.15
The head produced by a six stage pump type CR 8-60 is H[m] = 68 − 0.2Q2 . The efficiency is = 0.66 −
0.00731(Q − 9.5)2 . The unit of the flow rate in the formulae is [m3/h]. Find the specific speed. Based on
the specific speed, find the type of the impeller. Determine the input power of the water delivering pump
Fluid Machinery 23

for zero delivery Q = 0 by extrapolation from calculated points in the range Q = 1.5; 1; 0.5m3/h, and using
L’Hopital’s rule. (Solution: nq = 29.9, hence the impeller is radial; Pin = 1334W .)

Problem 2.4.16
The characteristic curve of a pump at n1 = 1450/min rotor speed is H1 = 40m−40000s2 /m5 Q2 . Calculate 5
points of the pump-characteristic for the rotor speed n2 = 2900/min in the flow rate range Q2 = 0, 01m3 /s−
0, 05m3 /s at 0, 01m3 /s intervals. According to laboratory tests the affinity law is valid in this range. Give
the equation of the characteristics H2 (Q2 ) for the rotor speed n2 ! (Solution: H2 (Q2 ) = 160 − 40000Q22 )

Problem 2.4.17
Find the specific speed of the pump given by 2.11, if the revolution number is 3000 rpm. Make a sketch of
the impeller. (Solution: nq = 92, mixed impeller.)

Figure 2.11: Performance chart for Problem 2.4.17.

Problem 2.4.18
The performance curve of a pump at 1450 rpm is given by H = 100 − 30000 Q2 and the efficiency is given
by η = −78000 Q2 + 4500 Q. Find the head and flow rate of the best-efficiency point. Find the performance
curve at 1740 rpm. (Hopt = 76m, Qopt = 0.02855m3 /s, ηmax = 64.9%, H1740rpm = 144 − 30000 Q2 .)
Fluid Machinery 24

2.5 Forces on the impeller

2.5.1 Axial force

The axial force results from two components:

• Momentum force

• Pressure distribution on the hub(back of the impeller) and shroud(front of the impeller).

The overall axial force is

Fax = Fhub − Fshroud + Fimpulse + mg, (2.24)

|{z}
in case of vertical impeller

and its direction is towards the suction side (the axial force tries to ’pull down’ the impeller from the shaft).
The impulse force is
Q Q2
Fimpulse = ṁv = ρQ =ρ . (2.25)
|{z} A1 A1
ṁ |{z}
cin

The force on the hub and the shroud can be calculated from the pressure distribution along the impeller.

Figure 2.12: Pressure distribution on the hub.

In general for a rotating frame the pressure distribution is

ρ
p(r) = K + (rωf )2 , (2.26)
2
where K is a constant and ωf is the angular velocity of the fluid.
K can be calculated from the boundary condition. Since the pressure exactly known at the end of the
impeller (r = r2 ). For the hub this is
ρ
ph (r) = p2 − ωf2 r22 − r2 .


ph (r2 ) = p2 → (2.27)
2
Fluid Machinery 25

In case of the shroud a pressure drop (∆p2 ) is reducing the pressure at the boundary:
ρ
ps (r) = p2 − ∆p2 − ωf2 r22 − r2 .


ps (r2 ) = p2 − ∆p2 → (2.28)
2
The forces can be evaluated as the definite integral of the pressure distribution. The axial force becomes on
the hub (back of the impeller):
Z r2 Z r2
ρ
p2 r − ωf2 r22 r − r3 dr =


Fhub = 2rπph (r)dr = 2π
rs r 2
2 2
s 2 2
r4 − rs4
 
r − rs ρ r − rs
= 2π p2 2 − ωf2 r22 2 − 2 =
2 2 2 4
r2 − rs2 r2 − rs2
  
ρ
= 2π 2 p2 − ωf2 r22 − 2 , (2.29)
4 2 2
finally
ρ r2 − rs2
 
Fhub = r22 − rs2 π p2 − ωf2 2


. (2.30)
2 2
A similar result is obtained for the shroud (front of the impeller) with replacing rs by r1 :

ρ r2 − r12
 
Fshroud = r22 − r12 π p2 − ∆p2 − ωf2 2


. (2.31)
2 2

2.6 Problems
Problem 2.6.19
Find the axial force on the back of the impeller, whose outer diameter is D2 = 300mm, the shaft diameter
is Ds = 50mm, the outlet pressure is 2.3bar and the revolution number is 1470rpm. The average angular
velocity of the fluid is 85% of that of the impeller. (Solution: F = 9.36kN)

Problem 2.6.20
Calculate the axial force acting on the supporting disc of a pump impeller of 280mm diameter if the pressure
at the impeller exit is 2bar. The hub diameter is 40mm. There is no leakage flow through the gap between the
rotor supporting disc and the casing. The rotor speed is 1440/min. The angular velocity of the circulating
water is half of that of the rotor. Find the formula of pressure distribution as a function of the radial
coordinate! Draw the cross section of the impeller and the axial pressure force!

2.7 Cavitation
Two similar arrangement can be seen on left side of Figure 2.13. The only difference is the height of the pump,
although this cause major deviation in the pressure distribution along the pipe line as it can be observed
on the right side of the Figure. In the worst cases the pressure can be below the saturation vapour pressure
which means locally the vapour bubbles are appearing. This is called cavitation. The vapour pressure is
usually a function of the temperature, e.g. for water:

t[C] 10 20 40 60 80 100
pv [bar] 0.012 0.02 0.07 0.2 0.47 1

There could be three major consequences of the cavitation:

Fluid Machinery 26

Figure 2.13: Representation of the cavitation.

• Increased noise among vibration,

• Drastic decrease in hydraulic performance curve: H − Q,

• Damage of the impeller, see Figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14: Illustration of the cavitation damage in pumps.

Fluid Machinery 27

2.7.1 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

To avoid cavitation it is not sufficient to ensure that the pressure at the suction side is larger than the vapour
pressure (ps > pv ). Since inside the pump there is a complex flow, therefore it is possible to have p < ps
locally where the velocity is large enough. Ensuring the operational work without cavitation the NPSH has
to be defined. It is convenient to split the absolute pressure at the pressure side ps into two parts: pv vapour
pressure plus the part above that, deonted by ρg × N P SH:

ps = pv + ρg × NPSH
| {z } (2.32)
Net Positive Suction Head

this way, the NPSH value gives the net ”standby” pressure above the vapour pressure that is available before
cavitation occurs.

Hs

pt

Figure 2.15: Representation of the NPSH.

There are two different NPSH values: available (NPSH a ) and the required (NPSH r ):

• The available NPSH a is a property of the hydraulic system (geometry, loss coefficients etc. of
the pipelines and tanks) and can be evaluated as
pt − pv (T )
NPSH a = − Hs − h0 (Q), (2.33)
ρg
where the h0 (Q) represents the frictional losses at the suction-side pipeline (see later in Section 3.1).
• The required NPSH r value can be found in the catalogue of the pump. It is usually depending
on the volume flow rate similarly to the head.

The condition for avoiding the cavity is that the available NPSH must be larger than the required NPSH ,
mathematically:

NPSH a > NPSH r ⇐⇒ no cavitation (2.34)

2.7.2 Problems

Problem 2.7.21
Fluid Machinery 28

A pump delivers water from a low-pressure steam boiler as shown in the figure below. Calculate the required
geodetic height of the reservoir to avoid cavitation! The pipeline losses are to be taken into account.
• mass flow rate: ṁ = 27[kg/s], density of the hot wa-
ter: ρ = 983[kg/m3 ]
• pipe: L = 10[m], d = 100[mm], λ = 0.02 and the sum
of loss factors is ζ = 5
• pump: H[m] = 82 − 4800 Q2 , NPSH [m] = 1.6 +
13600 Q2

Solution:
It’s easy to calculate that
Q = ṁ/ρ = 0.02747[m3 /s]
cs = Q/A = 3.5[m/s]
H = 82 − 4800 × 0.027472 = 78.38[m]
NPSH = 1.6 + 13600 × 0.027472 = 2.626[m]

Bernoulli’s equation between a surface point in the tank and the suction side of the pump reads:

pt 02 ps c2
+ + Hs = + s + 0 + h0pipeline
ρg ρg ρg ρg

From the suction side of the pump to the impeller we have:

ps c2 pvapour
+ s = + es + NPSH
ρg 2g ρg

(Note that es = 0 as the configuration is horizontal.) Putting the above two equations together, we have

c2s
 
pt − pvapour Hs + L
Hs = − + h0pipe + NPSH , where h0pipe = λ +ζ ,
ρg 2g d

thus,

−1 
c2 λ c2 λL
  
Hs = 1+ s NPSH + s +ζ = · · · = 6.42[m]
2g d 2g d

Thoma’s cavitation coefficient is σ = NPSH /H = 0.03355[−].

Problem 2.7.22
Calculate the required pipe diameter to avoid cavitation, if the pump delivers Q = 30 dm3 /s water from a
closed tank, where the pressure (above the water level) is p = 40 kPa. The equivalent pipe length on the
suction side is 5m, the friction coefficient is λ = 0.02, the suction flange of the pump is 3 m below the water
level. The vapour pressure at the water temperature is 2.8 kPa. The required net positive suction head is
NPSH r = 3.2 m. (The standard pipe diameter series is: DN 40, 50, 65, 80, 90)
Solution:
The sketch of the installation is shown in Figure 2.16

pt −pv pt −pv
• NPSH a = ρg − Hs − h0s → h0s = ρg − Hs − NPSH r
Fluid Machinery 29

Figure 2.16: Installation of the apparatus.

c2
Le s Le 8Q 2
• h0s = λ Ds 2g
= λD 5
s D gπ
2
s

• Ds = 0.073m → Ds = 80 mm

Problem 2.7.23
Find the required suction side height of the pump that conveys water from an open surface reservoir at
Q = 180m3 /h flow rate the head is H = 30m the required net positive suction head NPSH r = 5.03m.
The temperature of the water is T = 23◦ the ambient pressure is p0 = 1023mbar. The hydraulic loss of
the suction side pipe can be calculated from h0s = 652[s2 /m5 ]Q2 while the vapour pressure pv = 1.704 +
0.107(t − 15) + 0.004(t − 15)2 . Find the Thoma cavitation number. (Solution: Hs = 3.481m, σ = 0.154)
Chapter 3

Hydraulic Systems

3.1 Frictional head loss in pipes

p
In hydraulic machinery, instead of pressure p [P a], usually the term head is used: H [m] = ρg . In real
moving fluids, energy is dissipated due to friction, as well as turbulence. Note that as the hydraulic power
is P = ρgHQ, but - because of the continuity equation - the flow rate is constant, the energy loss manifests
itself in head (pressure) loss. Head loss is divided into two main categories, ”major losses” associated with
energy loss per length of pipe, and ”minor losses” associated with bends, fittings, valves, etc. The most
common equation used to calculate major head losses is the Darcy Weisbach equation:

L v2 L 8Q2
h0f = λ =λ , (3.1)
D 2g D D4 π2

where the friction coefficient λ (sometimes denoted by f ) depends on the Reynolds number (Re = vD/ν,
ν [m2 /s] = µ/ρ being the kinematic viscosity of the fluid) and the relative roughness e/D (e [m] being the
roughness projections and D the inner diameter of the pipe). Based on Nikuradses experiments, we have
different regimes based on the Reynolds number.

• For laminar flow Re < 2300, we have λ = 64.

• For transitional flow 2300 < Re < 4000, the value of λ is uncertain and falls into the range of 0.03 . . . 0.08
for commercial pipes.
√
• For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, we have √1λ = 1.95 log(Re λ) − 0.55. However, this equation need
iteration for computing the actual value
√ of λ. Instead, in the range of 4000 < Re < 105 , the Blasiuss
4
formula is ususllay used: λ = 0.316/ Re.
• For turbulent flow in rough pipes, Karman-Prandtl equation may be used: √1λ = −2 log 3.7D e


The
 
Colebrook-White equation covers both the smooth and rough regime: √1λ = −2 log Re1.88 √
λr
+ e
3.7D

For relatively short pipe systems, with a relatively large number of bends and fittings, minor losses can easily
exceed major losses. These losses are usually taken into account with the help of the loss factor ζ in the
form of

ρ
h0 = ζ v 2 . (3.2)
2

30
Fluid Machinery 31

In design, minor losses (ζ) are usually estimated from tables using coefficients or a simpler and less accurate
reduction of minor losses to equivalent length of pipe (giving the length of a straight pipe with the same
head loss). Such relationships can be found in *[2], *[1] or *[3].

3.2 Head-discharge curves and operating point

Let us consider a single pipe with several elbows, fittings, etc. that ends up in a reservoir, see Figure ??.

Figure 3.1: Simple pumping system.

The head Hs(ystem) needed to convey Q flow rate covers the pressure difference and the geodetic height
difference between the starting and ending point and the losses of the flow: the friction of the pipe, the loss
of the elbows, valves, etc., and the discharge loss.
X  2
p2 − p1 X L v
Hs(ystem) = + (z2 − z1 ) + ζ+ λ +1 = Hstat + BQ2 (3.3)
ρg D 2g

where

p2 − p1
• Hstat = + (z2 − z1 )
ρg
P P L

8
• B= ζ+ λD +1
D4 π2 g

Note

• Hstat is independent of the flow rate Q

P
• ζ denotes the loss of the elbows, valves, etc.
P L
• λ D stands for the frictional loss of the pipe
• +1 represents the discharge loss at index 2.
Fluid Machinery 32

3.3 Problems
Problem 3.3.24
Calculate the head loss of the pipe depicted in the figure below as a function of the volume flow rate!
Parameters: ζA = 1.5, ζB,D = 0.26, ζC = 0.35, ζF = 0.36, λ = 0.0155, Ds = Dp = D = 0.6[m] and
Q = 0.4[m3 /s]. Solution:

• Static (geodetic) head + dynamic (friction) losses of the pipe: Hpipe = Hstat + Hf riction
• Volume flow rate: Q = cs(uction) Apipe,suction = cp(ressure) Apipe,pressure = cApipe
• The ’extra’ 1 in the pressure side (...ζD + 1) represents the outflow losses.
• Hstat = 8 + 4 = 12[m], Ls = 7 + 6 = 14[m], Lp = 12 + 20 + 8 = 40[m]

"  2#
c2s
 P
cp

2 Ls Lp
Hpipe = Hstat + KQ = Hstat + λ + ζA + ζB + λ + ζF + ζC + ζD + 1 =
Ds 2g Dp 2g
= 12[m] + 3.25[s2 /m5 ] × Q2 [m3 /s]2

Problem 3.3.25
The artificial fountain Beneath the St. Gellert is fed by two pipelines of 30m length. The height distance
between the pump and the fountain is 22m. The diameter of the pipes is D1 = 100mm and D2 = 70mm,
the friction coefficient of the straight segments is λ = 0.02 and the friction coefficient of the other segments
(bends, etc.) is ζ = 0.5. Assuming that the flow velocity in the first pipe is 1.5m/s, calculate the the
required head. Calculate the flow velocity in the second pipe and the overall flow rate of the common pump
feeding the two pipes.Assuming 65% overall (pump+motor) efficiency, calculate the energy demand for 100
days and the cost of the operation if the energy tariff is 32HU F/kW h. (Solution: Without the bypass line:
H = 22.826m[], Q = 0.01678[m3 /s], P = 5.78[kW ] and Cost = 443691HU F .)

Problem 3.3.26
Fluid Machinery 33

A pump delivers Q = 1200[dm3 /min] water from an open-surface well, whose water level is 25[m] below the
default level. The pressure side ends 5[m] above the default level and the water flows into an open-surface
swimming pool. The diameter of the pipe on the suction side is Ds = 120[mm] and Dp = 100[mm] on the
pressure side. The loss coefficients are ζs = 3.6 and ζp = 14 (without the outflow losses). Calculate the
required pump head! (Solution: Hp,req. = 35.7[m])

Problem 3.3.27
The submergible pump shown in the picture below delivers Q = 30l/s water into the basin. The pipe
collecting the water of five equal pumps has a diameter D. The inner diameter of the pressure tube connecting
the pump with the collecting pipe is d. Find the head of the system and the pump head! Further data are:
D = 400mm, λD = 0.018, d = 160mm, λd = 0.021, ζf ilter = 3 , ζnrv = 0.25, ζbd = 0.35, ζ2bd = 0.5,
ζbD = 0.22. (Solution: Hsystem = 11.07m, Hpump = 12.80m)
Chapter 4

Control

4.1 Problems
Problem 4.1.28
A pump running at 1470[rpm] with Hpump = 45 − 2781Q2 head delivers water into a pipeline with Hpipe =
20 + 1125Q2 . Calculate the required revolution number for the reduced flow rate Q0 = 0.05[m3 /s].

Solution:

• The actual working point is given

by the solution of Hpump = Hpipe ,
which gives Q = 0.08[m3 /s] and
H = 27.2[m].
• Affinity states that while vary-
ing the revolutionary speed, H/n2
and Q/n remain constant. Thus,
also H/Q2 remains constant, let’s
denote this constant by a. So,
while varying the revolutionary
speed, the working point moves
along the central parabola (see fig-
ure), given by Hap = a Q2 .

However, as Q0 is given and we also know that this point has to be located on the pipeline characteristic, we
know that H 0 = 20+1125·0.052 = 22.81[m]. Thus, the parameter of the affine parabola is a = H 0 /Q02 = 9125.
Q∗ is given by the intersection of the affine parabola and the original pump characteristic: Hap (Q∗ ) =
Hpump (Q∗ ), which gives Q∗ = 0.06148[m3 /s] with H ∗ = 34.5[m].
Now we can employ affinity between Q∗ and Q0 :

Q0 0.05
n0 = n∗ ∗
= 1470 × = 1195.5[rpm]
Q 0.06148

and just for checking the calculation

34
Fluid Machinery 35

2
n0 1195.52

0 ∗
H =H = 34.5 × = 22.81[m].
n∗ 14702

Problem 4.1.29
Solve the previous control problem (pump: Hpump = 45 − 2781Q2 , pipeline: Hpipe = 20 + 1125Q2 , desired
flow rate: Q0 = 0.05[m3 /s]) using a throttle at the pressure side of the pump and also with a bypass line.
Compare the resulting operations in terms of power loss!
Fluid Machinery 36

Problem 4.1.30
A pump, whose characteristic curve is given by Hpump = 70 − 90000[s2 /m5 ]Q2 , works together with two
parallel pipes. The main pipe is given by H1 = 30 + 100000[s2 /m5 ]Q2 . Calculate the head-flow relationship
H2 (Q) of the side pipe, whose opening results in a flow rate of 480[l/min] in the main pipe. The static head
of the second side pipe is 25[m].
Solution:

• Head of the main pipe at the prescribed flow rate: Q1 = 480[l/min] = 0.008[m3 /s] → H1 (Q1 ) =
36.4[m]
q
70−36.4
• The head is the same, so the flow rate of the pump is Hp (Qp ) = H1 (Q1 ) → Qp = 90000 =
3
0.0193[m /s]
• Thus, the flow rate on the side pipe is Q2 = Qp − Q1 = 0.0193 − 0.008 = 0.0113[m3 /s]
36.4−25
• The actual characteristic of the side pipe: H2 (Q2 ) = 25 + aQ22 = 36.4[m] → a= 0.01132 = 89279
• The solution is H2 (Q2 ) = 25 + 89279Q2 .

Problem 4.1.31
Pumps I and II feed pipes 1 and 2 shown in the figure below. Their characteristics are:
HI = 45m − 24900s2 /m5 Q2
HII = 35m − 32200s2 /m5 Q2
H1 = 10m − 4730s2 /m5 Q2
H2 = 15m − 8000s2 /m5 Q2
Find the flow rates and heads if valve ”V ” is closed, and if it it opened.

Problem 4.1.32
Two pumps, H1 = 70m − 50000s2 /m5 Q2 and H2 = 80m − 50000s2 /m5 Q2 can be coupled parallel or in
series. Which arragement will deliver more liquid through the pipe Hp = 20m + 25000s2 /m5 Q2 ?

Problem 4.1.33
Fluid Machinery 37

Pump S, with the characteristitc curve HS = 37 − 0.159Q2 , is feeding an irrigation system consisting of
parallel pipes. The units are Q[m3/h] and H[m]. Each pipe contains at its end a sprinkler. The pipes are
20m long, their inner diameter is 25mm, the friction coefficient is 0.03. The sprinklers discharge 4m3 /h
water at 2bar overpressure, their characteristics can be written as Hspr = Kspr Q2 .

• Draw the sketch of the irrigation system with 3 parallel pipes!

• How much water is discharged if only one pipe is in operation?

• How many parallel pipes can be fed if the overpressure before the sprinklers must be 2bar?

Problem 4.1.34
The characteristics of a pump supplying a small village with water is Hp = 70 − 330Q2 . The village network
is modeled by the curve Hcd = 25 + 30Q2 during the day while the night operation can be described by
Hcn = 25 + 750Q2 . A high water tower is attached to the delivery tube of the pump, its characteristics is
HT = 40 − 55|Q|Q. Here Q is positive if water flows down from the tower. The units in the formulae are [Q]
= m3/s; [H] = m. Draw a sketch of the water system. Find the flow rates of the pump, village and tower
both for day and night operation. Find the head of the pump both for day and night! Use a millimeter
paper to draw the charasteristics curves! (Solutions: Qpump = 0.33m3 /s and 0.29m3 /s; Qvillage = 0.6m3 /s
and 0.15m3 /s; Qtower = 0.275m3 /s and −0.14m3 /s. Hpump = 36m and 41m.)

Problem 4.1.35
How much water is delivered by the pump Hp = 70 − 45000Q2 through the pipe system Hs = 20 + 20000Q2
? The flow rate must be reduced to 0.015m3 /s. This can be done either by throttling control or by using
a by-pass control. Draw the pump-pipe-valve arrangements for both cases. How large is the hydraulic
loss in the valves in the first and in the second case? The power consumption of the pump is Pinput =
9.4 + 6240Q − 50000Q2 . How large is the specific energy consumption f in the two cases? The units in the
formulae are: [m], [m3 /s], [kW ].
Chapter 5

Positive displacement pumps

/noteadded from Volumetric Pumps and Compressors

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Pumps - general introduction

A pump is a machine that moves fluids (mostly liquids) by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into
three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid:

Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the
hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or
electric motor. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated
by the impeller. Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical pumping.

Positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on
the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side expands and the
liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of
operation.
Miscellaneous pumps are the rest of the pumps, such as Eductor-jet pump, airlift pump, etc.

Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform
mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation,
electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to
large industrial pumps.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from wells, aquarium filtering,
pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry
for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In the medical industry, pumps are used
for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and as artificial replacements for body
parts, e.g. the artificial heart.
The two most important quantities characterizing a pump are the pressure difference between the suction
and pressure side of the pump ∆p and the flow rate delivered by the pump Q. For practical reasons, in the
case of water technology, the pressure head is usually used, which is pressure given in meters of fluid column:
H = ∆p 5
ρg . Simple calculations reveals that for water 1 bar (10 Pa) pressure is equivalent of 10 mwc (meters
of water column).

38
Fluid Machinery 39

Figure 5.1: Two examples of pumps: (left) centrifugal pump (right) positive displacement pump (piston
pump)

Turbopumps

In the case of a turbopump, a rotating impeller adds energy to the fluid. The head is computed with the
help of Euler’s turbine equation 
c2u u2 − c1u u1  c2u u2
H= = (5.1)
g 
c1u=0 g
while the flow rate is
Q = D2 πb2 c2m , (5.2)
with c2u and c1u being the circumferential component of the absolute velocity at the outlet and inlet,
respectively, u1 = D1 πn and u2 = D2 πn the circumferential velocities. c2m stands for the radial (meridian)
component of the absolute velocity at the outlet, D is diameter and b stand for the width of the impeller.
(See Figure 5.2 and Fluid Machinery lecture notes for further details.)

Figure 5.2: Velocity triangles on a centrifugal impeller.

Notice that the head (H) and flow rate (Q) are provided by the two component of the same velocity vector c2 .
Thus, if H increases, Q decreases and vice versa. Thus in the case of turbomachines the pressure difference
Fluid Machinery 40

and the flow rate are directly connected and not independent. This dependency is described by the pump’s
performance curve, see Figure 5.3.

H, η
design point

Hopt.

ηmax. η(Q)

H(Q)

Qopt. Q

Figure 5.3: Turbopump performance curves

An important quantity describing the shape of the impeller of a turbopump is the specific speed nq , defined
as
1/2
Qopt. [m3 /s]1/2
nq = n 3/4 [rpm] . (5.3)
Hopt. [m]3/4
The dimension (unit) of nq is not emphasised and mostly omitted. The concept of specific speed can be used
to determine the pump type (i.e. radial/mixed/axial) which is capable of performing a pumping problem
efficiently.
Power, head,

Power, head,

Power, head,
efficiency

efficiency

efficiency

Capacity Capacity Capacity

nq
20 40 60 80 100 150 200 300

Radial-vanes Francis-vanes Mixed-flow Axial-flow

Figure 5.4: Turbopump performance curves

Example 1. We have to pump clean water to an upper reservoir at 60 m height. The nominal power of
the driving electric motor is 5 kW, its revolution number is 3000 rpm. The flow rate is (assuming 100%
efficiency)
Pmotor Pmotor
Pmotor = ∆p · Q → Q = = = 8.49 × 10−3 m3 /s = 509 l/min (5.4)
∆p ρgH
Fluid Machinery 41

Hence the specific speed is

1/2
1/2
Qopt. 8.49 × 10−3 ∼
nq = n 3/4
= 3000 3/4
= 12.8, (5.5)
Hopt. (60)

which means that a centrifugal turbopump is suitable for this problem.

Example 2. Now consider the hydraulic cylinder depicted in Figure 5.5. The required pressure difference
is now ∆p = 200bar = 2 × 107 Pa, the power and the revolution number of the driving motor is the same as
before (5kW, 3000rpm).
p

Figure 5.5: Simple sketch of a hydraulic cylinder

First, find the flow rate of the pump (again, assume 100% efficiency):
Pmotor 5000
Q= = = 2.55 × 10−4 m3 /s = 15.3 liter/min, (5.6)
ρgH 9810 · 2000
which gives
1/2
1/2
Qopt. 2.55 × 10−4
nq = n 3/4
= 3000 3/4
= 0.16. (5.7)
Hopt. (2000)
Comparing this value with Figure 5.4 we see that this value is ’off’ the chart. Such a small nq value
would require an extremely large-diameter impeller, which is very thin. Besides the problems with the
high centrifugal stresses, from the fluid mechanical point of view, such a thin impeller introduces extremely
large fluid friction resulting in poor efficiency. Thus we conclude that pumping problems resulting in
high pressure difference and low flow rates (i.e. nq < say,10) cannot be efficiently solved by
centrifugal pumps.

Positive displacement pumps

Positive displacement pumps (PDPs) are typically used in high-pressure (above ∆p > 10bar, up to 1000-2000
bars) technology, with relatively low flow rate. These machines have an expanding cavity on the suction side
and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side
expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each
cycle of operation.
The positive displacement pumps can be divided in two main classes (see Figures XXX)

• reciprocating
– piston pumps
– plunger pumps
– diaphragm pumps
– axial/radial piston pumps
Fluid Machinery 42

• rotary
– gear pumps
– lobe pumps
– vane pumps
– progressive cavity pumps
– peripheral pumps
– screw pumps

Figure 5.6: Some reciprocating pumps

Figure 5.7: Some rotary pumps

PDPs, unlike a centrifugal pumps, will produce the same flow at a given motor speed (rpm) no matter the
discharge pressure, hence PDPs are constant flow machines. A PDP must not be operated against a closed
valve on the discharge (pressure) side of the pump because it has no shut-off head like centrifugal pumps:
Fluid Machinery 43

a PDP operating against a closed discharge valve will continue to produce flow until the pressure in the
discharge line are increased until the line bursts or the pump is severely damaged - or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the PDP is therefore absolute necessary. The relief valve can
be internal or external. The pump manufacturer has normally the option to supply internal relief or safety
valves. The internal valve should in general only be used as a safety precaution, an external relief valve
installed in the discharge line with a return line back to the suction line or supply tank is recommended.
Several types of PDPs can be used as motors: if fluid is driven through them (e.g. gear pump), the shaft
rotates and the same machine can be used as a motor.
Fluid Machinery 44

5.1.2 Basic characteristics of positive displacement machines

The pump displacement Vg is the volume of the liquid delivered by the pump per one revolution, assum-
ing no leakage (zero pressure difference between the suction and pressure side) and neglecting the fluid
compressibility. The ideal – theoretical – flow rate is
Qth = nVg (5.8)
where Qth is theoretical flow rate (liter/min), n is the revolution number of the pump shaft (rpm) and Vg
stands for the pump displacement, (cm3 ).
In the case of pumps, the actual outflow is less than the theoretical flow rate, due to the leakages inside
the pump. These losses are taken into by the volumetric efficiency ηvol : Q = ηvol Qth = ηvol n Vg . Other
types of losses (sealing, bearing, fluid internal and wall friction) are all concentrated into the so-called
hydromechanical efficiency ηhm , which connects the input and output power: Pin ηhm = Pout . For pumps,
Pin = M ω and Pout = Q∆p. We have:
2πM ηhm
2πn = nVg ηvol ∆p
ηhm M |{z} → ∆ppump = (5.9)
| {z } Vg ηvol
ω
| {z } | Q{z }
Pin
Pout

In the case of motors, the input power is hydraulic power (Pin = Q∆p) and the output is rotating mechanical
power Pout = M ω. Due to the internal leakage, one has to ’push’ more fluid into the pump to experience
the same revolution number, hence Q = Qth /ηvol > Qth . We have:
nVg 2πM ηvol
ηhm ∆p = M |{z}
2πn → ∆pmotor = (5.10)
ηvol Vg ηhm
|{z} ω
Q
| {z }
| {z } Pout
Pin

theoretical @ n1
H (~Δp) pump @ n2 pump @ n1

motor @ n2 motor @ n1

n <n
2 1

n1

Figure 5.8: Pump and motor performance curves for two different revolution mubers.

We conclude that for both pumps and motors,

1
Q ∝ n, Vg and ∆p ∝ M, .
Vg
(5.11)
Fluid Machinery 45

Which means that the pressure and the flow rate are independent for a given machine. The same behaviour
can be observed on the performances curve of these machines, see Figure 5.8. The theoetical performance
lines are vertical for a given revolution speed, meaning that the theoretical flow rate does not change when
varying the pressure.
However, the leakage flow rate through the small internal gaps of the pumps (motors) slighty change ths
theoretical behaviour. In the case of pumps, a portion of the flow rate flows back from the pressure side
to the suction side through these gaps, hence reducing the outflow of the pump. The higher the pressure
difference is, the higher the leakage flow rate is, hence the pump performance curves tend to ‘bend to the
left’ from the vertical, theoretical line. In the case of motors, where the fluid drives the shaft, we need larger
flow rates to reach the desired revolution number, hence the real curves ‘bend to the right’.
Fluid Machinery 46

5.2 Reciprocating Pumps

Piston/plunger pumps comprise of a cylinder with a reciprocating piston/plunger in it. In the head of the
cylinder the suction and discharge valves are mounted. In the suction stroke the plunger retracts and the
suction valves opens causing suction of fluid into the cylinder. In the forward stroke the plunger push the
liquid out the discharge valve.
With only one cylinder the fluid flow varies between maximum flow when the plunger moves through the
middle positions, and zero flow when the plunger is in the end positions. A lot of energy is wasted when
the fluid is accelerated in the piping system. Vibration and ”water hammers” may be a serious problem. In
general the problems are compensated by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each other.
Several cylinders can be mounted to the same shaft: pumps with 1 cylinder are called simplex pumps, duplex
pumps have two cylinders (with π phase shift) while triplex pumps have three pumps with 2π/3 = 120
degrees phase shift. Pumps with even more pistons (5,7,9) are also common. Pumps with both sides of the
piston acting (deing in contact with the liquied) are called double-acting pumps.

5.2.1 Single-acting piston pumps

Outlet

Inlet

Figure 5.9: Single-acting piston pump

Consider the piston pump depicted in Figure 5.9. First, let us find the x(t) displacement of the piston as a
function of time. By virtue of the cosine law, we have
p
L2 = R2 + y(t)2 − 2Ry(t) cos ϕ → y(t) = R cos ϕ ± L2 + R2 (1 − cos2 ϕ) (5.12)

with ϕ = ωt. Notice that if ϕ = 0, we must have y(0) = R + L, hence we need the ’plus’ case in the above
equation. The piston displacement is
  p 
x(t) = y(t) − y(π) = R 1 + cos ϕ − λ−1 1 − 1 + λ2 (1 − cos2 ϕ) , (5.13)

with λ = R/L. Now consider the terms in the bracket.√ First, 1 + cos ϕ varies between 0 and 2. The second
term varies between 0 (cos ϕ = ±1) and λ−1 1 − 1 + λ2 (cos ϕ = 0), which gives 0.2361, 0.099 and 0.0499

for λ = R/L = 1/2, 1/5 and 1/10, respectively. Hence we conclude that if λ < 0.2 (which s trus for many
real-life configurations), the error due to neglecting the λ−1 (. . . ) term is less than 10%, which is acceptable.
Fluid Machinery 47

Hence we approximate the piston displacement as

x(t) ≈ R (1 + cos (ωt)) , v(t) ≈ −Rω sin (ωt) and a(t) ≈ −Rω 2 cos (ωt) . (5.14)

As flow rate is Q = Av and the stroke is s = 2R, the instantaneous pressure side flow rate is (see also Figure
5.10) (
A 2s ω cos(ωt) if π < ϕ = ωt < 2π
Q(t) = (5.15)
0 if 0 < ϕ = ωt < π
The mean flow rate is computed by finding the volume of the fluid pushed to the pressure side in one period,
divided by the length of the period:
Qmean = Asn, (5.16)
that is, we have Vg = As, see (5.8). The maximum flow rate is (see (5.15))
s
Qmax = A ω = πAsn = πQmean . (5.17)
2

x(t)
s/2

T 2T
t

-s/2

Q(t)
Aωs/2

T 2T
t

-Aωs/2

Figure 5.10: Piston displacement (upper panel) and flow rate (∝ velocity) curves of a single-acting piston
pump.

Notice that this means that these pumps induce an extremely unsteady flow rate in the pipeline system,
that varies from Qmin = 0 flow rate up to Qmax = πQmean with a frequency of n (driving motor revolution
number). There are two ways of reducing this pulsation: (a) by using multiple pistons or (b) adding a
pulsation damper.
Fluid Machinery 48

5.2.2 Multiple piston pumps

The pulsation can be reduced by adding several pistons with an evenly distributed phase shift, see e.g. Figure
5.11.

Outlet

Inlet

Figure 5.11: Double-acting piston pump

If we have three pistons (triplex), the flow rates are

Q1 (t) = max(0, Asnπ cos(ωt))

2π
Q2 (t) = max(0, Asnπ cos(ωt − )) and
3
2π
Q3 (t) = max(0, Asnπ cos(ωt − 2 × )).
3
The overall flow rate is Q(t) = Q1 (t) + Q2 (t) + Q3 (t). Let us define the pulsation factor measuring the
relative flow rate change as
Qmax − Qmin
δ= [%]. (5.18)
Qmean
For example, for a single-acting pump we have
Qmax − Qmin πQmean − 0
δ= = = π = 314 % (5.19)
Qmean Qmean

Similar calculation for other number of pistons gives the values in Table 5.1. Figure 5.12 depicts the flow
rate for several numbers of pistons, where dashed lines are the individual flow rates while solid lines are the
pump flow rate (sum of the piston flow rates) and the pulsation factor as a function of the piston number.
Notice that if the number of pistons is odd (e.g. 3,5,7,9), the pulsation number is significantly lower.

Number of pistons 1 2 3 4 5 9
δ% 315 157 14 33 5 1.5

Table 5.1: Flow rate pulsation level as a function of the piston number.
Fluid Machinery 49

N=1 N=2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T
N=3 N=4
1
1
0.5
0 0
0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T
N=5 N=6
2
1 1
0 0
0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T
N=7 N=8

2 2
1
0 0
0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T
3
10
pulsation factor [%]

2
10

1
10

0
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number of pistons

Figure 5.12: Pulsation factor as a function of the piston number.

Fluid Machinery 50

5.2.3 Axial piston pumps

An axial piston pump is a positive displacement pump that has a number of pistons in a circular array within
a cylinder block. It can be used as a stand-alone pump, a hydraulic motor or an automotive air conditioning
compressor. Axial piston pumps are used to power the hydraulic systems of jet aircrafts, being gear-driven
off of the turbine engine’s main shaft. The system used on the F-14 used a 9-piston pump that produced a
standard system operating pressure of 3000 psi and a maximum flow of 84 gallons per minute. Advantages:

• high efficiency
• high pressure (up to 1,000 bar)

• low flow and pressure ripple (due to the small dead volume in the workspace of the pumping piston)
• low noise level
• high reliability

Axial piston units are available in the form of pumps and motors in bent axis design or swashplate design
for medium- and high-pressure ranges. They are the main components in the hydrostatic transmission.
Compact size and high power density, economy and reliability are characteristic advantages which speak for
the use of hydrostatic transmissions, together with the fact that they meet the demand for high speed and
high torque, as well as optimum efficiency.

Figure 5.13: Axial piston pump

5.2.4 Radial piston pumps

In a radial piston pump the working pistons extend in a radial direction symmetrically around the drive
shaft, in contrast to the axial piston pump. These kinds of piston pumps are characterized by the following
advantages:

• high efficiency
• high pressure (up to 1,000 bar)
• low flow and pressure ripple (due to the small dead volume in the workspace of the pumping piston)
• low noise level

• very high load at lowest speed due to the hydrostatically balanced parts possible
Fluid Machinery 51

• no axial internal forces at the drive shaft bearing

• high reliability

A disadvantage are the bigger radial dimensions in comparison to the axial piston pump, but it could be
compensated with the shorter construction in axial direction.
Due to the hydrostatically balanced parts it is possible to use the pump with various hydraulic fluids like
mineral oil, biodegradable oil, HFA (oil in water), HFC (water-glycol), HFD (synthetic ester) or cutting
emulsion. That implies the following main applications for a radial piston pump: machine tools (e.g.,
displace of cutting emulsion, supply for hydraulic equipment like cylinders)

• high pressure units (HPU) (e.g., for overload protection of presses)

• test rigs

• automotive sector (e.g., automatic transmission, hydraulic suspension control in upper-class cars)
• plastic- and powder injection moulding
• wind energy

Figure 5.14: Radial piston pump

5.2.5 Diaphragm pumps

A diaphragm pump (also known as a membrane pump) is a positive displacement pump that uses a combi-
nation of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or teflon diaphragm and suitable valves either
side of the diaphragm (check valve, butterfly valves, flap valves, or any other form of shut-off valves) to
pump a fluid. The advantages of these pumps are:

• They provide leakage-free sealing, which can be important when pumping highly aggressive or toxic
fluids.

• They have good suction lift characteristics, some are low pressure pumps with low flow rates; others
are capable of higher flow rates, dependent on the effective working diameter of the diaphragm and its
stroke length.
• They can handle sludges and slurries with a relatively high amount of grit and solid content.

• Suitable for discharge pressure up to 1200 bar

Fluid Machinery 52

• They have good dry running characteristics.

• Good efficiency (can be up to 97%)
• Can handle highly viscous liquids.

However, as they are single (or sometimes double-acting) piston pumps, these pumps cause a pulsating flow
that may cause water hammer, which can be minimised by using a pulsation dampener.

Figure 5.15: Diaphragm pump

Fluid Machinery 53

5.3 Rotary pumps

5.3.1 Gear pumps

This is the simplest of rotary positive displacement pumps consisting of two meshed gears rotating in a
closely fitted casing. Fluid is pumped around the outer periphery by being trapped in the tooth spaces. It
does not travel back on the meshed part, since the teeth mesh closely in the centre. It is widely used on car
engine oil pumps, and also in various hydraulic power packs.
There are two main variations; external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear
pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either
a motor or a pump.

Figure 5.16: (left) external gear pump (right) internal gear pump

External gear pumps

Advantages:

• High speed
• High pressure
• Relatively quiet operation

Disadvantages:

• Four bushings in liquid area

• No solids allowed
• Fixed end clearances

Common external gear pump applications include, but are not limited to:

• Various fuel oils and lube oils

• Chemical additive and polymer metering
• Chemical mixing and blending (double pump)
• Industrial and mobile hydraulic applications (log splitters, lifts, etc.)
• Acids and caustic (stainless steel or composite construction)
Fluid Machinery 54

Internal gear pumps

Advantages:

• Only two moving parts

• Only one stuffing box
• Non-pulsating discharge
• Excellent for high-viscosity liquids
• Operates well in either directions
• Low NPSH required
• Single adjustable end clearance
• Easy to maintain

Disadvantages:

• Usually requires moderate speeds

• Medium pressure limitations
• One bearing runs in the product pumped

Common internal gear pump applications include, but are not limited to:

• All varieties of fuel oil and lube oil

• Resins and polymers
• Alcohols and solvents
• Asphalt, bitumen, and tar
• Food products such as corn syrup, chocolate, and peanut butter
• Paint, inks, and pigments
• Soaps and surfactants
• Glycol

5.3.2 Screw pump

Screw pumps feature two or three screws with opposing thread, that is, one screw turns clockwise, and the
other counterclockwise. The screws are each mounted on shafts that run parallel to each other; the shafts
also have gears on them that mesh with each other in order to turn the shafts together and keep everything
in place. The turning of the screws, and consequently the shafts to which they are mounted, draws the
fluid through the pump. As with other forms of rotary pumps, the clearance between moving parts and the
pump’s casing is minimal.
Advantages:

• Practically pulsation-free flow

• low fluid velocities → not sensitive for e.g. sand content

Disadvantages:

• Expensive
Fluid Machinery 55

Figure 5.17: (left) simple screw pump (right) double-screw pump used for pumping crude oil

5.3.3 Vane pump

Advantages:

• Handles thin liquids at relatively higher pressures

• Sometimes preferred for solvents, LPG
• Can run dry for short periods

• Develops good vacuum

Disadvantages:

• Not suitable for high pressures

• Not suitable for high viscosity
• Not good with abrasives

Applications:

• Aerosol and Propellants

• Aviation Service - Fuel Transfer, Deicing

• Auto Industry - Fuels, Lubes, Refrigeration Coolants

• Bulk Transfer of LPG and NH3
• LPG Cylinder Filling
• Alcohols

• Refrigeration - Freons, Ammonia

Fluid Machinery 56

Figure 5.18: Vane pump

5.3.4 Progressing cavity pump (eccentric screw pump)

Widely used for pumping difficult materials such as sewage sludge contaminated with large particles, this
pump consists of a helical shaped rotor, about ten times as long as its width. This can be visualized as a
central core of diameter x, with typically a curved spiral wound around of thickness half x, although of course
in reality it is made from one casting. This shaft fits inside a heavy duty rubber sleeve, of wall thickness
typically x also. As the shaft rotates, fluid is gradually forced up the rubber sleeve. Such pumps can develop
very high pressure at quite low volumes.

Figure 5.19: Progressive cavity pump.

5.3.5 Peristaltic pump

A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid
is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have
been made). A rotor with a number of ”rollers”, ”shoes” or ”wipers” attached to the external circumference
compresses the flexible tube. As the rotor turns, the part of the tube under compression closes (or ”occludes”)
thus forcing the fluid to be pumped to move through the tube. Additionally, as the tube opens to its natural
state after the passing of the cam (”restitution”) fluid flow is induced to the pump. This process is called
peristalsis and is used in many biological systems such as the gastrointestinal tract.
Fluid Machinery 57

Advantages

• No contamination. Because the only part of the pump in contact with the fluid being pumped is the
interior of the tube, it is easy to sterilize and clean the inside surfaces of the pump.
• Low maintenance needs. Their lack of valves, seals and glands makes them comparatively inexpensive
to maintain.

• They are able to handle slurries, viscous, shear-sensitive and aggressive fluids.
• Pump design prevents backflow and syphoning without valves.[5]

Disadvantages

• The flexible tubing will tend to degrade with time and require periodic replacement.

• The flow is pulsed, particularly at low rotational speeds. Therefore, these pumps are less suitable
where a smooth consistent flow is required. An alternative type of positive displacement pump should
then be considered.

Figure 5.20: Peristaltic pump

Fluid Machinery 58

5.3.6 Pulsation dampener

A pulsation dampener is an accumulator with a set pre-charge that absorbs system shocks while minimizing
pulsations, pipe vibration, water hammering and pressure fluctuations. By minimizing pulsation in the
system components like regulators, solenoids, sensors, etc., pumps will see decreased wear and have longer
life. Pulsation dampeners are tied directly onto the discharge manifold or plumbed immediately downstream
of the pump.

Figure 5.21: Pulsation dampener.

The sizing of the dampener goes as follows. The instantaneous and mean flow rate for a single piston pump
is
Qmax
Q(t) = Qmax sin(ωt) and Qmean = , where Qmax = πAD sn. (5.20)
π
PN
The pump flow rate is Qp (t) = i=1 Qi (t), where Qi is the flow rate of the ith piston, i.e. (5.20) shifted
with an angle of φi = (i − 1) 2π/N , N being the number of pistons. The average flow rate of the pump is
Qp,mean = N Qmean .
The flow rate entering the damper is

Qd (t) = Qp (t) − Qp,mean , (5.21)

while the volume of fluid entering (or leaving) the damper up to time t is
Z
Vd (t) = Qd (t)dt. (5.22)

In the case of a single piston, we have

1
0 ≤ t ≤ T2


Qmax sin(ωt) − π if
Qd (t) = T and (5.23)
−Qmax /π if2 ≤t≤T
− ω1 (cos(ωt) − 1) − πt if 0 ≤ t ≤ T2


Qmax
Vd (t) = (5.24)
−tQmax /π if T2 ≤ t ≤ T.

The above expression for Vd also ensures that Vd (0) = 0. Maximum and minimum volume occurs at Qp = 0,
Fluid Machinery 59

i.e.
1 0.3239
ωtmin = arcsin → tmin = T = 0.0516 T. (5.25)
π 2π
1 π − 0.3239
ωtmax = π − arcsin → tmax = T = 0.4484 T. (5.26)
π 2π
The corresponding volumes are

Vmin = −0.0081 Qmax T = −0.0081π Qmean T and Vmin = 0.1673 Qmax T = 0.5256Vstroke , (5.27)
| {z } | {z }
−0.0256 Vstroke

hence the total volume variation on the damper is

∆V = Vmax − Vmin = 0.55Vstroke (5.28)

A similar calculation for a double-acting piston gives

tmin = 0.1098 T, tmax = 0.3902 T and ∆V = Vmax − Vmin = 0.2105Vstroke (5.29)

For pumps with 3 or 4 pistons, the analytical derivation is cumbersome, instead, one can simply plot the
graphs and evaluate the results numerically giving ∆V = 0.009Vstroke for triplex and ∆V = 0.044Vstroke for
four-cylinder pumps, see Figure 5.22. The volume change is given in the percentage of the stroke:

N= 1 2 3 4
∆V = νVstroke , with
ν = 0.55 0.21 0.044 0.009
(5.30)

N=1, dV=55.1% N=2, dV=21.2%

60 60
% of piston stroke

% of piston stroke

40 40

20 20

0 0

−20 −20
0 T/2 T 0 T/2 T

N=3, dV=0.9% N=4, dV=4.3%

60 60
% of piston stroke

% of piston stroke

40 40

20 20

0 0

−20 −20
0 T/2 T 0 T/2 T

Figure 5.22: Volume change in the pressure dampener for different number of pistons.
Fluid Machinery 60

Now let us find the pressure pulsation of the gas due to the fluid volume change ∆V . We start off by defining
the pre-charge pressure ppc (e.g. 80% of system pressure), at which the gas volume is V0 (i.e. the nominal
volume of the damper) and the required level of damping δ = (pmax − pmin )/psys . The corresponding gas
volumes will be Vmax (corresponding to pmin ) and Vmin (corresponding to pmax ). At system pressure, the
g g
the gas volume is Vsys . We also have Vmax = Vmin + ∆V .
Notice that if the process is isotherm (which is usually true in real-life cases), we have)

pmax − pmin ∆p ∆V
δ= = ≈ (5.31)
psys psys Vsys

We also have
V0 V0 V0
pmin = ppc , psys = ppc and pmax = ppc , (5.32)
Vmax Vsys Vmin
and the pressure pulsation level is
∆V νVstroke
δ= = ppc (5.33)
Vsys V0 psys
hence the required dampener volume is
νVstroke
V0 = ppc
psys δ
(5.34)

Example. We have a duplex pump (N = 2, ν = 0.2105) with s = 60mm stroke and D = 63mm diameter.

D2 π
• The stroke volume is Vstroke = 4 s = 0.187 liter
• The precharge pressure is set to 80% of system pressure: ppc /psys = 0.8

• The required level of damping is δ = 5%.

0.2105×0.187
• The nominal dampener volume is V0 = 0.8×0.05 = 0.984 ≈ 1 liter.
Fluid Machinery 61

5.4 Pressure relief valves (PRV)

As we have seen, the flow rate of a PDP is hardly affected by the system pressure, hence even if the flow rate
need of the system is zero, the pump will convey the flow rate into the system. In such cases, the system
pressure quickly rises and, if not vented, some component will break leading to a failure in the system. To
prevent such problems, pressure relief valve (PRV) must are mounted as close to the pump as possible.
These devices open above a set pressure allowing controlled backflow to the the tank. If the system pressure
is below the st pressure, the PRV remains closed and does not affect the system behaviour. There are two
main types:

Direct spring loaded: Usually used for low flow rate.

Pilot operated: High flow rate.

5.4.1 Direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV

Direct spring loaded pressure relief valves (DSLPRV) are simple and robust. The spool is balanced by a
spring (upper side) and the pressure force (lower side). Note that the flow-through area varies with the valve
lift (see Figures 5.23 and 5.24).

spring

spool

Q to system

Figure 5.23: Direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV

The force balance of the spool reads

s (x + x0 ) = A∆p. (5.35)
sx0
The set pressure, at which the valve opens is given by pset = A . In general, the flow rate is Q =
Fluid Machinery 62

xmax
Q
x

ØD

Figure 5.24: Detail of a direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV

p
Cd Af t 2∆p/ρ. However, it should be noted that the flow-through area varies with the valve lift:


 0  q for x<0

 q
Cd Aft (x) 2 ∆p = Cd Dπ A∆p 2
− x0 ρ ∆p for 0 < x < xmax

ρ s
Q(∆p) = | {z } (5.36)

x


 q
2

C Dπx
d max ρ ∆p for x > xmax

Note that in the middle range, we have

r 
A 2 x0 s  p p
Q(∆p) = Cd Dπ ∆p − ∆p ∝ (∆p − pset ) ∆p, (5.37)
s ρ A
that is, it is zero if ∆p = 0 and ∆p = pset . Moreover, for 0 ≤ ∆p ≤ pset this function is negative, for
∆p > pset , the flow rate is proportional to ∆p3/2 . The actual plot is shown in Figure 5.26.

Q ( p-pset) p

p
xmax

Δpset Δp

Figure 5.25: Q(∆p) curve of a direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV

√
∆p in normal operation: ∆p · ∆p = ∆p3/2 → it is between ∆p . . . ∆p3/2 . . . ∆p2 The usual way of plotting
the characteristic curve is inverse (also in catalogue): Note: ∆pstatic ≈ (0.01 . . . 0.1)∆pset .

Dynamic error

When it opens quickly. Note: ∆pdyn can be 2 . . . 3 times bigger than ∆pset .
Fluid Machinery 63

Δp

Δpstatic error
Δpset
normal operation overload

Qnominal Q

Figure 5.26: Inverse Q(∆p) curve of a direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV

Δp

dynamic error

Δpset

Figure 5.27: Dynamic error of a direct spring loaded hydraulic PRV

Sizing of a pressure relief valve

Qpump,max < QPRV,max (5.38)

Examples

Hydraulic aggregate Pump and PRV.

In gas systems Natural gas industry.

Fluid Machinery 64

Figure 5.28: Standard symbol of PRV

Qsystem

Qpump Qvalve

Figure 5.29: Hydraulic aggregate

Δp

Qpump Q

Figure 5.30: 19 caption

Fluid Machinery 65

Δp

Good Bad

Q
Figure 5.31: 20 caption

to system

from reservoir

Figure 5.32: PRV used in natural gas industry

Fluid Machinery 66

5.4.2 Pilot operated pressure relief valve

As Qnominal increases, the static error also increases. In this case we can use pilot operated PRV.
Δp

Δpstat. error

Figure 5.33: Static error of a direct spring loaded PRV

 r
A∆p 2
Q = Cd Dπ − x0 ∆p (5.39)
s ρ

Let Qnominal be given: Q at ∆pmax

∆pset be given: ∆pset = sx
A
0

If higher flow rate is needed: increase D.

sx0 sx0
= D2 π = ∆pset (5.40)
A 4
Increase s (stiffer spring)) or x0 (higher precompression) to keep ∆pset as constant value.
However the slope of the curve in the normal operation:
 2 r
D3 3 p
 
d d D π 2 3/2
Q= Cd Dπ 4 ∆p ∼ ∆p (5.41)
d∆p d∆p s
ρ s 2
and s ∼ D2 .

sx0
1st choise Let s ∼ D2 . ∆pset = D2 π
remains constant. Slope ∼ static error ∼ D.
4

2nd choise s is constant x0 ∼ D2 → slope ∼ D3 . Too high static error! Solution: pilot operated PRV.

Operating progress of the valve

Pressure drops because of the fixed orifice → the spool moves upwards → it opens the main opening.

Important details

– Right location of the soft and hard springs

– Fixed orifice
Fluid Machinery 67

main, hard spring

pilot

soft spring
fixed orifice

main opening

Q to system

spool

pump

Figure 5.34: Pilot operated PRV

5.5 Sizing of simple hydraulic systems

Fluid Machinery 68

5.5.1 System with motor

Figure 5.35: Hydraulic aggregate with motor

User data: Mmotor , nmotor

Sizing: Vg,pump , pset , Vg,motor , control

Example for a system with motor

Mmotor = 100 Nm, nmotor = 1500 rpm

Motor
Q∆pηhm = M 2πn (5.42)
∆p ∼ M and Q ∼ n → Vg
From catalogue: ∆p = 280 bar → size: 23 → Mmotor = 105 Nm and Vg = 23.5 cm3

Qmotor = Vg nmotor = 23.5 × 10−3 l/min × 1.5 × 103 1/min = 35.25 l/min (5.43)

Output of the sizing: ∆p, Q. In this calculation η ∼

= 1.

5.5.2 System with cylinder

Figure 5.36: Hydraulic aggregate with cylinder

User data: F , v
D
Sizing: Vg,pump , pset , d, control

D
Piston control valve From catalogue: Vg,pump , Vg,motor , d
Fluid Machinery 69

Figure 5.37: Symbol of the piston control valve

from pump to system

Figure 5.38: Piston control valve with cylinder

Example for a system with cylinder

Mmotor = 100 Nm, nmotor = 1500 rpm

nVg ∆p = M 2πn (5.44)
M 2πn 2πM 2π100 2π100
∆p = = = = = 220 bar (5.45)
nVg Vg Vg 28.5 × 10−6
Q = Vg nmotor = 28.5 × 1.5 = 42.75 l/min (5.46)
Pick size 28. The aggregate should provide this flow rate at the ∆p pressure.

Pump Driving motor speed: npump = 3000 rpm

Qpump 28.5 l/min

Qpump = npump Vg,pump → Vg,pump = = = 14.25 cm3 (5.47)
npump 3000 rpm

Pick Vg,pump = 16 cm3 . With the new value:

Qpump = npump Vg,pump = 3000 rpm × 16 cm3 = 48 l/min (5.48)

Set pressure of the PRV 120 % of the highest expected system pressure.

pset := 1.2 × 220 = 264 bar (5.49)

Qnom,PRV > 42.8 l/min (capacity of PRV).

5.5.3 Control techniques

– Throttle valve in parallel connection
– Throttle valve in series connection
Fluid Machinery 70

– Frequency converter
– Special pump: variable displacement motor, variable Vg
– Motor speeed (n) changing

Throttle valve in parallel connection

Qp Qv Qm

Figure 5.39: System with throttle valve in parallel connection

∆p is the same. PRV is closed.

Throttle valve in series connection

Δpv

Δpm

Figure 5.40: System with throttle valve in series connection

Q is the same. PRV is open.

5.6 Problems
Problem 5.6.36
Calculate the hydraulic power of the double-acting piston pump, which delivers water from an open-surface
tank into a closed one with 500[kP a] gauge pressure (i.e. relative pressure) located 50[m] above the suction
tank. Diameter of the piston is D = 120[mm], the stroke is 150[mm] and the driving motor runs at 120[rpm].
Solution:
0.122 π 3
Qmean = 2 × Apiston × s × n = 2 × 4 × 0.15 × 120
60 = 6.78 × 10−3 [ ms ]
∆p = ptank,abs. − p0 + ρgH = ptank,rel. + ρgH = 991[kP a]
Fluid Machinery 71

P = Q∆p = 6.72[kW ]

Problem 5.6.37
The characteristic curve of a gear pump is Q[dm3 /min] = 11.93 − 0.0043∆p[bar]. The volumetric efficiency
at 35bar pressure difference is 92%. Find the volume flow rate and the geometric volume! The shaft speed is
80rev/min. How large is the driving torque if the pump efficiency is 85%? (Solution: Q = 11.78 dm3 /min,
Vg = 160 cm3 , M = 96.5 N m)

Problem 5.6.38
The piston diameter of a hydraulic cylinder is 50mm. An 800kg load is lifted by the piston rod of 20mm
diameter with 12m/min velocity. How large must be the flow rate Q of the gear pump rotating with
n = 960/min speed if its volumetric efficiency is 92%? Find the geometric volume of the pump and the
pressure rise produced by it! Find the power P and the torque M of the driving motor! The pump efficiency
is 74%. Prepare a sketch of the gear pump showing the rotation direction of the shafts, intake and delivery
ports! How large will be P , M , Q if the rotor speed is n = 1440/min? (Solution: Qg = 21.5 dm3 /min,
Vg = 22.4 cm3 , ∆p = 47.6 bar, P = 2.12 kW , M = 21.1 N m, P1440 = 3.18 kW , Q1440 = 32.25 dm3 /min,
M1440 = 21.1 N m)

Problem 5.6.39
The piston diameter of a vertical hydraulic cylinder is supporting a mass of 700kg. It may not be lowered
faster than 64mm/s. The cylinder diameter is 50mm, the piston rod diameter is 28mm. The pump delivery
curve is Q[liter/min] = 8.6 − 0.0467∆p[bar]. The hydraulic oil of 970kg/m3 density leaves the cylinder
through a throttle valve. The discharge coefficient of this valve is µ = 0.7. Find the valve area at the
maximal opening! (Solution: Amax = 1.354 mm2 )
Chapter 6

Hydro- and wind power

6.1 Problems
Problem 6.1.40
The cross-section of a plant water channel is given. The measured average water depth is h = 2.9 m, the
width of the channel is B = 25 m. The velocity of the water flow is measured at several locations of the cross-
section using a cup-type anemometer. The calculated average velocity is v = 0.4 m/s. The height difference
between the upstream and downstream water depth at the dam is hupstream − hdownstream = 4.5 m. The
efficiency of the turbine is ηturbine = 90 % the efficiency of the generator is ηgenerator = 96 %. The input
power and useful power of the power plant are to be calculated. What is the value of the hydraulic radius?
What type of turbine is suitable for this power plant?
Solution:

• A = hB = 72.5 m2
• Q = Av = 29 m3 /s
• H = hupstream − hdownstream = 4.5 m
• P input = QρgH = 1.28 MW

• P usef ul = ηturbine ηgenerator P input = 1.106 MW

Area Bh
• Rh = P erimeter = 2h+B
= 2.35 m

Turbine type: Kaplan turbine.

Problem 6.1.41
The instantaneous efficiency of an existing wind turbine is to be calculated. The measured average wind
speed at the level of the rotor is v 1 = 12 m/s. The average speed of the air behind the rotor is v 3 = 8 m/s.
The diameter of the rotor is D2 = 55 m, the density of the air is ρair = 1.2 kg/m3 . Find the calculated
efficiency related to the theoretical maximum of the efficiency?
Solution:

• ∆v = v 1 − v 3 = 4 m/s

72
Fluid Machinery 73

D22 π
• A2 = 4 = 2376 m2
v 21
• P input = ρair A2 v 1 2 = 2.463 MW
 2
∆v ∆v
• P usef ul = ρair A2 v 31 1 − 2v 1 v1 = 1.140 MW

P usef ul 16
• η = CP = P input
= 0.463 < 27 = 0.593

Problem 6.1.42
How large is the power of a wind turbine of 30m rotor diameter if the wind speed is 8m/s? The Betz limit
of the power coefficient Cp is 0.593.