Foundation on Clay and Plastic Silts

Introduction:
 The bearing capacity depends primarily on the shearing resistance of the soil.
 When the load is first applied to footings on saturated clay, it produces excess pore water pressure
which, if the clay is at least fairly impermeable, does not quickly dissipate. Hence, for at least a
short time after loading, undrained conditions prevail and the Φ=0° is applicable.
 Shearing strength, S = c + p tanΦ
q
For clay and saturated soil, c= 2u and S = c
Here, c = undrained shear strength and qu = unconfined compressive strength
 Cohesive soils are those of which Liquid Limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) can be determined.
Assumptions of Tarzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory:
1. Soil is homogeneous, isotropic.
2. Soil extends to infinity horizontally and extends to depth
vertically downward (Half-space).
3. Shear strength of soil (considering fully saturated) is given

Stress
by S=c.
4. Idealized stress strain relationship is assumed.
5. Shear strength of the soil above the foundation (Df ) level is
neglected but weight of the soil is considered. Strain
Footing on Clay:
Ultimate bearing capacity is the maximum load that can be applied on a footing under which shear
failure of soil will occur. It is the average stress under the footing which causes shear failure of
surrounding soil. It is given by,
Pu
q′d =
A
Where, Pu =failure load, A = area of footing and q′d = gross ultimate bearing capacity
Figure.18.l (a) represents a cross section through a long footing with width B, resting at depth Df
below the ground surface. The quantity Df is known as the depth of foundation or surcharge depth.
The soil beneath the base of the footing consists of intact clay without structural defects such as
slickensides or cracks, and the degree of saturation is practically unity.

If the footing illustrated in Fig.18.1 (a) fails, a wedge of soil Ocbde, as shown on the left side of the
figure, must be displaced upward and to the left. The weight of the wedge and the shearing strength of
the soil Ocbd tend to resist failure.
It is assumed, as illustrated on the right side of Fig.18.l (a), that the influence of the soil above the
base level of the footing can be replaced by a uniform surcharge γDf. Theory and experiment then
indicate that the surface of sliding consists of a circular section Oc' and a straight section which rises
at 45° to the horizontal.
All the forces acting on the sliding mass Oc'b'a' are shown in the figure. The condition that these
forces must be in equilibrium can be used to evaluate the ultimate bearing capacity, q′d (or gross
ultimate bearing capacity).
The normal forces across the surface of sliding can produce no frictional shearing resistance on
account of the postulated condition that Φ = O.
On the other hand, a shearing resistance c per unit of area
acts along the surface to oppose the sliding. The results
of the evaluation lead to the expression,
q′d = cNc + γDf
The net ultimate bearing capacity qd is defined as the
pressure that can be supported at the base of the footing
in excess of that at the same level due to the surrounding
surcharge; hence
qd = q′d − γDf ⇒ qd = cNc
Here, Nc = bearing capacity factor which is
dimensionless.
The value of Nc for a footing varies somewhat with the
ratio of the width B to the length L, and with the depth of
surcharge Df , as indicated in Fig. 18.2 (Skempton, 1951).
D
For any given value of f , Fig.18.2 shows that the
B
bearing capacity factor for circular and square footings is
approximately 1.2 times the corresponding value for a
long continuous footing. A straight- line interpolation
may be used for rectangular footings having intermediate
values of B/L.
Safe Soil Pressure:
Under dead load plus the maximum live loads that can
normally be expected, the factor of safety against a
bearing capacity failure should be on the order of 3. The
allowable soil pressure qa may, therefore, be taken as
one third the net ultimate soil pressure qd .
qd cNc qu Nc
qa = ⇒ qa = ⇒ qa =
3 3 6
Where,
qu
qd = cNc and c =
2
This equation and values of Nc from Fig.18.2 provide the
basis for the curves shown in Fig. 18.3. For given values
𝐷
of soil strength and 𝐵𝑓, the net allowable soil pressure qa
for continuous footings may be obtained directly from
the chart. For rectangular footings the chart values are
multiplied by (l + 0.2B/ L); hence, for square or circular
footings increase is 20 per cent. Appropriate adjustments
may made to the chart values for factors of safety other
than 3.
Important Notes:
 The value of qu should represent the average for a depth B below the base of the footing.
 If the clay is not fairly uniform but instead a soft layer is located within depth B below the base of
the footing, the strength of the soft layer is likely to determine the factor of safety of the footings.
 If the strength of the soil decreases with depth, the safety of a large footing may be less than that
of a small one.
 It is often more expedient and sufficiently accurate to assume that the pressure at the base of the
footing spreads out uniformly within the confines of a truncated prism with sides slopping
outward from the edges of the footing at 2 vertical to 1 horizontal.
 Continuous footing beneath exterior basement walls are subjected to unbalanced loading
including earth pressure. If the difference γH in surcharge on the two sides of the footings does
not exceed about 0.5𝑞𝑢 , the unbalanced loading may be neglected.
Rafts on Clay:
Reasons for choosing raft foundations are:
1. When the individual footings become too large and overlaps each other.
2. When the columns are adjacent to property lines.
3. To create space below ground level and use as a basement.
4. When soil is so poor.
By increasing the depth of excavation (increasing the number or depth of basements), the pressure
that can be safely be exerted by the building is correspondingly increased.
Safe soil pressure:
The factor of safety, in terms of net soil pressure,
cNc
F. S. =
q b − γDf
Where, qb = gross soil pressure or contact pressure produce at the base of the raft by the weight of the
building and live load
Q
= A
Where, Q = weight of the footing and live load
A = area of the raft
Fully Compensated Foundation:
Volume of soil removed = ADf
Weight of soil removed, W = 𝛾ADf
W γAD
Contact pressure, qb = A = A f = γDf
Now, Factor of Safety,
cNc cNc cNc
F. S. = = = = ∞
qb − γDf γDf − γDf 0
So, the factor of safety is very large for rafts established at such depth that γDf is nearly equal to 𝑞𝑏 .
When qb = γDf, the raft is said to be a fully compensated foundation.
The theoretical factor of safety against failure of the subsoil under these circumstances is infinite,
provided no uncertainty is involved in the estimate of loads or in the action of γDf.
However, even if γDf is fully effective, an increase in the gross soil pressure q b , possibly caused by
unanticipated additional loads on the raft, reduces the degree of compensation.
The decrease in the factor of safety, moreover, is out of proportion to the increase in loads.
D
Note: The determination of Df is a trial procedure. However, the first trial is assumed based on 𝐵f and
is ordinarily sufficiently accurate.
Piers on Clay:
Piers are also known as Open pier, Open Caisson, Well foundation, Bored pile, Cast-in-situ pile, and
Drilled pier.
Method of Construction:
1. Rotary Drilling Method
2. Percussion Method
Net Ultimate and Safe Soil Pressure:
For piers, however, the ratio of depth of foundation to base width is large; usually it exceeds 4.
𝐷𝑓
According to Fig, 18.2, if the ratio 𝐵 is equal to or greater than 4, it has no influence on the bearing
capacity factor Nc . For piers, therefore, the net ultimate pressure 𝑞𝑑 may be expressed as,
B
qd = 7.5c (1 + 0.2 )
L
𝑞
If the pier is square or circular, if c is taken as the undrained shear strength equal to 𝑢 , and if a factor
2
of safety of 3 is desired, the above equation becomes,
𝑞𝑎 = 1.5𝑞𝑢
The values obtained from this equation are equal to
1.2 times those obtained from figure-18.3 along the
𝐷
line 𝑓.
𝐵
Skin Friction:
Piers are established in bored holes deep enough to
develop sufficient skin friction to support a large
portion of the load. The amount of skin friction that
can be relied on depends on several factors,
including the,
1. shearing strength of the undisturbed clay;
2. the extent to which the clay becomes
softened by absorbing water from the
atmosphere, from the drilling operations,
and from the concrete cast in the hole;
3. the degree of remolding associated with
drilling;
4. the presence or absence of a skin or smear zone of remolded clay on the walls of the hole.
Smear effect is known as the change in properties of soil due to cutting of edges.
The ultimate skin friction 𝑐𝑎 per unit of area may be taken as,
𝑐𝑎 = 𝛼1 𝑐
Where, 𝛼1 = 0.3~0.5, usually taken as 0.45
= 0.55 as AASHTO value
c = undrained shear strength of the undisturbed clay averaged over the height of the shaft
Because of the possibility of softening, the value of 𝑐𝑎 should not be allowed to exceed about 1
ton/ft2. The total load resulting from skin friction may be computed by multiplying 𝑐𝑎 by the surface
area of the sides of the pier shaft.
Total skin friction = α1 c × Asurface
Base Resistance:
The base resistance/end bearing may be determined from the ultimate pressure at the base of the pier
multiplied the area of the base of pier shaft.
End bearing = cNc × Atip
When the skin friction along the shaft is utilized to support even a small portion of the load, Df should
be taken as zero in the determination of Nc (in the equation qd = cNc and figure 18.2) because the
clay surrounding the pier cannot furnish upward skin friction and at the same time be effective as a
downward surcharge.
The Total Ultimate Capacity:
The Total Ultimate Capacity of a pier may be
obtained by adding the total skin friction to the
ultimate resistance of clay at the base of the pier. So,
ultimate capacity of pier embeded in a clay soil
= α1 c × Asurface + cNc × Atip
The factor of safety against the failure of piers on
clay should be equal to 3 under the maximum
conditions of loading that may normally be expected,
and should not be less than 2 under the most severe
combinations of loading.
Since the net pressure is a function of the total weight
of the pier, a hollow pier is often advantageous.
Based on load carrying mechanism piles are of two
types:
1. Friction Piles: Friction is more, piles on clay.
2. End Bearing Piles: End bearing is more, piles in
rock.
Piles in Clay:
If the subsoil consists of clay too weak or too
compressible to support footings or a raft, the weight
of the structure may be transferred to piles.
Experience has demonstrated that the driving
resistance of friction piles in clay is likely to be low
because of the disturbance of the Structure of the clay,
where- as after driving the strength may increase
markedly over a period of time. The gain in strength
or freeze may be caused partly by thixotropic
processes and partly by consolidation of the high
stressed clay immediately surrounding the piles.
For cylindrical piles, the ultimate bearing capacity is
approximately,
Q = α2 cπdL
Where, Q = ultimate pile capacity, tons, c =
undrained shear strength = qu /2, tons/ft2
α2 = reduction coefficient, d = diameter of
pile, ft. and L = length of pile, ft.
The reduction factor α2 accounts for the disturbance
of the clay due to pile driving and for several other
factors. Values can be approximated from Fig. 18.7. From the figure it may be seen that α2 decreases
with increasing stiffness of the clays into which the piles are driven. In good soil, the bore-hole
created by digging is larger, so the value of α2 is less which decreases the capacity of pile. The
scenario is reverse in case of weak soil.
Capacity of Pile Group or Cluster:
Friction piles are commonly driven in groups or clusters beneath individual footings or as single large
groups beneath mats or rafts. The bearing capacity of a pile cluster can be determined based on two
types of action:
1. Individual action
2. Group action Whichever is less
Individual Action:
Bearing capacity of pile group = Number of piles × Bearing capacity of per pile
Group Action:
Figure 18.9 shows a cluster of friction piles in a deep clay subsoil. The piles are connected at the top
by a rigid cap. If they fail, they must fail as a group, and the failure is likely to occur along a surface
such as that indicated by the dashed line. The area of the surface corresponds approximately to the
product of the perimeter of the pile group and the length of the piles. The ultimate load that can be
supported by the group is derived from two sources.
I. The total shearing resistance of the soil around the boundary of the pile group = PLc
Where, P = perimeter of the pile group
L = length of embedment
c = undrained shear strength
So, the total skin friction = α2 c × Asurface = α2 c × PL
II. The capacity of the base that is, bearing capacity of the soil on the plane area of the group at
the level of the tips of the piles.
πd2
So, End bearing = 𝑐Nc × Atip = cNc × ( 4
)
Note:
D
I. For determination of Nc in case of piles, consider f = 0 while using figure-18.2.
B
II. For long piles in small groups, the base capacity is small compared to the shearing strength of
the soil surrounding the pile group.
III. As the number of piles increases, the bearing area under the group increases much faster than
the shearing surface around the group.
IV. The pile spacing that utilizes the full capacity of each pile can be found easily by trial. A
spacing of three times the diameter of the piles is commonly selected as the trial spacing and
checked against the criterion that the sum of the shearing and bearing capacities of the group
of piles must be at least equal to the capacity of a single pile multiplied by the number of piles
in the group.
V. The greatest benefits from a friction pile foundation are obtained if the length of the piles is as
great as possible within the limits of economy.
VI. In the investigation of group action, the reduction factor, α2 = 1.
VII. When pile is driven nearer than 3D, the soil gets compacted and increases c, so capacity
increases. But, for bored piles/drilled caisson, capacity reduces.
Negative Skin Friction or Downward Drag:
If a pile cluster is surrounded by a fresh fill after the piles are driven, it is likely that the compressible
materials above the bearing stratum will settle progressively for a considerable time because of the
weight of the fill. Under these conditions, the piles may be acted on by the additional force due to the
skin friction of the subsiding material, known as the negative skin friction or downward drag. In this
case, the weight of the soil within the pile cluster is also likely to be transferred to the piles. The load
𝐴𝛾𝐻
per pile increased still further, by an additional amount approximately equal to 𝑁 .
𝐴𝛾𝐻
So, Extra load on pile = 𝑁
Where, A = area of the soil within a horizontal section bounded by the perimeter of the cluster
γ = unit weight of the fill
H = height of the fill
n = number of piles in the cluster

Uplift Resistance of Piles in Clay:

The resistance to uplift of a single pile
or of a group of piles in plastic clay is
governed by the same considerations
that apply to the safe downward load
on friction piles; the bearing capacity
of the soil at the points of the piles, of
course, does not contribute to uplift
resistance.
Uplift capacity of a pile = skin friction
+ weight of pile
Uplift capacity of a pile group = skin friction + weight of pile cap + weight of soil above pile cap
Settlement of Foundation Underlain by Clay:
Foundation design has two parts:
1. Bearing Capacity: Shear failure of surrounding soil
2. Settlement: Calculation of settlement and compare with allowable settlement values
Allowable settlement is obtained from code and depends on:
1. Types of building: Brick, RCC or Steel
2. Use of building: residential, Commercial or Silo
3. Type of soil: Clay or Sand
4. Type of foundation: Footing or Raft
Calculation of Settlement:
There are two types of clay:
1. Normally consolidated clay (N.C.)
2. Over consolidated clay (O.C.)
For normally consolidated clay, settlement,
Cc H ∆P + P0
S=( ) × log10 ( )
1 + e0 P0
Where, Cc = compression index
H = layer thickness
P0 = existing overburden pressure at mid-depth of clay layer = 𝛴(γhmid−depth )
ΔP = change in vertical stress due to foundation load at mid-depth of clay layer (use 2:1
approximation method)
𝑒0 = initial void ratio

For over consolidated clay, if ΔP + P0 < P0′ , then settlement,

Cs H ∆P + P0
S= log10 ( )
1 + e0 P0
If ΔP + P0 > P0′ , then settlement,
𝐶𝑆 𝐻 𝑃0′ 𝐶𝑟 𝐻 ∆𝑃 + 𝑃0
𝑆= log10 ( ) + log10 ( )
1 + 𝑒0 𝑃0 1 + 𝑒0 𝑃0′
Where, Cr = recompression index = Cc
CS = swell index = 10% to 15% of Cc
P0′ = σvmax = Past maximum overburden pressure
Note:
1. For rafts in clay: allowable settlement = 4''
2. For footing in clay: allowable settlement = 2''
3. If the overburden pressure history is not mentioned or no other values are provided, then
consider normally consolidated clay.
4. When clay layer extends to a great depth, calculate settlement for three layers so that the
value of third layer decreases to 10% of settlement of first layer.
5. When natural water content (𝑤𝑛 ) is close to plastic limit (PL or 𝑤𝑝 ) then the clay is over
consolidated clay.
6. When natural water content (𝑤𝑛 ) is close to liquid limit (LL or 𝑤𝐿 ) then the clay is normally
consolidated clay.
𝐋 𝐁
FADUM CHART: Here, 𝐦 = 𝐳 & 𝐧= 𝐳
m/n 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.1 0.005 0.009 0.013 0.017 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.027
0.2 0.009 0.018 0.026 0.033 0.039 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.053
0.3 0.013 0.026 0.037 0.047 0.056 0.063 0.069 0.073 0.077
0.4 0.017 0.033 0.047 0.060 0.071 0.080 0.087 0.093 0.098
0.5 0.020 0.039 0.056 0.071 0.084 0.095 0.103 0.110 0.116
0.6 0.022 0.043 0.063 0.080 0.095 0.107 0.117 0.125 0.131

0.7 0.024 0.047 0.069 0.087 0.103 0.117 0.128 0.137 0.144
0.8 0.026 0.050 0.073 0.093 0.110 0.125 0.137 0.146 0.154
0.9 0.027 0.053 0.077 0.098 0.116 0.131 0.144 0.151 0.162
1.0 0.028 0.055 0.079 0.101 0.120 0.136 0.149 0.160 0.168
1.2 0.029 0.057 0.083 0.106 0.126 0.143 0.157 0.168 0.178
1.5 0.030 0.059 0.086 0.110 0.131 0.149 0.164 0.176 0.186

2.0 0.031 0.061 0.089 0.113 0.135 0.153 0.169 0.181 0.192
2.5 0.031 0.062 0.090 0.115 0.137 0.155 0.170 0.183 0.194
3.0 0.032 0.062 0.090 0.115 0.137 0.156 0.171 0.184 0.195
5.0 0.032 0.062 0.090 0.115 0.137 0.156 0,172 0.185 0.196
10.0 0.032 0.062 0.090 0.115 0.137 0.156 0.172 0.185 0.196
∞ 0.032 0.062 0.090 0.115 0.137 0.156 0.172 0.185 0.196

m/n 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 10.0 ∞

0. 1 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032
0.2 0.055 0.057 0.059 0.061 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.062
0.3 0.079 0.083 0.086 0.089 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090
0.4 0.101 0.106 0.110 0.113 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.ll5 0.115
0.5 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.137 0.137 0.137 0.137 0.137
0.6 0.136 0.143 0.149 0.153 0.155 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156

0.7 0.149 0.157 0.164 0.169 0.170 0.171 0.172 0.172 0.172
0.8 0.160 0.168 0.176 0.181 0.183 0.184 0.185 0.185 0.185
0.9 0.168 0.178 0.186 0.192 0.194 0.195 0.196 0.196 0.196
1.0 0.175 0.185 0.193 0.200 0.202 0.203 0.204 0.205 0.205
1.2 0.185 0.196 0.205 0.212 0.215 0.216 0.217 0.218 0.218
1.5 0.193 0.205 0.215 0.223 0.226 0.228 0.229 0.230 0.230

2.0 0.200 0.212 0.223 0.232 0.236 0.238 0.239 0.240 0.240
2.5 0.202 0.215 0.226 0.236 0.240 0.242 0.244 0.244 0.244
3.0 0.203 0.216 0.228 0.238 0.242 0.244 0.246 0.247 0.247
5.0 0.204 0.217 0.229 0.239 0.244 0.246 0.249 0.249 0.249
10.0 0.205 0.218 0.230 0.240 0.244 0.247 0.249 0.250 0.250
∞ 0.205 0.218 0.230 0.240 0.244 0.247 0.249 0.250 0.250
 𝐋 𝐁
FADUM CHART: Here, 𝐧 = & 𝐦=
𝐳 𝐳
 Foundation on Sand And Non-Plastic Silt
Footings on Sand:
Typical load-settlement relationships for footings of
different widths on the surface of a homogeneous
sand deposit are shown in Fig.19.la. The wider the
footing, the greater the ultimate capacity per unit of
area. However, for a given settlement, S1 , such as 1'',
the soil pressure is greater for a footing of
intermediate width, Bb than for a large footing with a
width Bc , or for a narrow footing with widthBa . The
pressure corresponding to the three widths are
indicated by points b, c & a respectively.
Fig.19.1b, which shows the load q1 per unit of area
corresponding to a given settlement S1 as a function
of the width of the footing. The soil pressure for
settlement S1 increases with increasing width of
footing if the footings are relatively small, reaches a
maximum at an intermediate width, and then
decreases gradually with increasing width.
The relation shown in Fig.19.1b is generally valid for
the behavior of footings on sand, it is influenced,
nevertheless, by several factors including
 The relative density of the sand,
 The depth at which the foundation is
established, and
 The position of the water table.
Furthermore, the shape of the curve suggests that, for
narrow footings, small variations in the actual soil
pressure may lead to large variations in settlement
and in some instances to settlements so large that the
movement would be considered a bearing capacity
failure. The reason is apparent from the shape of the
load-settlement curve for a narrow footing (Fig. 19.
la). On the other hand, a small change in pressure on
a wide footing has little influence on settlements as
small as S1 ; moreover, the value of corresponding to
S1 is far below that which would produce a bearing-
capacity failure of the wide footing.
In figure-19.2, the concave upward portion of the curves similar to the right-hand portion of Fig.
19.1b is replaced by a straight line fg (Fig. 19.2), according to which the soil pressure corresponding
to a settlement S1 is independent of the width of the footing. The error for footings of usual
dimensions is ordinarily less than 10 percent. The steeply ascending left-hand portion of the curves is
replaced by a straight line ef, which lies to the right of the actual curve and thus provides a margin of
safety against a capacity failure.

Gross Ultimate Bearing Capacity:

Figure 19.4 represents a cross section through a long footing with width B, resting at depth Df below
the ground surface on a deep deposit of sand. If the footing fails by breaking into the ground, a zone
aO′a′, within which the sand cannot slip with respect to the base of the footing because of the
roughness of the base, moves downward as a unit. As it moves it displaces the adjacent material.
Consequently, the sand in two symmetrical zones aO′bde, one of which is illustrated on the left side
of Fig.19.4, is subjected to severe shearing distortions and slides outward and upward along the
boundaries O'bd. The movement is resisted by the shearing
strength of the sand along O'bd and the weight of the sand in
the sliding masses.
For calculating the ultimate capacity of a footing under such
circumstances, it is assumed, as illustrated on the right half of
Fig.19.4, that the influence of the soil above the base level of
the footing can be replaced by a uniform surcharge γDf,.
Theory and experiment then indicate that the surface of
sliding consists of a curved portion O′c′ and a straight section
Φ
c′b′ that rises at an angle of (45° − 2 ) with the horizontal.
The load q′d on the footing, the surcharge γDf, and the
weight W of the sliding mass all produce normal stresses
across the surface of sliding O'c'b', which, in turn, develop
frictional shearing resistance along the surface of sliding.
When the mass is on the verge of sliding the resultant R of
the normal and shearing stresses at any point such as f on the
surface of sliding is inclined at the angle Φ to the normal to
the surface of sliding. The wedge O′c′b′a′may be considered
as a free body and its equilibrium investigated to evaluate
qd ′. Various trials must be made to find the surface of sliding
corresponding to the least value of qd ′ that can be developed.
This least value is designated the gross ultimate bearing
capacity.
The results of such studies indicate that the gross ultimate bearing capacity may be expressed as,
1
q′d = BγNγ + γDf Nq
2
And the net ultimate bearing capacity as,
1
qd = q′d − γDf = BγNγ + γDf (Nq − 1)
2
In these equations,Nγ, and Nq, are dimensionless bearing capacity factors depending primarily on Φ.
They may be evaluated by means of the chart, Fig.19.5.
Equation 19.2 demonstrates that the bearing capacity of a footing on sand is derived from two
sources:
1. The frictional resistance due to the weight of the sand below the level of the footing and
2. The frictional resistance due to the weight of the surrounding surcharge or backfill.
In summary, eq. 19.2 shows that the ultimate bearing capacity of a footing on sand depends mainly
on four variables:
1. The position of the water table,
2. The relative density of the sand,
3. The width of the footing, and
4. The depth of the surcharge surrounding the footing.
The above equation for qd can also be expressed as,
γNγ Df
qd = [ + γ(Nq − 1) ] B
2 B
And for a factor of safety = F,
qd γNγ Df B
qa = =[ + γ(Nq − 1) ]
F 2 B F

Design Chart for Footings on Sand:

The considerations of figure-19.3 are:
1. Factor of safety = 2.0
2. Maximum settlement = 1''
The width B in Fig, 19.3 may be taken as the side
of a square footing, the smaller dimension of a
rectangular footing, the width of a long continuous
footing, or the diameter of a circular footing.
The chart applies to shallow footings (Df ≤ B)
resting on a uniform sand for which γ = 100 pcf,
and in which the water table is at too great depth
to influence the behavior of the footings.
The N values must be adjusted for:
1. The influence of overburden pressure
2. Variability of the deposit
3. The influence of water table
For figure-19.3, if settlement governs (S=1'') and
B is large (B=4') then, q a = 0.11 × N tsf.
Correction for Overburden Pressure:
From figure-19.6,
 𝐶𝑁 < 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ̅ 𝑣 > 1.0 &
 𝐶𝑁 > 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ̅ 𝑣 < 1.0
Correction for Water Table:
A rise of the water table from a depth greater than
about B below the base of the footing up to the
top of the surcharge has the effect of reducing the
bearing capacity to about one half its value for
moist, dry, or saturated sand. Therefore,
 If the water level occurs and will remain
at or below a depth Df + B beneath the
ground surface surrounding the footing,
the footing may be proportioned for the
soil pressure taken directly from the chart.
 If the water table is located at or may rise to the ground surface, the values from the chart
should be multiplied by a correction factor Cw = 0.5.
 For a depth to groundwater level equal to Dw, measured from the surface of the surcharge
surrounding the footing, the correction factor may be obtained with sufficient accuracy by
linear interpolation, or
Dw
Cw = 0.5 + 0.5
Df + B
When, Dw = 0, we get, Cw = 0.5
Modified Design Chart:
Smax = 2", for rafts on sand

Different Factor of Safety Different Settlement Value

For Problem Solving:

 v = γH
Overburden Pressure, ̅̅̅
 Correction for overburden pressure, CN
 Ncorrected = Nfield × CN
 Navg = cumulative average of Ncorrected values
D
 w
Correction for water table, Cw = 0.5 + 0.5 D +B
f
Dewatering Excavation in Sand:
If excavations for a basement or for the establishrnent of a foundation must extend below water table
in sand, the water level must be lowered. This may be done either by pumping the water out of the
excavation itself, or by predrainage of the site.
When the water is removed by pumping from an open excavation, ditches must be cut in the bottom to
lead the water to a sump at a lower level than the rest of the excavation. The water level must be
maintained in the sump at a low enough elevation to keep the free water surface in the surrounding
sand below the bottom of the excavation at every stage. If this cannot be accomplished, the bottom of
the excavation becomes quick. Water appears in the form of springs, the sand begins to boil, the
slopes may begin to slough, and the entire base of the excavation may rise. The ditches around the
edge of the hole must be kept clear to prevent water from emerging near the toe of the slopes and
causing the banks to collapse.
Pumping from sumps in loose or fine sands, sometimes cannot be accomplished at all. In coarse or
dense sands, excavations can often be made with success, but, if conditions get out of control and the
bottom becomes quick, the sand beneath the entire foundation may be loosened and its bearing
capacity permanently decreased. Therefore, on large jobs, the sand is usually drained before
excavation, either by means of single-stage or multiple-stage well points or by deep-well pumps (This
is called Pre-drainage of site).
Rafts on Sand:
 The maximum settlement for a raft on sand is Smax = 2" instead of Smax = 1" for a footing
foundation.
 From figure-19.3, the net soil pressure corresponding to a given settlement is practically
independent of the width of footing or raft when width becomes large.
 Since Smax = 2", the allowable pressure becomes twice. Here, allowable net soil pressure,
qa (tsf) = 0.22 × N (5 ≤ N ≤ 50)
 While calculating additional weight due to surcharge, the submerged unit weight, γ', of the
soil is not taken, instead of the saturated unit weight,𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 , of the soil is used. The reason is,
when water table rises, the weight of the building decreases and the soil pressure also
decreases, so these compensate each other,
Deep Foundation on Sand:

Axial Capacity of Pile in Sand:

𝑃𝑢 =the load at which piles fail

Skin Friction

W=kγh (lateral pressure)

1
End bearing=(2 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 ) 𝐴𝑡𝑖𝑝
 1
B is very less for pile. So, 2 BγNγ = 0. So,

End Bearing = γDf Nq Atip = qNq Atip

Side friction = W ×f = kγh × f
Where, f = friction factor = tanδ (for steel, tanδ=0.1 & for concrete, tanδ=0.3)
2
For bored pile, δ=Φ and for concrete pile, δ=3Φ (usually)
k = coefficient of earth pressure and of three types
I. 𝑘𝑎 =active earth pressure
II. 𝑘𝑝 =passive earth pressure
III. 𝑘0 =earth pressure at rest
 When a pile is driven, it pushes soil away, so for driven pile use K p . K p = 1.0~2.0 = 1.5 usually.
 When a pile is bored, the dug soil moves inside. So, for bored/drilled pier use 𝐾𝑎 .
Fessile’s Method for Driven Pile:
Critical depth, Dc = 10~20B ≈ 16B
Vertical pressure, σv = γh
Where, hmax = Dc = 16B, after reaching this depth
σv does not increase and remain constant.
Two forces working on piles.
I. Skin Friction: K p . σv . tanδ. Asurface
II. End Bearing: σv . Nq . Atip = q. Nq . Atip
AASHTO method Based on N for Drilled Pier:
 Skin friction =σv (K. tanδ)Asurface = σv . β. Asurface
Where, β = 1.5 − 0.135√z ; z = mid depth of layers
Here, β does not depend on N as while drilling is on, the soil adjacent gets lose so it has no
impact.
 End bearing = 1.2 N Atip (kip)
 Earth Retaining Structure
Construction Dewatering:
Dewatering techniques may be needed to keep the working area dry for underground construction
work below the ground water table. This may be achieved by blocking the ground water flow towards
the excavation or by intercepting and transporting the ground water away from the working area.
Objectives of Dewatering:
1. Prevent ground water flowing towards the excavation
2. Improve stability of excavation slopes
3. Prevent excavation bottom from heaving, or from becoming quick (due to piping action)
under the action of ground water flow
4. Reduce lateral pressures on temporary sheeting and supports used to support excavation sides
5. Improve density and compaction characteristics of soils at excavation bottom
Techniques for Dewatering:
 Pumping: pumps are used to lower the ground water table by direct pumping from wells or by
pumping out the water slowly collecting in open pits.
 Grouting/Cut-off wall: An impermeable barrier is formed around the excavation by grouting
or by construction of a solid wall. The barrier blocks ground water flow towards the
excavation.
 Electro-Osmosis - Application of electric potential to attract water flow which is then
extracted by pumps.
 Ground Freezing - Using freezing techniques to freeze the water in the soil voids.
Pumping Method:
 Open sump
 Well points – single stage and multi-stage
 Deep well
Spacing of Well points:
Slurry Trench Wall:
Slurry Trench Wall:
Excavation Of a deep narrow supported by a slurry (instead of bracing), which is later filled with clay,
lean concrete or reinforced concrete to form a vertical wall. Such walls, also called diaphragm walls
may use to perform the work of sheeting, waterproofing and load bearing. Both cast-in-situ (tremie-
placed) concrete and precast concrete panels may be used for diaphragm wall construction. Slurry
trench construction technique may also be used for drilled piers and cast-in-situ piles.
Slurry:
Properly proportioned mixture of water, bentonite, clay and other admixtures such as sodium
carbonate or barium sulfate. Commonly, slurry densities of 1.15 to 1.25 gm/cm3 are employed.
Mixing should be done with care so that a homogeneous slurry is obtained. The slurry should have
proper gel properties and sufficient viscosity so that it does not easily drain out through the excavation
walls into the surrounding walls. The slurry should stabilize the trench sides as excavation proceeds,
exclude ground water and fill the voids and cavities along the side. The probable phenomena involved
in the method slurry supports the trench sides include the following: hydrostatic pressure of slurry,
slurry gel strength, resistance of the filter cake formed on the trench sides, electric potential between
slurry and soil, dynamic gradient of slurry flowing into soil, rigidity of slurry due to suspended
bentonite panicles etc.
Filter Skin:
A filter skin about 3 mm thick is formed at the interface of the slurry and trench side due to gel action
and particulate precipitation. The filter skin provides some lateral support to the trench sides and also
reduces the penetration of slurry into surrounding soil As an example, if the filter skin forms well, the
penetration of the slurry would only few centimeters in fine-grained soils.

Importance of Slurry Trench Wall:

In past few decades, slurry trench wall construction has appeared a viable alternative to other
traditional methods such as sheet-pile walls or bored-pile walls. Whether this method is more
economical or not depends on the project type, local circumstances etc. Factors include availability of
specialized contractors, depth of excavations ground water size of the project, working space etc.
Slurry trenching is generally more expensive than other traditional methods. However, depending on
project size and site conditions, it may be more economical. According to German experience, bored-
piles are 20% and sheet-pile walls are 35% cheaper than diaphragm walls if no dewatering is required.
But if dewatering of pit is required, slurry trench walls are more economical. Based on Hungarian
construction experience, for works involving less than 600 to 800 m2 of wall surface or for walls less
than about 5 m deep, other traditional methods are cheaper. This is due to the costs of mobilization of
heavy equipment and tools at the site required for slurry trench wall construction. In many cases,
under unfavorable conditions, use of traditional methods might be difficult or may even be impossible
and slurry trenching might be the only solution. Several advantages Of Slurry trenching is listed
below.
Advantages of Slurry Trench Wall:
 It can be done in any type of soil up to deep depths, regardless of groundwater.
 A diaphragm wall can be used to fulfill simultaneously the task of lateral earth retuning,
waterproofing and vertical load bearing.
  This construction method can be fully mechanized, as a result labor requirement is much less and
construction time is also faster, compared to other traditional methods.
 Construction generated noise and vibrations is much less.
 It can be carried out in a confined space, trench layout can follow configuration of any irregular
 Lateral stiffness of diaphragm walls may easily be increased by providing buttresses and anchors
 Work can be carried out freely in sections (parts).
 Slurry trenching provides a simple and clear site compared to traditional foundation pit full of
braces.
Limitations of Slurry Trench Wall:
 Inspection of construction of diaphragm walls can only be done by indirect means, since the
structure is prepared under slurry.
 Use of slurry in construction may result pollution at the site and its vicinity and special
precaution needs to be taken.
 Surface quality (smoothness) of cast-in-place diaphragm walls are likely not to be good.
 For special cases such as soil conditions resulting in rapid loss of slurry, poorly compacted
fills, existence of unknown sewers, utilities or caves, additional care and work is required,
Tremie Concreting for Diaphragm Wall:
Diaphragm walls are commonly used in congested areas for retention systems and permanent
foundation walls. Construction dewatering is not required. It also acts as an impervious barrier. To
construct diaphragm walls, deep trenches are excavated in long sections using excavator. At the same
time thick bentonite slurry is pumped in to stabilize the walls of the trench. After the excavation is
completed, a steel reinforcement cage is lowered in the trench and concrete placement follows using
tremie concrete method (figure 3), from bottom to the top. A pump is set up at the surface of the
excavation. As the bentonite is being displaced with tremie concrete, it is pumped back to the
bentonite plant, cleaned and stored for construction of the next panel. A PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
waterstop joint is placed between each panel. The PVC waterstop bridges the joint between the
concrete sections to prevent water from coming through the joint. Waterstops are typically used in
large foundation work, bridges, and Dams. When the concrete is cured, the construction site is
enclosed within a rigid, impervious barrier. This method has been employed to depths exceeding 200
feet.

Braced Excavation:
Applications:
 Laying underground pipeline
 Construction of bridge abutment.
 Construction of basement.
 Metro railway construction.
 Construction of subway tunnel.
Different parts of Braced Excavation:
 Wale: Horizontal beam used to hold close lagging in position.
 Lagging: Sheeting/planks, in contact with soil, used to support the excavation sides,
 Strut: Horizontal member in compression resisting thrust or pressure from the faces of an
excavation.
 Soldier: Vertical member, at strut location, used for supporting a trench wall, taking the thrust
from horizontal walers and supported by struts.
For struts across the excavation may be narrow excavations, horizontal appropriate. Struts are placed
against horizontal beams (wale) placed against sheets or planks which support excavation sides.

Experience has shown that if γH/cb ≤ 6, movements of the bracing system and heave of the clay
below base level are small. If γH/cb ≥ 6, the movements of a well‐designed bracing system can
become intolerably large. Simple braced open excavations should not be attempted under such
conditions.
Bottom Heave:
Consider an excavation pit as shown in the figure and the rectangular soil mass adjacent to it. If this
soil mass is considered as a foundation with the failure surfaces as shown the heaving of soil will
occur at the bottom of the pit due to release of overburden pressure at that point. The pit has to be
safeguarded against this heaving.
Stability against bottom heave:
The analysis is a total stress analysis since the time of dissipation of pore water pressure is very less
unless there is sandy deposit. Consider a stratified soil deposit in which braced excavation was carried
out as shown in the figure.

First the stability is to be checked at the excavation level as follows:

qu = c. Nc is the force that resists the heave which is brought about by the weight of soil of magnitude
γH. The stability factor is calculated as S = γH/cu.
If, S< 6 ------ stable, S > 6 ------- unstable and S = 6 ------- limiting condition.
If unstability criteria occurs the idea is to increase the depth of the diaphragm wall in order to take
advantage of the layers of higher strength lying below. The failure plane as shown cannot penetrate
through the hard stratum and is tangent to the same. This is shown in the fig. 6.73.
c H
(cu3 Nc + γDf + γ ( Du ))
1
Factor of safety =
γ(H + D + Df )
F.O.S should be more than 2 for bottom heave. The depth D1 is calculated as follows:
 D1 = D, since failure surface cannot penetrate the hard stratum.
 D1 = 0.7B, which is obtained from bearing capacity analysis.
 D1 is taken as least of the above two values.
Clay Bursting:
This occurs when an impermeable layer (clay) lies over a permeable layer (sand). At level 1-1, when
there is no excavation, full overburden pressure exists. When excavation occurs, at level BC some
overburden pressure is released. At the same level 1-1, upward water pressure exists due to presence
of sand layer. When no excavation occurs the total overburden pressure is greater than the upthrust,
but the layer of soil below the excavation pit may not have sufficient depth to resist the uplift force.
Hence if the uplift force the excavation level becomes more, the clay layer bursts open.
Stability Against Piping Clay Bursting:
Consider the following fig. which shows the clay bursting phenomenon.
 2c h
(γh+ u )
B
Factor of safety =
γw h w
The cohesive force along the failure plane resists the movement of the soil mass upwards and
therefore acts as a resistive force. The factor of safety for clay bursting should be more than 1.3.
Raker Bracing:
For very wide excavations, raker bracing is used. The support for the rakers (driven piles or footings)
need to be installed at the bottom of the excavation.

Sheet Pile:
Sheet pile walls consists of series of sheets driven side by side into the ground thus forming a
continuous vertical wall to retain earth or other fill material. These walls are thinner in section as
compared to other retaining walls. Sheet pile walls are generally used for the following:
1. Water front structures, for example, in building wharves, quays, and piers
2. Building diversion dams, such as cofferdams
3. River bank protection
4. Retaining the sides of cuts made in earth
Sheet piles may be of timber, reinforced concrete or steel. The most common types of piles used are
steel sheet piles. Steel piles possess several advantages over the other types. Steel sheet piles may be
used as:
• Cantilever sheet piles
• Anchored bulkheads (Anchored sheet piles)
• Braced sheeting in cuts
• Single cell cofferdams
• Cellular cofferdams, circular type
• Cellular cofferdams (diaphragm)
• Double sheet pile wall
Steel sheet piling is the most common because of several advantages over other materials:
1. Provides high resistance to driving stresses.
2. Light weight
3. Can be reused on several projects.
4. Long service life above or below water with modest protection.
5. Easy to adapt the pile length by either welding or bolting
6. Joints are less apt to deform during driving.
Sheet pile wall disadvantages are:
1. Sections can rarely be used as part of the permanent structure.
2. Installation of sheet piles is difficult in soils with boulders or cobbles. In such cases, the desired
wall depths may not be reached.
3. Excavation shapes are dictated by the sheet pile section and interlocking elements.
4. Sheet pile driving may cause neighborhood disturbance
5. Settlements in adjacent properties may take place due to installation vibrations
Cantilever Sheet Pile:
Cantilever sheet piles depend for their stability on an adequate embedment into the soil below the
dredge line. Since the piles are fixed only at the bottom and are free at the top, they are called
cantilever sheet piles. These piles are economical only for moderate wall heights (up to say 10 to 15
ft.), since the required section modulus increases rapidly with an increase in wall height, as the
bending moment increases with the cube of the cantilevered height of the wall. The lateral deflection
of this type of wall, because of the cantilever action, will be relatively large. Erosion and scour in
front of the wall, i.e., lowering the dredge line, should be controlled since stability of the wall depends
primarily on the developed passive pressure in front of the wall.

Stability Number (for sheet pile driven in cohesive soil):

The height (h) of sheet pile retaining soil is limited by the unconfined compressive strength (𝑞𝑢 )
below the dredge line. The sheet pile will fail if this limiting height is exceeded.
𝑐
Stability of sheet piling in cohesive soil is ensured by STABILITY NUMBER, 𝑆 = . From the
𝛾𝑒 ℎ
figure below, net passive resistance at a depth z below dredge line is,
(qu + γz) − (γe h + γz − qu ) = 2qu − γe h = 4c − γe h = 0
 c
∴S= = 0.25
γe h
Considering adhesion Ca between cohesive soil and sheet pile,
c C C
S= √1 + a = 0.3 ; where, √1 + a = 1.25
γe h 𝑐 c
In sheet pile design in clay, we should have minimum stability number, S = 0.3 × F. O. S
Anchored Sheet Pile:
Anchored bulkheads consist of a single row of relatively light sheet piles of which the lower ends are
driven into the earth and the upper ends are anchored by tie or anchor rods. The anchor rods are held
in place by anchors which are buried in the backfill at a considerable distance from the bulkhead.
Anchored bulkheads are widely used for dock and harbor structures. This construction provides a
vertical wall so that ships may tie up alongside, or to serve as a pier structure, which may jet out into
the water. In these cases sheeting may be required to laterally support a fill on which railway lines,
roads or warehouses may be constructed so that ship cargoes may be transferred to other areas. The
use of anchor rod tends to reduce the lateral deflection, the bending moment, and the depth of the
penetration of the pile.
Free earth support pile
• Depth of embedment is small and pile rotates at its bottom tip.
• There is no point of inflection in the pile.
• Base of the pile is relatively free to rotate,
• Passive resistance is mobilized on one face only
Fixed earth support pile
• Depth of embedment is large and the bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotation.
• There is change in curvature of pile, hence inflection point occurs.
• Base of the pile is relatively fixed, so that there is a point of contra flexure above the toe of the pile.
• Passive resistance is mobilized on both faces (similar to cantilever pile)
 Slope Stability
Site Exploration and Characterization:
The process of exploring to characterize or define small scale properties of substrata at construction
sites is unique to geotechnical engineering. In other engineering disciplines, material properties are
specified during design, or before construction or manufacture, and then controlled to meet the
specification. Unfortunately, subsurface properties cannot be specified; they must be deduced through
exploration.
Purpose of soil exploration:
 Identify the nature of deposit (type and thickness of soil layers)
 Assess the suitability of sub-soil for the anticipated loads (from building, embankment, road,
landfill etc.)
 Determine the location of bedrock/ bearing stratum
 Determine the location of ground water table and its variation
 Decide on appropriate type of foundation and depths
 Collect soil samples to perform laboratory tests for soil characterization and determination of
various appropriate design parameters.
 Decide on suitable construction methods and sequence of construction
Note: The solid unweathered rock that lies beneath the loose surface deposits of soil, alluvium, etc. is
called bedrock.
Steps in Soil Investigation:
 Planning
 Collection of Background Information
 Field Reconnaissance
 Field work
 Bore-hole Drilling
 Collection of Soil Samples
 Field Tests (SPT, CPT Etc.)
 Laboratory work
 Laboratory Test on Soil Samples
 Reporting
 Preparation of Geotechnical Report
Considerations for Boring depth:
1. Determine the net increase of stress, ∆𝜎, under a foundation with a depth as shown in figure.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, 𝜎𝑣′ , with depth.
1
3. Determine the depth D=D1, at which the stress increase is equal to (10q). (q = estimated net
stress on the foundation).
4. Determine the depth, D=D2, at which ∆𝜎/𝜎𝑣′ = 0.05.
5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just determined is
the approximate minimum depth of boring required.
Boring Location / Layout:
 Boring location is subjective; hard & fast rules are not possible
 Locations generally depends on site topography and/or proposed location of structure.
 Confidence is subjective in nature and thus for a project where one geotechnical engineer
accept three or four borings, some other may require six or eight.
 Some design codes provide broad guidelines.
 (Thumb rule) For residential buildings app. 1 borehole per Katha (720 sft = 67 m2). Number
may be increased if these borings show great variability in the sub-soil profile.
Exploratory Borings: Techniques and Equipments:
 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Rotary drilling
 Percussion drilling
Boreholes are required to collect soil samples (disturbed or undisturbed) and perform field tests.
Auger boring:
 Simplest way to make a hole in the ground
 Used for making holes of low depths (3 ~ 5 m)
 Usually used for projects like railroad, highway, airport construction
 Casing are used for soils if boreholes will not stand unsupported
 Soil samples are highly disturbed
Different types of augers:
(1) Hand operated (Pole hole auger and Helical auger)
(2) Machine operated (Solid stem and Hollow stem)
The Continuous flight auger is almost exclusively used at present since it has a number of advantages
over other methods, such as the following:
l. It is very rapid.
2 Samples are less disturbed than from wash borings.
3. It is easier to visually detect stratum changes from spoil from the flights—but recognizing that
current spoil is from strata already penetrated.
4. Rock drilling can be done with the same drill rig by changing bits.
5. The hole does not require casing when the hollow stem auger is used since additional testing and
sample recovery can be made through the stem.
 Boreholes up to about 60‐70 m (200‐230 ft.) can be made.
Sections are usually 1‐2 m (3‐6 ft.) long
Common solid stem augers : OD‐ 2‐5/8 in., 3‐1/4 in, 4 in, 4‐1/2 in
Common hollow stem augers (ID x OD) : 2.5 in x 6.25 in, 2.75 x 7 in, 3 in x 8 in, 3.25 x 9 in
Wash boring:
 A casing (2-3m long) is driven into the ground. The soil inside the casing is removed by
means of a chopping bit attached to a drill rod.
 Water is forced through the drill rod and exits at a very high velocity through the openings at
the bottom of the chopping bit.
 The water carries up the fragments of soils through the annular space between the casing and
wash pipe. The water overflows the top of the casing through a T-connection.
 At specified depths SPT test or sampling can be done. For this purpose the drill rod is
removed and SPT spoon or Shelby tube is attached to the bottom of the drill rod.
Rotary drilling:
 A rapidly rotating drilling bit attached to the bottom of the drill rod cut and grind the soil.
Usually the equipment is truck mounted.
 The soil particles are removed by circulating water or drilling fluid similar to that in wash
boring.
 For sampling the drilling rod is raised and replaced by a sampler.
 Boreholes of 2‐8 inch diameter can easily be made.
Percussion drilling:
• Usually used to make boreholes in hard soil and rock.
• A heavy drilling bit is alternately raised and dropped to chop/grind the underlying hard material.
• The chopped particle are brought up by water circulation.
• The bore hole may be kept dry except for a small amount of water that forms a slurry with the
material ground up by the bit.
• When ground material/slurry accumulates, the drilling tools are removed from the hole and the
slurry is cleaned out with a bailer.
• Not suitable for site exploration if intact samples are to be obtained for identification and testing.
Bore-log:
The detailed information gathered from each borehole is presented in a graphical form termed as
'boring log' or 'bore-log'. A bore-log usually contains:
1. Name and address of drilling company
2. Project name & Location Of site
3. Date Of boring
4. Bore-hole number and type Of boring
5. Sub-surface stratification
6. RL of GL and elevation Of water table
7. SPT-N value
8. Number, type and depth Of soil sample collected
Soil sampling:
Two types of samples may be obtained
I. Disturbed samples
II. Undisturbed samples
A disturbed sample is one obtained with no attempt to retain the in-place structure, however there is
no change in the constituents/composition. In a strict sense no sample is perfectly undisturbed, what
we mean is that the disturbance is small. The samples must be representative (disturbed or
undisturbed). Both disturbed and undisturbed samples are collected as the bore-hole proceeds. The
kind of samples that should be obtained from an exploratory drill hole depend on the purpose for
which the exploration is made.
Disturbed samples can be used for visual observation and classification, grain size analysis, specific
gravity determination, Atterberg limits determination, Organic content determination.
Undisturbed samples are required for consolidation test, Shear strength (Direct shear, unconfined
compression, triaxial test), Permeability, Hydraulic conductivity, Chemical tests (pH, chloride, Sulfate
etc.)
For proper identification and classification, representative samples are required. A representative
sample is one that contain all the constituents in their proportions. Such samples are adequate for
visual classification, mechanical analyses, determination of Atterberg limits, Unit weight/ specific
gravity of solid constituents, chemical/organic content etc.
Mechanical properties of the disturbed soil samples are significantly altered by the sampling process.
For determination of stress-strain characteristics or density of the soil strata we need samples that
have undergone negligible deformation during sampling. Such samples are called undisturbed,
although a certain amount of disturbance is regarded as inevitable.
SPT and disturbed sampling:
When a borehole is extended to a predetermined depth, the drill tools are removed and the sampler is
lowered to the bottom of the borehole.
The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer blows to the top of the drill rod. The standard weight of
the hammer is 1401b (622.7N) and for each blow the hammer drops a distance of 30 in (0.762 m).
The number of blows for three 6" (152.4 mm) intervals of the spoon are recorded. The number of
blows required for the last two intervals are added and is termed as the N-value (or SPT-N or
Standard Penetration Number) at that depth. The sampler is withdrawn, the shoe and coupling are
removed and the soil sample recovered from the tube is collected (disturbed sample).
Split Spoon Sampler:
Consists of a tool-steel driving shoe, a steel tube that is split longitudinally in half and a coupling at
the top. The coupling connects the sampler to the drill rod.
3′′ 1′′
Standard tube size: Inner Diameter 1 8 (34.9mm) and Outer Diameter 2 2 (63.5mm)
The degree of disturbance of spoon samples depend on the way in which force is applied to the spoon,
whether by pushing or driving, on the rate of penetration and on the dimensions of the sampler. The
degree of disturbance is roughly indicated by the area ratio,
𝐷𝑒2 − 𝐷𝑖2
𝐴𝑟 (%) = × 100
𝐷𝑖2
Where, De = external diameter of the cutting shoe and Di = internal diameter of the cutting shoe
If Ar = 10% distortion is small in any soil type
The degree of disturbance is less if the sampler is advanced with a rapid steady motion instead of by
intermittent pushing or driving.
Undisturbed samples are collected by:
 Shelby tube (thin-wall sampler)
 Piston Sampler
 Heavy wall sampler
 Block sampling/ Hand-carved samples
Thin wall sampler / Shelby Tube:
Soft to moderate stiff cohesive soils can be sampled having a diameter not less than 2 inch and an area
ratio of about 10%. Tubes of diameter 2 to 3 inch are commonly used in lengths varying from 2 to 3ft.
The lower end of the tube is sharpened and slightly crimped to form the cutting edge. The upper end
is machined for attachment to the drill rod. For sampling the entire tube is pushed in to the ground at
the bottom of the hole and is removed with the sample inside. The two ends of the tube are sealed (by
wax) and sent to the laboratory.

In order to obtain samples of soil several feet long, it is necessary to reduce the friction between the
core and the inside of the tube. This is accomplished by crimping the cutting edge so that it’s inside
diameter is slightly smaller than the inside diameter of the tube Dit. The degree of sampling
disturbance is also affected by the inside clearance ratio,
(𝐷𝑖𝑡 − 𝐷𝑖 )
𝐶𝑟 (%) = × 100
𝐷𝑖
If the ratio become too large, the sample may expand excessively as it passes into the sampling tube
and its strength may be considerably decreased. For undisturbed samples of high quality Cr should not
exceed 1%.
Field Tests / In-situ Tests:
 Standard Penetration Test
 Vane Shear Test
 Cone Penetrometer Test
 Pressuremeter Test
 Dilatometer Test
Standard Penetration Test:
Advantages:
 Simple equipments
 Low cost
 Do not require much expertise for field operations
 Disturbed samples are collected
Disadvantages:
Much variation in the results i.e. poor repeatability
The variation in N value arises from:
1. Equipment from different manufacturers
2. Drive hammer configuration (Donut/Safety hammer/Auto trip)
3. Actual Drop height (variation in manual/auto trip operation)
4. Rope cat-head system: dia. and condition (rusty/clean) of rope, no. of turns.
5. Use of liner inside the split barrel (usually liner is not used)
6. Overburden pressure — soil of the same density will give smaller N value if 𝑝𝑜′ is smaller;
oversize borehole (hole dia. 150 mm will reduce the N value)
7. Length and stiffness of drill rod- (if rod length >10 m — not critical; for shorter lengths and
N<30 it is critical)
8. Rate at which blow is applied; sometimes drilling crew are more interested in advancing the hole
quickly (30 blow per min. is recommended)
9. Diameter of the drill hole
10. Presence or lack of drilling mud
Cone Penetration Test:
The cone penetration test, also known as the Dutch cone penetration test, is a versatile sounding
method that can be used to determine the materials in a soil profile and estimate their engineering
properties. This test is also called the Static penetration test, and no boreholes are necessary to
perform it. In the original version, a 60° cone with a base area of 10 cm2 was pushed into the ground
at a steady rate of about 20 mm/sec, and the resistance to penetration (called the point resistance) was
measured.
The cone penetrometers in use at present measure (a) the cone resistance (qc) to penetration developed
by the cone, which is equal to the vertical force applied to the cone divided by its horizontally
projected area and (b) the frictional resistance (fc) which is the resistance measured by a sleeve
located above the cone with the local soil surrounding it frictional resistance is equal to the vertical
force applied to the sleeve divided by its surface area - actually the sum of friction and adhesion.
Two types: (a) Mechanical friction cone penetrometer and (b) Electric friction cone penetrometer
𝑞𝑐 = Cone resistance; 𝑓𝑐 = Side friction
𝑓
the friction ratio, 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑞𝑐
𝑐
𝑞𝑐 = Total force acting on the cone divided by its projected area (10 cm2)
𝑓𝑐 = Total frictional force acting on the friction sleeve divided by its surface area (150 cm2)
Mechanical friction-cone penetrometer:
In this case the penetrometer tip is connected to an inner set of rods. The tip is first advanced about 40
mm giving the cone resistance. With further thrusting, the tip engages the friction sleeve. As the inner
rod advances, the rod force is equal to the sum of the vertical force on the cone and sleeve.
Subtracting the force on the cone gives the side resistance.
Electric friction-cone penetrometer:
In this case the tip is attached to a string of steel rods. The tip is pushed into the ground at the rate of
20 mm/sec. Wires from the transducers are threaded through the center of the rods and continuously
give the cone and side resistances.
Mechanical cone is advanced in stages and measures 𝑞𝑐 and 𝑞𝑠 at intervals of about 20cm, whereas
electric cone (fitted with strain‐gauge) measure these quantities continuously.
Advantages of CPT:
 CPT is a useful means to determine the soil profile. Since it retrieves data continuously with depth
(with electric cone) or at very close interval (with mechanical cone), CPT can detect thin layers in
stratigraphy. Sometimes use of CPT in the first phase facilitate better specification for boring and
sampling in the second phase.
 It is also less prone to error due to automated operation of the equipment and electronic data
recording.
Disadvantages of CPT:
 No soil sample is recovered. So no opportunity to inspect the soils.
 The test is unreliable or unusable in soils with significant gravel content.
 Although the cost per foot of penetration is less than that for borings, it is necessary to mobilize a
special rig to perform the CPT. CPT at a certain site may not be possible from the point of
equipment mobilization.
Pressuremeter Test (PMT):
Pressuremeter test is an in situ conducted in a borehole. It was originally developed by Menard (1956)
to measure the strength and deformability of soil. It has also been adopted by ASTM as Test
Designation 4719. Menard-type PMT essentially consists of a probe with three cells. The top and
bottom ones are guard cells and the middle one is the measuring cell, as shown schematically in
Figure. The test is conducted in a pre-bored hole. The pre-bored hole should have a diameter that is
between 1.03 to 1.2 times the nominal diameters of the probe. The probe that is most commonly used
has a diameter of 58 mm and a length of 420 mm. The probe cells can be expanded either by liquid or
gas. The guard cells are expanded to reduce the end-condition effect on the measuring cell. The
measuring cell has a volume (Vo) of 535 cm2. In order to overcome the difficulty of preparing the
borehole to the proper size self‐boring pressuremeters (SBPMT) have been developed. Following are
the dimensions for the probe diameter and the diameter of the borehole as recommended by ASIM:
 (a) Pressuremeter; (b) plot of pressure vs total cavity

In order to conduct a test, the measuring cell volume, Vo, is measured and the probe is inserted into
the borehole. Pressure is applied in increments and the volumetric expansion of the cell is measured.
This is continued until the soil fails or until the pressure limit of the device is reached. The soil is
considered to have failed when the total volume of the expanded cavity (V) is about twice the volume
of the original cavity. After the completion of the test, the probe is deflated and advanced for test at
another depth.
The results of the pressuremeter test is expressed in a graphical form of pressure versus volume as
shown in figure 2.36b. In this figure, Zone I represents the reloading portion during which the soil
around the borehole is pushed back into the initial state (that is. the state it was in before drilling). The
pressure, po, represents the in situ total horizontal stress. Zone II represents a pseudo-elastic zone in
which the cell volume versus cell pressure is practically linear. The pressure, pf, represents the creep
or yield. The pressure zone marked III is the plastic zone. The pressure,𝑝𝑙 , represents the limit
pressure.
The Pressuremeter modulus,Ep , of the soil is determined using theory of expansion of an infinite thick
cylinder. Thus,
∆𝑝
Ep = 2(1 + 𝜇)(𝑉𝑜 + 𝑣𝑚 ) ( )
∆𝑣
v +v
Where,vm = i 2 f ; ∆p = pf − po ; ∆v = vf − vo and μ =Poisson’s ratio ( assumed to be 0.33)
Vane Shear Test:
The vane shear test may be used during the drilling operation to
determine the in situ undrained shear strength of clay soils
particularly soft clays. The vane shear apparatus consists of four
blades on the end of a rod, as shown in figure. Tie height, H, of the
vane is twice the diameter. D. The vane can be either rectangular or
tapered. The vanes of the apparatus are pushed into the soil at the
bottom of a borehole without disturbing the soil appreciably.
Torque is applied at the top of the rod to rotate the vanes at a
standard rate of 0.1°/sec. This rotation will induce failure in a soil
of cylindrical shape surrounding the vanes. The maximum torque,
T, applied to cause failure is measured. Note that,
T = f(cu , H and D)
𝑇
Where, 𝑐𝑢 =
𝐾
Where, T is in N.m and cu is in KN/m2
And K= a constant depend on the dimension and shape of the vane
π D2 H D
K = (106 ) ( 2 ) (1 + 3H); Where, D= diameter of vane in cm
and H= measured height of vane in cm
Advantages and Limitations of Field Vane Shear test:
Field vane shear tests are moderately rapid and economical and are used extensively in field soil
exploration programs. The test gives good results in soft and medium-stiff clays, and it is also an
excellent test to determine the properties of sensitive clays.
Sources of significant the field vane shear test are-poor calibration of torque measurement and
damaged vanes. Other errors may be introduced if the rate of vane rotation is not properly controlled.
Subsoil Exploration Report:
A good soil exploration report should comprise of the following:
1. The scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has been conducted
3. Geological setting of the site
4. Details of the field exploration — that is, number of borings. depths of borings, type of
boring, and so on
5. Water-table conditions
6. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
The following graphical presentations should be attached to the report:
1. Site location map
2. A plan view of the location of the borings respect to the proposed structures and those existing
nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations
The exploration reports should be well planned and documented. They will help in answering
questions and solving foundation problems that may arise later during design and construction.
Slope:
An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle with the horizontal is called an unrestrained slope.
The slope can be natural or man-made. If the ground surface is not horizontal, a component of gravity
will tend to move the soil downward. If the component of gravity is large enough, slope failure can
occur.
Slope Stability Analysis:
In many cases, civil engineers are expected to make calculations to check the safety of natural slopes,
slopes of excavations and compacted embankments. This check involves determining and comparing
the shear stress developed along the most likely rupture surface with the shear strength of the soil.
This process is called slope stability analysis. The most likely rupture surface is the critical plane that
has the minimum factor of safety.
Macro stability of slope:
The material composing a slope has a natural tendency to slide under the influence of gravitational
and other forces (e.g. seismic activity) which is resisted by the shearing resistance of the material.
Instability occurs when the shearing resistance is not enough to counterbalance the forces tending to
cause movement along any surface within a slope. A slope that has been stable for many years may
suddenly fail due to one or several of the following main causes.
(a) External disturbances in the form of cutting / dredging / scour near toe.
(b) Seismic activity
(c) Increase in pore water pressure within a slope (may be due to rise in water level or exceptional
rainfall)
(d) Progressive decrease in shear strength of the slope material
(e) Progressive change in the stress field within a slope (may be due to subsidence of foundation soil,
piping or internal erosion, movement of soil particles)
Phenomena Governing Stability of Slope:
Stable earth slopes, both natural and man-made, are of great importance to mankind. Although many
landslides occur in slopes because of natural influences, human activities such as undercutting, piling
earth on unstable slopes, or raising the ground water level by constructing reservoirs, are important
causes of landslides. Unfavorable ground water and seepage conditions are among the most frequent.
Water lowers stability and contributes to slope failures in the following ways:
 By reducing or eliminating cohesive strength
 By producing pore water pressure which reduce effective stresses, thereby lowering effective
strength
 By producing horizontally inclined seepage forces which increase the overturning moments and
possibility of failure
 By lubricating failure planes after occurring small initial movement
 By supplying an excess of fluid that becomes trapped in soil pores during earthquakes or other
severe shocks, leading to liquefaction failures.

Methods of slope stability analysis can be grouped into two categories:

(1) Limit equilibrium methods
(2) Stress analysis methods - e.g. Finite element analysis
Infinite Slope:
An 'infinite slope' is one which
represents the boundary surface of a
semi-infinite soil mass inclined to the
horizontal. In practice, if the height of
the slope is very large, one may
consider it as an infinite one.
Finite Slopes:
A finite slope is one with a base and a
top surface, the height being limited.
 Soil – Water Interaction
Influences of water on the behavior of soil:
In a broad sense water influences the behavior of soil in two ways: (a)Chemical interaction - by
affecting the way in which soil particles join together to form the mineral skeleton and (b) Physical
interaction - by affecting the magnitude of the forces transmitted through the mineral skeleton
We can divide the physical interactions in types such as :
 Cases with no flow of water
 Cases with Steady flow of water
 Cases with dynamic/ cyclic loading
Effects of Water in Geotechnical Field:
 produces buoyancy effects on structures and foundations – affects bearing capacity
 exerts extra pressure on structures - e.g. hydrostatic pressure on retaining wall and other earth
retaining structures
 changes shear strength - affects bearing capacity
 causes consolidation settlement problems
 causes lubrication between particles – compaction
 causes soil erosion and landslide
 affects stability of slopes (embankment, hill, riverbank)
 problems with seepage flow - piping in dams, embankments
 permeability and filter related problems
 Liquefaction phenomena
Drainage:
The process by which percolating water or groundwater is removed from soils and rocks by natural or
artificial means is called drainage. Drainage is generally accomplished by installation of drain pipes or
free draining materials e.g. aggregates, coarse sand etc.
Filter:
Drainage alone may not solve the problem related to ground water and seepage flow. If soil particles
are dislodged and flows with the water through drains than i.e. if soil erosion occurs, it may result in
structural instability. Also soil particles may accumulate in the drainage system and clog it. Erosion
and clogging is prevented by placing a barrier in between the in-situ soil and the drainage system.
This barrier is called a filter or filter layer. Filter may be of two type: (a) Granular filter and (b)
Geotextile filter.

Figure: Use of Drain and Filter (a) for retaining wall, (b) for road pavement work and (c) revetment work
'Requirements' or 'desirable characteristics' of drain and filter:
It is needed to satisfy two conflicting requirements:
1. Piping requirement: The pore spaces in drains and filters that are in contact with erodible soil and
rocks must be small enough to prevent particles from being washed in or through them.
2. Permeability requirement: The pore spaces in drains and filters must be large enough to impart
sufficient permeability to permit seepage to escape freely and thus provide a high degree of control
over seepage forces and hydrostatic pressure.
Granular filter:
When small quantities of seepage are to be removed, a single layer of well graded, moderately
permeable material meeting the 'piping' and 'permeability' requirements may serve the dual role of
filter and drain. When large quantities of seepage are to be removed, a fine filter layer is usually
needed for the prevention of piping and a coarse layer is needed for the removal of water. Such
system are called graded filters. Sometimes granular filters may contain more than two layers.
Design Criteria:
To prevent the movement of erodible soils and rocks into or through filters, the pore spaces between
the filter particles should be small enough to hold some of the larger particles of the protected
materials in place. Taylor (1948) shows that if three perfect spheres have diameters greater than six
and one-half times the diameter of a smaller sphere (Fig. 5.1a), the smaller spheres can move through
the larger. Soils and aggregates are always composed of ranges of particle sizes, and if the pore spaces
in filters are small enough to hold the 85% size (D85) of adjacent soils in place, the finer soil particles
will also be held in place (Fig. 5.1b). Exceptions are gap graded soil and soil-rock mixtures.

FIGURE: Illustration of prevention of piping by filters.

(a) Spherical particle b will just pass through pore space
between three spheres and one-half the diameter of b
(Taylor, 1948). (b) Conditions at a boundary between a
soil and a protective filter.

Bertram (1940), with the advice of Terzaghi and Casagrande, made laboratory investigations at the
Graduate School of Engineering, Harvard University, to test filter criteria that had been suggested
by Terzaghi; he established the validity of the following criteria for filter design:
D15 (of filter) D15(of filter)
< 4 to 5 <
D85 (of soil) D15(of soil)
The left half of the equation may be stated as follows:
Criterion I: The 15% size (D15) of a filter material must be not more than four or five times the 85%
size (D85) of a protected soil. The ratio of D15 of a filter to D85 of a soil is called the piping ratio.
The right half of the equation may be stated as follows:
Criterion 2: The 15% size (D15) of a filter material should be at least four or five times the 15% size
(D15) of a protected soil. The intent of criterion 2 is to guarantee sufficient permeability to prevent the
buildup of large seepage forces and hydrostatic pressures in filters and drains.
To prevent the movement of soil particles into or through filters, the U.S. Army Corps. of Engineer
suggested the following conditions to be fulfilled:
15% size of grannular filter 50% size of grannular filter
≦ 5 and ≦ 25
85% size of protected soil 50% size of protected soil
The above criteria will be used when protecting all soils except for medium to highly plastic clays
without sand or silt partings, which by the above criteria may require multiple-stage filters. For these
clay soils, the D15 size of the filter may be as great as 0.4 mm. and the above D50 criteria will be
disregarded. This relaxation in criteria for protecting medium to highly plastic clays will allow the use
of a one-stage filter material; however, the filter must be well graded, and. to insure nonsegregation of
the filter material, a coefficient of uniformity (ratio of D50 to D10) of not greater than 20 will be
required.
Pipe Joints, Holes and Slots:
When pipes are embedded in filters and drains, no unplugged ends should be allowed, and the filter
materials in contact with pipes must be coarse enough not to enter joints, holes, or slots. The U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers (1955a) uses the following criteria for gradation of filter materials in
relation to slots and holes:
For slots,
85% size of filter material
> 1.2
slot width
For circular holes,
85% size of filter material
> 1.0
hole diameter
The U. S. Bureau of Reclamation (1965) uses the following criterion for grain size of filter materials
in relation to openings in pipes:
D85 of filter nearest to the pipe
= 2 or more
maximum opening of pipe drain
Different Modes of River Bank Failure:
 22 Foundation Engineering

T = (pD2/2)[Hsv + (D/3)sh] (1.8)

where D and H are respectively the diameter and height of the vane.
Unless we assume sv and sh to be equal, two vanes of different diameters are needed to solve
the above equation. Bjerrum [11] found in 1972 that in soft clays the vane test field value has to
be modified by a correction factor (shown in Fig. 1.14) to get the true value. Correction is for
anisotropy and the speed of failure due to testing rate.[2]

1.2

1.0
Correction factor

0.8

0.6

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Plasticity Index (Ip),%
Fig. 1.14 Correction factor for vane shear test [Bjerrum].
(Factor = Field vane value/mobilised value)

1.11 ESTIMATION OF MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION AND

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Two of the other important engineering properties of the soil we use in design are the modulus
of subgrade reaction and the modulus of elasticity. Generally, the modulus of subgrade reaction
is denoted by the symbol k in kN/m3. If we multiply k by the breadth B, we get kB which is
represented by the symbol K in units of kN/m2 . In many literatures k itself will be shown as K
and we should look for the units to find out what it represents.
Modulus of subgrade reaction, also called ‘soil spring constant’, is used to solve problems
of beams on elastic foundation using Winkler model. It is defined as follows and expressed in
kg/m3 or kN/m3. [Symbol k is as used by IS2950 Part I-1981 on raft foundation.]
pressure
k= (in units of force per length 3 )
settlement
Modulus of elasticity or deformation modulus is used for determination of settlement of
foundations and is expressed in kg/m2 or kN/m2. The settlement s of a rigid plate under a uniform
load q is given by the equation, [12]
È q (1 - m 2 ) ˘
s=Í ˙ BI w (1.9)
Î Es ˚
where
B = least dimension of the plate
Iw = influence factor (0.82 for a square)
 Engineering Properties of Soils 23

Es = deformation modulus (kg/cm2)

m = Poisson’s ratio of the soil.
The stress deformation diagram that can be obtained by a plate load test on a soil stratum
will be as shown in Fig. 1.15. The value of the initial tangent modulus will be different from the
secant modulus.

dul t
an
us
Sec
s

mo
dulu
t mo
gen
Load

Tan

1.25
Settlement (mm)
Fig. 1.15 Load-settlement curve in plate load test.

Generally the secant modulus corresponding to 25 to 50 per cent of the failure stress is used
for all practical applications. The cone penetrometer test can also be used as an indirect method
for estimation of the k and Es values corresponding to the above stress level, especially in sands.
We know from elastic theory and field bearing test that k has no unique value but depends on
the size of the loaded area, it decreases with increasing size of plate.
The modulus of subgrade reaction that we come across in horizontal deflection of laterally
loaded piles is the coefficient (modulus) of horizontal subgrade reaction denoted by k h (in kg/cm3).
The value of kh for an overconsolidated clay is usually assumed to remain constant with depth.
On the other hand for most normally consolidated clays and granular soils this soil modulus varies
with depth. Accordingly we have the following values for kh .
1. kh = mkv (for overconsolidated clays—m ≥ 1), and
2. kh = nhy (for granular soils)
where, for dimensional uniformity,
n h = the constant of soil modulus (kg/m4)
y = depth below the ground level.
For nh to have the same dimension as kv, we sometimes write kh = nhy/D, where nh is in
kg/cm3 and D is the depth. This subject is further discussed in the section dealing with well
foundations and laterally loaded piles. The various methods to determine k and Es are briefly
described below.

1.11.1 Estimation of Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

First we will discuss some methods for the estimation of the modulus of subgrade reaction.
 26 Foundation Engineering

TABLE 1.8 VALUES OF MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION k

[IS 2950 – 1981 (Second Revision) Table 1]
(a) Cohesionless soils (values for 30 ¥ 30 cm plate)
SPT value Relative density Dry/Moist k value (kg/cm3)
Submerged
< 10 Loose 1.5 0.9
10 to 30 Medium 1.5–4.7 0.9–2.9
> 30 Dense 4.7–18.0 2.9–10.8

(b) Cohesive soils (Values for 30 ¥ 30 cm plate)

qu = Unconfined Consistency k value (kg/cm3)

camp: strength (kg/cm2)
1 to 2 Stiff 2.7
2 to 4 Very stiff 2.7–5.4
>4 Hard 5.4–10.8

Note: A value k = 120 q u in kN/m 3 (where q u is unconfined strength in kN/m2 is commonly used
for preliminary estimate in clay soils.)

1.11.2 Estimation of Deformation Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity)

In soils deformation modulus is also called modulus of elasticity. As already stated, we use the
secant modulus at 25 to 50 per cent of failure stress in most of our calculations. The following
are the commonly used methods for its estimation:

Estimation of E of value for cohesionless soils (sands). As it is difficult to take undisturbed

samples of sand deposits, the static cone penetration test SCPT or SPT value is generally used
to estimate the Es value of sand.
Schmertman recommends the following values for the secant modulus at 25 per cent stress
level for normally consolidated sands qc = SCPT value in kg/cm2.
E = 4qc when qc < 100 kg/cm2
E = (2qc + 20) for qc between 100–500 kg/cm2 (Approximate value 2qc is used)
E = 120qc for qc > 500 kg/cm2
For overconsolidated sands, the recommended values are:
E = 5qc for qc < 500 kg/cm2
E = 250qc for qc > 500 kg/cm2
D’Appolonia uses SPT values and gives the following values for normally consolidated
(virgin compressed) sand.
E = 220 + 11(N) kg/cm2
preconsolidation stress
For pre-compressed sand, over consolidation ratio (OCR) =
present effective stress
E = 540 + 14(N) kg/cm2
 28 Foundation Engineering

Estimation of Es for cohesive soils (clays). As it is not difficult to take undisturbed samples
in clays, we can use laboratory tests for estimation of Es as in the cases described below.
Es from mv obtained from consolidation tests: For calculation of total settlement (i.e.
immediate plus the long term), we evaluate mv from consolidation test results and the reciprocal
of mv is taken as Es, that is, Es = (1/mv).
Es from mv estimated from N values: We may also obtain approximate values from index
properties and SPT values as published by Stroud [3] and represented in Fig. 1.17 [2]. Here,
Es = (1/mv).
10

8 1 = m = 1 in cm2
v kg
Es F2N

6
F2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Plasticity Index
Fig. 1.17 Estimation of modulus of elasticity of clays from plasticity index and SPT values [Stroud].

Es from triaxial test: The value of Es for immediate settlement can be estimated from the
stress-strain curve obtained by consolidated undrained tests simulating the field condition. As
suggested by Davis and Poulos the samples should be saturated, consolidated at overburden
pressure and tested by undrained test with the confining pressure equal to the overburden
pressure. The value of E corresponding to 25–50% the ultimate strength is used in design.
Research has shown that the values of E obtained from in situ plate load tests are higher (as much
as 1.8 to 4 times) than the laboratory values due to sampling disturbances. The pre-consolidation
procedure recommended before the test overcomes most of these defects.
Undrained value of Es from cu cohesion values for clays: Another statistical value of Es
from values of cohesion of clays has been proposed by Jamiolkowski [13]. It can be represented
as shown in Fig. 1.18. The ratio (Es/c) is also a function of the overconsolidation ratio.
The following simple relationships have also been recommended:
Es = (200 to 500) c for normally consolidated sensitive clays
= (750 to 1200) c for normally consolidated normal clays
= (1500 to 2000) c for heavily consolidated clays.
Note: An average value E = 700 c is usually taken for normally consolidated clay.
Approximate Es values from codes of practice. Average values recommended by codes of
 34 Foundation Engineering

EXAMPLE 1.2
The following N values were obtained in two field tests. Comment on the in-situ nature of the soil:
Test No. 1—Sand deposit N value 10
Test No. 2—Clay deposit N value 10.

Ref. Step Calculations

1 Estimate the properties of sand, SPT = 10
Table 1.5 The sand can be considered as loose to medium.
Fig. 1.10 The f value = 30 degrees
Sec. 1.7.1 = 0.3N + 27 = 30 degrees
2 Estimate the properties of clay SPT = 10
Sec. 1.7.1 (a) The clay can be classified as fairly stiff clay (cannot be moulded
Table 1.6 between fingers)—Unconf. Comp: strength = 1 to 2 kg/cm2 (N/8)
Fig. 1.11 (b) Consistency index Ic = [(LL – w)/PI].
Table 1.6 For this clay, Ic will be 0.75 to 1.0, which means the water content will
be near the plastic limit. The clay will be ‘medium’ to ‘stiff’ in consistency.

EXAMPLE 1.3 (Estimation of E value of sand)

Estimate f and E value of a sand deposit with SPT value 10.

Ref. Step Calculations

1 Estimate the f value

f = 2N + 15 = 200 + 15 = about 30°
Sec. 1.7.1 f = 0.3 N + 27 = 3 + 27 = 30°
Fig. 1.10 f from Fig. 1.10 = 30°
2 Estimate E value
Fig. 1.16b Es from Fig. 1.16b = 300 kg/cm2 = 30 MN/m2

EXAMPLE 1.4 (Activity of clays)

A soil is found to have 20% of its portion below particle size of 0.002. Limit tests gave the
following values LL = 60% and PL = 25%. Comment on the type of the soil.
 Engineering Properties of Soils 35

Ref. Step Calculations

1 Calculate PI
PI = LL – PL = 60 – 25 = 35%

Fig. 1.7 2 Find activity

Activity ratio = PI/ % clay
35
= = 1.75 > 1.25
20
Table 1.2 3 The clay may be expansive type

EXAMPLE 1.5 (Estimation of properties of clay sample)

The average SPT value of a clay sample with the index properties given below was 20

LL = 45%, PL = 25%, N = 20, PI = 20,%

Estimate its various properties for preliminary designs.

Ref. Step Calculations

Fig. 1.2 1 Identification
Sample LL = 45%. PI = 45 – 25 = 20%
Inorganic clay of intermediate plasticity
Fig. 1.5b 2 Estimate shear strength from N value
(a) Method 1.
From Fig. 1.5b
N = 20; PI = 20; F1 = 0.055
c = F1 N = 0.055 ¥ 20 = 1.1 kg/cm2
Table 1.6 (b) Method 2.
Direct from N value
N = 20; qc = 20/8 = 2.5 kg/cm2 (approx.)
c = 1.25 kg/cm2 (approx.)
3 Estimate the consistency
Table 1.6 For N = 16 to 32, consistency index = 1.0 to 1.5
Sec. 1.4.3 (LL – w)/PI = 1; Hence, w = 25% approx.
(This should be checked with field data.)

REFERENCES
[1] Leonards, G.A., Engineering Properties of Soils, in Foundation Engineering, McGraw Hill,
New York, 1962.
[2] Tomlinson, M.J., Foundation Design and Construction, ELBS, Longman Edition, Singapore,
1995.
4
Settlement of Foundations

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The total settlement of a foundation can be divided into the following three components:
1. The immediate settlement D which takes place due to elastic deformation of soil without
change in water content.
2. The consolidation settlement DH which takes place in clayey soil mainly due to the
expulsion of the pore water in the soil.
3. Secondary (creep) settlement DS which takes place over long periods due to viscous
resistance of soil under constant compression.
IS 8009 (Part I) 1976 [1] deals with settlement of shallow foundations and Part II (1980) with
settlement of deep foundations. In this chapter we will deal with the following commonly used
methods of calculation of settlement of foundations.
1. Methods using elastic theory for all types of soils. (Section 4.2)
2. By Teng’s formula based on SPT values for granular soils. (Section 4.3.1)
3. Meyerhof’s formula based on SPT values for granular soils. (Section 4.3.2)
4. De Beer’s method based on SCPT values for granular soils. (Section 4.3.3)
5. Schmertmann’s method based on SCPT values for granular soils. (Section 4.3.3)
6. Terzaghi’s consolidation theory for clays. (Section 4.4)
7. Equivalent raft approach for pile group in clays. (Section 4.8).

4.2 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS

Elastic or immediate settlement of a rectangular flexible shallow footings is given by the following
equation [1]:
È qB (1 - m 2 ) ˘
D=Í ˙ Iw (4.1)
Î Es ˚
69
 70 Foundation Engineering

where
q= intensity of pressure
B= least lateral dimension = width
m= Poisson’s ratio
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil assumed to be constant with depth
Iw = influence factor depending on shape of footing and its rigidity as given in Table 4.1 for
various points.

TABLE 4.1 INFLUENCE FACTOR Iw [IS 8009 (Part I) 1976, Table 2]

Iw for flexible foundation

Shape IR for rigid
Centre Corner Average foundation
Circle (dia = B) 1.00 0.64 0.85 0.86
Square 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82
Rectangle (L/B)
1.5 1.36 0.68 1.20 1.06
2.0 1.53 0.77 1.31 1.20
5.0 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70
10.0 2.52 1.26 2.25 2.10
100.0 3.38 1.69 2.96 3.40
Note: IR can be taken as 0.8Iw centre.

In the above expression we assumed the depth of soil below the foundation to be infinite or
very large. If it is limited less than 10 times B, the value of Iw should be determined from
Steinbrenner’s Influence factor given in Fig. 4.1 [1].

Values of I w
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

L
H1
B

— = 5
B
Depth factor

L
— = 10
B
6

L L
— = 1 — = •
8 B B
L
— = 2
B

10

Fig. 4.1 Steinbrenner’s influence factor for settlement of the corner of a flexible loaded area
L ¥ B on compressible stratum of m = 0.5 and thickness H1 (IS 8009 Part I, Fig. 11).
 Settlement of Foundations 71

Equation (4.1) can be obtained by similarity of deformation of an elastic rod.

PL pL
D= = (4.2)
AEs Es
If we assume that the depth of influence of loading is of the order of B only, then L =
B(1 – m2). The Es value may be found as discussed in Section 1.9, the most common method being,
to use SPT values. If the strength and elastic modulus of the soil increases with depth the above
equation is not valid as the actual settlement will be much less than that calculated from the E value
at foundation level.
The settlement of a rigid plate on a semi-infinite homogeneous elastic medium has been
worked out by complex calculations involving distribution of pressures and is as follows:
qB(1 - m 2 ) I R
D=
Es
where IR = 0.82 for a square plate.
It is approximately equal to the average settlement of a flexible circular plate (see Table 4.1).

4.2.1 Correction for Depth of Foundation

Footings are always placed (at least 1.5 m) below ground level. In 1948, Fox proposed a correction,
which is given as Fig. 12 of IS 8009 (Part I). Bowles has modified these as shown in Fig. 4.2a, which
gives the reduction factor to be used for correction for the depth of foundation [2].
DD = D ¥ F
Here, D is the value of the settlement of a footing at the surface and F is the reduction factor. Fox’s
correction factors for depth are given in Fig. 4.2b.

1.0

0.9
Reduction factor F

L /B m = 0.5
0.8 = 5
m = 0.3
L /B
= 5
0.7
L /B
= 1
L /B
= 1
0.6

0.5
10.0
5.0
2.0

3.0

4.0
0.5

1.0

Depth ratio D/B

Fig. 4.2a Reduction factor for settlement of footing of width B located at depth D below ground
level (Bowles).
 72 Foundation Engineering

Depth factor
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0

L/B = 100
0.2 GL
25

0.4
B ¥ L 9
D
÷ LB
1
0.6

0.8

1.0

0.8

1
LB 0.6
D 9

0.4

0.2
25

100
0
Fig. 4.2b Fox’s correction factor for settlement of flexible footings of L ¥ B at depth D for m = 0.5
(IS 8009 Part I 1976).

4.2.2 Correction for Width of Foundations

The theory of elasticity as applicable to clay indicates that the deflection of a footing will be
proportional to its width. Terzaghi has suggested from model tests that settlement of foundations
in sands occurs in accordance with the following law, for varying width of foundation:
2
È 2B ˘
D B = D1 Í ˙ (4.3)
Î B + 0.3 ˚
 Settlement of Foundations 73

where,
D1 = settlement of a 0.3 m square plate
DB = settlement of a plate of width B.

4.3 SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION ON COHESIONLESS SOIL

As it is difficult to take undisturbed samples in cohesionless soils, we depend on the results of
in-situ tests (SPT or SCPT tests) to estimate the total settlement. Moreover as the allowable soil
pressure in these soils is governed more by considerations of settlement than bearing failure, it is
desirable to predict them to a fair degree of accuracy.
The SPT corrected values at foundation level N1, at depth 1.5B(N2) and at depth 2B(N3) are
used as follows to find the average value of N to be used in our assessment of settlements and
bearing capacity:
3N1 + 2 N 2 + N3
N=
6

4.3.1 Terzaghi and Peck’s Correlation

From Terzaghi and Peck’s [3] correlation of settlement with SPT values, Teng [4] proposed the
following expression for the load for a given settlement of a footing of breadth B in a sand deposit
with SPT value of N:

2
B + 0.3 ˆ
(For D = 25 mm), p = 34.6( N - 3) Ê kN/m 2
Ë 2B ¯

2
B + 0.3 ˆ
(For D = 1 mm), p1 = 1.385( N - 3) Ê kN/m 2
Ë 2B ¯

Hence the settlement in mm for a load q in kN/m2 is as follows:

2
Ê 0.722q ˆ Ê 2 B ˆ
D=Á mm (4.4)
Ë N - 3 ˜¯ ÁË B + 0.3 ˜¯

where q is in kN/m2 and B in meters.

IS 8009 (Part I) 1976 gives readymade curves from which the settlements can be read off for
a given width of footing and SPT values (see Fig. 4.3). Corrections are also usually made for level
of the ground water table and for depth of the foundation. However, the standard water table
correction is too severe. As it was found that Eq. (4.4) (or Fig. 4.3) gives high values of settlements,
Meyerhof in 1965 proposed the following:

settlement by Eq. (4.4)

Actual settlement = (4.5)
1.5
 74 Foundation Engineering
Z/B v

0.6
0.8
0.4

1.0
0.2
0
1.0
0.9 GL
0.8 D
Z F1
F1 = 0.5 + 0.5 0.7 B z
B 0.6
0.5 B

N = 5

100 mm
Settlement in mm per unit pressure of 100 kN/m 2 (1 t/sqft)

N = 10

N = 15

N = 20
N = 25
N = 30
10 mm N = 35
N = 40
N = 45
N = 50
N = 55
N = 60

1 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Width B of footing in meter
Fig. 4.3 Settlement in mm of a footing of width B loaded with 100 kN/m2 resting on dry cohesionless
soil of given SPT (N). [IS 8009 Part I 1976]

4.3.2 Meyerhof’s Formula Based on SPT Values for Cohesionless Soils

Meyerhof noted that the Terzaghi and Peck’s correction overestimates the actual settlement
considerably. He proposed the following formula based on SPT tests for settlement in mm for q in
kN/m2 and B in meters
1.6q
D= for B < 1.25 m (4.6a)
N
2
2.84q È B ˘
D= for B > 1.25 m (4.6b)
N ÍÎ B + 0.3 ˙˚
2.84q
D= for large rafts (4.6c)
N
 Settlement of Foundations 87

4.13 SUMMARY
Settlement of structures is a very import topic in foundation engineering. In theory, we compute the
settlement of flexible structures. In practice all structures have rigidity. Similarly, although we assume
homogenous conditions, soil deposits are very much varying both in vertical and horizontal
directions. Hence the history of the performance of structures already built are of great importance.
There are a large number of case studies reported in foundation engineering literature [8]. A study
of these cases will enable us to make good judgement in the cases we have to deal with.

EXAMPLE 4.1 (Immediate settlement of footings)

Calculate the immediate average settlement of a flexible footing 2.4 ¥ 1.2 m in clay loaded at
300 kN/m2 assuming E = 5000 kN/m2 and m = 0.25.

Ref. Step Calculations

1 Data
q = 300 kN/m2; B = 1.2 m; m = 0.25
Sec. 4.2 Es = 5000 kN/m2

qB (1 - m 2 ) I w
Eq. (4.1) D= ; L/B = 2.4/1.2 = 2.0
Es

L
Table 4.1 I w Ê for = 2ˆ = 1.31 (average value)
Ë B ¯

2 Calculate elastic settlement

300 ¥ 1.2 ¥ (1 - 0.062) ¥ 1.31

D= = 0.0884 = 88 mm
5000

EXAMPLE 4.2 (Settlement in sand and correction for depth)

A column footing 5 ¥ 5 m is founded at 3 m at depth in a stratum of medium dense sand giving
SPT = 20. Determine the immediate settlement at the surface of the centre point if the column load
is 100 tons and then apply correction for depth of footing.

GL

3 m

5 ¥ 5 m
N = 20
 88 Foundation Engineering

Ref. Step Calculations

Sec. 1.10 Settlement from theory of elasticity
Fig. 1.16b 1 Determine Es value from SPT value
Table 1.10 N = 20 (find Es from SPT value)
Es = 220 + 11N = 220 + 220 = 440 kg/cm2 = 44000 kN/m
m = 0.3
2 Calculate settlement if loaded at the surface
qB(1 - m 2 ) I w
Eq. (4.1) D= from theory of elasticity
Es
Table 4.1 For square Iw = 0.95 (average for flexible footing),
1000
q= = 40 kN/m 2
5¥5

40 ¥ 5 ¥ (1 - 0.32 ) ¥ 0.95
D= = 0.0039 = 3.9 mm
44000
3 Find correction for depth of footing for m = 0.5 (Method 1)
3.0
D/B = = 0.6 and m = 0.5; L/B = 1
5
Fig. 4.2a Depth factor F = 0.82
4 Calculate settlement of footing
D D = D ¥ F = 3.9 ¥ 0.82 = 3.2 mm
Corrected settlement = 3.2 mm
4(a) Alternatively, use Fox’s correction factor Is given m = 0.5 (Method 2)
D 3.0
Fig. 4.2b Use = = 0.6
LB 5¥5
For L/B = 1, depth factor = 0.82.
D1 = 3.9 ¥ 0.82 = 3.2 mm
(Note: See also Example 4.3)

EXAMPLE 4.3 (Settlement of footings in sand)

Determine the settlement of the footing in Example 4.2 using Eq. (6.11) for settlement calculation of
footing from SPT values from Terzaghi–Peck correlation and also by using Fig. 4.3.
 Settlement of Foundations 89

Ref. Step Calculations

1 Equation for setttlement of footings in sand proposed by Teng
2
È 0.722q ˘ È 2 B ˘
Eq. (4.4) s=Í ˙ Í ˙ at ground level
Î N - 3 ˚ Î B + 0.3 ˚
where s is in mm and q in kN/m2
q = 40 kN/m2; B = 5 m and N = 20
2
0.722 ¥ 40 ˘ È 2 ¥ 5 ˘
s = ÈÍ ˙˚ ÍÎ 5 + 0.3 ˙˚ = 6.1 mm
Î 17
= 6.1 mm (as against 3.9 mm in Example 4.2)
2 Calculate settlement of footing using Fig. 4.3
Fig. 4.3 For N = 20 width of footing 5 m,
D for 100 kN/m2 = 17 mm
Hence, D for 40 kN/m2 = 17 ¥ 0.4 = 6.8 mm
Teng’s formula and Fig. 4.3 give the same results.

EXAMPLE 4.4 (Calculation of settlement in sands from SPT–values)

Determine the settlement of a 10 m square area loaded at 100 kN/m2, placed at 1 m below the ground
level in a bed of sand. Ground water level is just below the footing. The SPT values are as follows:

Depth Average SPT

1 m to B/2 (5 m) 20(N1)
5 m to B (10 m) 25(N2)
10 m to 2B (20 m) 30(N3)

Ref. Step Calculations

Text 1 Find average value of SPT N
3 N1 + 2 N 2 + N 3 60 + 50 + 30
Sec. 4.3 N= = = 23
6 6
2 Settlement by Terzaghi–Peck correlation
(Assume SPT values are the corrected values)
given q = 100 kN/m2
2
0.722 Ê 2 B ˆ
Eq. (4.4) D= mm
( N - 3) ÁË B + 0.3 ˜¯
0.722 ¥ 100 È 20 ˘2
= ÍÎ10.3 ˙˚ = 13.7 mm
20
Correction for ground water level is not generally applied to
settlements but only for bearing capacities.
 90 Foundation Engineering

3 Apply Meyerhof ’s recommendation

D 13.6
Sec. 4.3.1 Actual settlement = = = 9 mm
1.5 1.5
4 Calculation of settlement using IS 8009 Chart
Fig. 4.3 For q = 100 kN/m2 and B = 10 m (> 6 m); N = 23
D = 14 mm (without corrrection)
(It will be the same as the value in step 2 as both are based on the same
principle.)
5 Settlement using Meyerhof’s formula
(5 ¥ 20) + (5 ¥ 25)
Average N over B = = 22.5
10
2
2.84q È B ˘
Sec. 4.3.2 D= , where N is the SPT value
N ÍÎ B + 0.3 ˙˚
2
2.84 ¥ 100 È 10 ˘
Eq. (4.6b) D= = 11.8 mm
22.5 ÍÎ10.33 ˙˚

EXAMPLE 4.5 (Settlement by De Beer’s method)

Estimate the settlement of a 10 m square area loaded 1 m at 100 kN/m2 placed 1 m below ground level
with ground water at the level of the footing. The static cone resistance qc values for the sand deposit
are as follows: G.L. to 6 m = 8000 kN/m2; 6–11 mm = 10,000 kN/m2; below 11 m = 12,000 kN/m2.

Ref. Step Calculations

1 Assume gsat = 20 kN/m3. Then, gsub = 10 kN/m3
qc
Sec. 4.3.3 C = 1.5 (De Beer and Martin)
p0
Assume seat of settlement is within 2B (i.e.) 2 ¥ 10 = 20 m
H Ê p0 + DP ˆ
Eq. (4.9) Total settlement D = Â 2.303 C log 10 ÁË p
0
˜¯

(Assume three layers 5 m, 5 m and 10 m below the foundation level

consider middepth of each layer and find po and Dp
2 Find p0 and Dp at midpoint of each layer
Layer 1: p0 = (20 ¥ 1) + (10 ¥ 2.5) = 45 kN/m2
Assume 2 to 1 distribution (for exact values, use Fig. 3.6 of Chapter 3)
100 ¥ 10 ¥ 10
Dp = = 64 kN/m 2
12.5 ¥ 12.5
Layer 2: p0 = 20 + 10 ¥ 7.5 m = 95 kN/m2
100 ¥ 10 ¥ 10
Dp = = 32.65 kN/m 2
17.5 ¥ 17.5
 100 Foundation Engineering

1. Simple (square, circular or rectangular) footings with flat or sloping top surface
2. Strip footings
3. Combined footings (rectangular, trapezoidal, or other shapes)
4. Strap footings (balanced base type and cantilever type)
The choice of any of these particular type depends on factors like the intensity of load, nature
of subsoil, nature of super structure and location of load to property line. We must remember that
in most cases simple footings are the most economical foundations.
In this chapter we shall explain some of the basic principles pertaining to shallow and deep
foundations.

5.2 DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS

The minimum depth of foundations prescribed by IS 1904 [2] is 0.5 m. In clayey soils and especially
in case of expansive clays, the depth should be below a level where there is no variation of moisture
with change of seasons. As the external walls have to act as a protection againt insects and rodents,
the depth should be sufficient so as to prevent their access through burrows made under the
foundation. Generally, a minimum depth of 1 m is adopted for foundations. In general, even though
in sandy soils and silty clays the depth can be 0.5 to 0.7 m in clay soils, where the variation of
moisture content causes shrinkage, the depth should vary from 1.5 to 3 m depending on the region.
Some structural factors that influence the depth of foundations are discussed in the following
sections.
Depth between adjacent footings of new constructions. In general, the load can be assumed to
spread into the soil from the edge of footing at 30° to the horizontal in soil and 60° in rock. (Some
take this distribution as 1 vertical to 2 horizontal or 26.6° to 30° to the horizontal in clay and 1 to
1.2 or 40° to 45° in sand.) For estimation of stresses for calculating the settlement of piles, we assume
2 vertical to 1 horizontal. The following rules are to be followed when laying out foundations:
1. When the ground surface slopes downward adjacent to a footing, the sloping surface
should not cut the line of distribution of the load (2 horizontal to 1 vertical) as shown
in Fig. 5.2.

Footing

30 to 45°
1 26.6°
2

(b)
(a)

Fig. 5.2 Action of footing near slopes.

 General Requirements of Shallow and Deep Foundations 101

2. In granular soils, the line joining the lower adjacent edges of the upper and lower footings
shall not have a slope steeper than two horizontal to one vertical (Fig. 5.3).
3. In clayey soil, the line joining the lower adjacent edge of the upper footing and the upper
adjacent edge of the lower footing should not be steeper than 2 horizontal to 1 vertical.

Upper footing 2H

B 2
1 H Footings
in clay in sand

Fig. 5.3 Rules for location of adjacent footings at different levels.

Constructing a new footing near the footing of an old building. A footing significantly affects the
stresses to a depth equal to twice its width. In order to avoid damage to the existing structure, the
areas of stress distribution should not significantly interfere with each other.
Accordingly, we should adhere to the following rules:
1. Minimum horizontal distance between the two footings should not be less than the width
of the larger footings to avoid damage to the existing structure.
2. If the distance is limited, the principle of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical dispersion should be used
so that the foundation of the old building is not very much affected by the new
construction.
In any case, extreme care should be taken for supporting the sides of the excavations if the
new footings have to go deeper than the old foundation.
Footings on surface rocks and sloping rock faces. In places where solid rock is available near the
ground level (less than 90 cm in depth), the rock should be chipped and the concrete of the
foundation should be properly keyed into the rock. In places where the rock surface is on a shallow
slope, it is advisable to provide dowel rods 16 mm dia dowelled to a minimum depth of 225 mm at
a spacing of not more than 1 metre and adequately grouted. In such places, we can also bench the
rock surface to provide a better key to the foundation.

5.3 IMPORTANCE OF SOIL IMMEDIATELY BELOW

FOUNDATION SHALLOW
In cohesionless soils it is the settlement that governs the safe bearing capacity. In cohesive soils,
both settlement and strength of foundations are important.
 General Requirements of Shallow and Deep Foundations 105

Balanced footings or cantilever footings. These are commonly used when one column which exist
too near the property line has to be balanced by an adjacent column.
Raft foundation. These are used when the foundation soil offers poor bearing capacity and
particularly when it has weak patches. With isolated footings, they come too close to each other
and differential settlements tend to be very large. Different types of slabs offering different rigidities
can be used depending on the nature of the soil and the pattern of loading.
Pile foundation. When the top strata is very poor and reasonably good soil strata exist below the
top soil, a pile foundation becomes more reliable and economic than others. Also in certain situations
where settlements cannot be tolerated, we have to use piles. For large rigid frame structures like tall
buildings, chimneys and where settlements are dangerous and very high lateral loads are to be
transmitted through the foundations, pile foundations are the obvious choice. In the ideal pile
foundation, all the loads are assumed to be taken by piles and the number of piles necessary are
calculated accordingly.
Piled raft. When the bearing capacity of a raft is satisfactory but the settlement is not satisfactory,
a combination of raft on piles will provide the advantages of both, rafts and piles. As a means of
reducing settlements, piles are called upon only to take a small percentage of the load and the rest
is designed to be carried by the raft.
Compensated or floating foundations. The method used in this type is to excavate considerable
amount of soil, as nearly equal to the weight of the building as possible, from the bottom of the
structure and build basement floors, so that the load carried by the soil is considerably reduced.
In fully compensated foundation, the weight of the soil excavated will be equal to the weight to be
carried by the foundation.
Pier or well foundations. Large diameter piles, piers, and deep-well foundations are usually used
for bridges and other structures to carry heavy loads. Deep-well foundations are specially useful
for bridges across large rivers with deep scouring of the river bed.

EXAMPLE 5.1 (Footing near a slope)

A footing 2 ¥ 2 m is to be founded at a depth of 1 m near a 40° slope 5 m in height. Find the minimum
distance the centre of the footing should be placed so that the stability of the footing is not affected
by the slope.
X A
1m
1m

4m 5m

30°
40°
B
D C
Fig. E.5.1
 106 Foundation Engineering

Ref. Step Calculations

Fig. E.5.1 1 Find the height of the base of footing from toe of slope
(Principle: A 30° line from the base of the footing should not cut the slope)
Depth of footing = 1 m
Height of slope = 6 m
Height of footing above toe = 6 – 1 = 5 m
2 Find horizontal distance for safe foundation
The 30° line from the edge of the foundation should meet the toe.
AC 5
BC = = = 6.02 m
tan 40 0.83
ED 4
BD = = = 6.90 m
tan 30 0.58
CD = BD – BC = 0.88 m
3. Determine position of centre of footing
AX = CD + 1/2 width = 1.88 m (say 2 m)
The centre of footing should be 2 m from edge of slope.

EXAMPLE 5.2 (Design of conventional brick footings)

The load bearing brick wall for a building has to carry 120 kN per metre length. The soil has a safe
bearing capacity of 150 kN/m2. Design (a) a conventional stepped brick footing and (b) a suitable
continuous reinforced strip footing for the above conditions.

337 mm

1000 150 458

150 2 Courses
150
300 mm
150 797 350
q 200 200
1000
1000
(a) (b)
Fig. E.5.2 (a) Stepped footing; (b) reinforced concrete footing.
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