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Air Entrainment and Oxygen Transfer in a Venturi

Article  in  Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water and Maritime Engineering · September 2003
DOI: 10.1680/wama.156.3.249.38022

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Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers
Water & Maritime Engineering 156
September 2003 Issue WM3
Pages 249^255

Paper 13055
Received 20/09/2002
Accepted 26/03/2003

Keywords:
Ahmet Baylar M. Emin Emiroglu
environment/water supply
Civil Engineering Civil Engineering
Department, Firat Department, Firat
University, Elazig, Turkey University, Elazig, Turkey

Air entrainment and oxygen transfer in a venturi

A. Baylar and M. E. Emiroglu
The dissolved oxygen content is a prime indicator of the Qw water discharge
quality of water. Water jets can increase dissolved oxygen T water temperature
levels when the jet impact velocity exceeds a critical t time
velocity. In this paper, air entrainment rate and oxygen V volume over which C and A are measured
transfer efficiency of a venturi device with air holes at the Vj water jet velocity
throat portion were studied experimentally, and in parti- z distance from interface
cular the effect of varying numbers, positions, and the y plunge angle of water jet
open/closed status of the air holes. A negative pressure r density
drew air in through holes at the throat portion of the
venturi device. The resulting aeration of the jet affected 1. INTRODUCTION
its expansion, its shape, the air entrainment rate, the When a water jet enters a pool of water at rest, air bubbles may
bubble penetration depth, and hence the oxygen transfer be entrained and carried well below the pool’s free surface. This
efficiency. It was demonstrated that the values of the air process is called plunging water jet entrainment and aeration.
entrainment rate and the oxygen transfer efficiency of the Gas entrainment by water jets is frequently met in practice. In
venturi device were significantly higher than those for a particular, water jets have potential applications in many
circular nozzle. chemical, fermentation and waste treatment processes. In the
natural process of self-purification (re-aeration) of rivers,
streams, waterfalls and weirs, jets that entrain air and provide
NOTATION
good contact and dispersion of air bubbles into the body of
A air–water surface area contained in volume V
water play a significant role. Water jets also have an interesting
a specific surface area (A/V), or surface area per unit
application in flotation processes.1
volume
C DO concentration in water
C0 oxygen concentration in water at start of aeration Various research workers have studied the air entrainment rate
Cs saturation concentration of oxygen in water and the oxygen transfer efficiency of plunging water jets.
Cs
saturation concentration of oxygen in water at Experimental studies on air entrainment by plunging water jets
standard conditions were carried out by Ahmed,2 van de Sande and Smith,3,4
Ct oxygen concentration in water at time t of aeration McKeogh and Ervine5 and Sene.6 Kusabiraki et al.7,8 studied the
D diameter of circular nozzle effect of nozzles having various values of length-to-diameter
Do diffusivity of oxygen ratio on the air entrainment rate, Q A. These and the other
DO dissolved oxygen related studies were reviewed by Bin.1 Evans et al.9 measured
Dp bubble penetration depth the change in effective jet diameter as a function of free jet
H Henry’s law constant length for vertical water jets passing through air. Recently,
Je free water jet expansion width at impact point Oguz,10 Zhu et al.11 and Ohl et al.12 have studied the role of
K bulk transfer coefficient surface disturbances in the entrainment of bubbles by water
Ka bulk gas film coefficient jets. Yamagiwa et al. investigated the effect of nozzle contrac-
KL bulk liquid film coefficient tion angle on Q A of a vertical plunging water jet,13 and the
(KLa) mass transfer coefficient effects of liquid properties on air entrainment of a plunging
(KLa)20 mass transfer coefficient at standard conditions liquid jet.14 Moreover, the oxygen transfer efficiency in water
(KLa)T mass transfer coefficient at T 8C jets was studied by Ahmed,2 van de Sande and Smith,15 van de
Lj length of water jet Donk,16 Tojo and Miyanami,17 Tojo et al.,18 Bin and Smith,19
LN length of circular nozzle Ohkawa et al.,20 Bin,21 Funatsu et al.22 and Yamagiwa et al.14
Nj water jet power
OE oxygen transfer efficiency All these researchers have dealt with circular nozzles; none has
OR oxygen transfer rate studied the effect of a venturi device with and without air holes
Pa partial pressure of oxygen in the air on air entrainment and oxygen transfer. This paper describes an
QA air entrainment rate experimental investigation into the values of the air entrain-

Water & Maritime Engineering 156 Issue WM3 Air entrainment and oxygen transfer in a venturi Baylar 3 Emiroglu 249
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 Converging Diverging Without With 1 air With 2 air
cone Throat cone air hole hole holes
1 2
Direction of flow
from 1 to 2

20 00
20 00

16 00
. . .

Direction of flow
from 2 to 1

Numbers and positions of air holes

at throat portion of venturi device
25. 00 11. 34 16.00 22.86 25. 00

(a)

Direction
27 00

of flow

20 00
. .

25.00 LN/D = 5

(b)

Fig. 1. Dimensions of: (a) venturi device; (b) circular nozzle (all dimensions in mm)

ment rate, Q A, and the oxygen transfer efficiency, OE, of a to define the exact range of Reynolds numbers within which
venturi device, and especially the effect of varying numbers, this type of entrainment occurs, as the laminar properties of the
positions, and the open/closed status of the air holes at its jet are dependent not only on the Reynolds number but also on
throat (Fig. 1). the shape of the nozzle.

2. AIR ENTRAINMENT MECHANISMS As a fully turbulent jet impinges on the pool, the indentation
The mechanisms by which air is entrained into water by a water on the surface becomes highly irregular in form because of the
jet are several and complex. McKeogh and Ervine5 suggested jet’s rough periphery, which entraps ambient air. Air captured
four mechanisms for air entrainment depending on jet by the above processes is distributed in the form of bubbles by
turbulence. They classified mechanisms of air entrainment as diffusion, as shown in Fig. 2(c).

(a) annular oscillation As a water jet falls freely, a point is reached when complete
(b) intermittent vortex disintegration of the solid mass of falling water occurs. The jet
(c) turbulent occlusion subsequently falls in the form of discrete water drops, which
(d) droplet entrainment. entrain air upon impact with the pool. The streamlines around
the growing cavity resemble the lines of force around one end
These processes are illustrated in Fig. 2. of a magnet, as in Fig. 2(d).

Laminar jets (see Fig. 2(a)) are relatively smooth and form an 3. OXYGEN TRANSFER EFFICIENCY
oscillating annulus at the plunging point. The annulus typically The bulk transfer coefficient describes the rate of oxygen flow
extends several jet diameters beneath the pool surface. across an air–water interface with the equation23
Entrainment occurs when the annulus breaks apart from the jet.

 
qC qC

Pa
1 V ¼ Do
¼ KA C
When the jet is in transition between laminar and turbulent qt qz z¼0 H
conditions (Fig. 2(b)), an intermittent vortex appears. In this
case an indentation of the pool surface appears around the jet where C is the oxygen concentration in the water, V is the
periphery. The indentation is caused by a combination of the volume over which C and A are measured, t is time, Do is the
downward jet flow and the pressure of the air within the diffusivity of oxygen, z is the distance from the interface, A is
boundary layer surrounding the jet. The intermittent vortex the air–water surface area contained in the volume V, Pa is the
indentation does not extend beneath the surface as far as the partial pressure of oxygen in the air, H is Henry’s law constant,
oscillating annulus and is not as sharply curved. A free vortex and K is the bulk transfer coefficient, defined by equation (1).
causes an inward radial flow (see Fig. 2(b) inset). It is difficult The bulk transfer form of equation (1) is normally used in

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 (a) (b)
Plunging point
Rippled Jet
Smooth jet jet surface Vortex
Oscillating
annulus
Surface Inward
bubbles flow

o
o
o o

o o
o
o

o
o

oo
oo
o

o
o oo

o oo

o
o

o
o

o
o oo oo o oooooooo
o o o o oo o oo ooo
o o o o oo o
o

o oo oo o
o o o oo o o o o
o

o
o o o

o o o

oo
o o

o o
Ascending

ooo o oo o o o
Ascending

o
o

o
o

o o
Descending

o o ooo
o

o
o

o
o o o oo o o ooo
oo
o

o o o oo o
o

o o o o o o o o oo o
o o oo o
o oo oo o o ooooo
bubbles bubbles

o
ooo o oo o o o o
o

o
o

o
o o o o oo o
o

o
o

o o ooo o
bubbles

o o
o oo o
o

o oo o o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o o

o o
o

o
o

o
o
o
oo o o
(1_ 2 mm dia.)

o
o o o o
o o o
o
o
o o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o oo

o
Descending

o
o

o
o

o o o
o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o
o o o o

o
o o o
o
o

o oo
o

o
o
o o
o o

o o

o o
bubbles

o
o
o

o
o

o
o

o
Large

o
o
o

o o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o o

o
o

o
o
o
o o

o
o

o
o

o
o
penetration

o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o
o

o o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o o
o
o

o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o
depth, D p

o
o

o
o

o
o o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o

o
o

o
o o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o
o

o
o

(c) (d)
Intense
Rough jet Liquid drop
surface
roughness 'Boils'
(emergent
bubbles)
(I) (II)
o oo oo o o o oo o o

o
ooo

o
o oo
o

o o oo o
o oo o o o

o o o oo o oo o

o
o
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o
o oo
o o o o oo ooooo
o o

o o o
o o oo o o o

oo
o
o

o
o

o
oo o o
o

o o o oo o
o o

o o
o

oo o o

o
o o o

Closely
o o
o

oo

oo
o o
o
o
o
o

packed
o o o o
o o o
o
o o

o
o o
o
o

bubbles
o
o

o
o

(2 mm dia. approx.)
(III) (IV)

Descending
air bubble
(V)

Fig. 2. Mechanisms of air entrainment

turbulent flow because the concentration gradient, C/z, is so which, when solved, yields
difficult to measure at, or near, the interface. The bulk transfer
coefficient is given as the inverse sum of resistances to transfer  
Cs  Ct
on the two sides of the interface24 5 ln ¼ ðKL aÞt
Cs  C0

1 1 1
2 ¼ þ where C0 and Ct are the oxygen concentrations in the water at
K KL HKa
the start and time t of aeration, and KLa is the mass transfer
coefficient. Equation (5) shows that values of KLa can be
where KL is the bulk liquid film coefficient, and Ka is the bulk
obtained by using a semi-logarithmic plot of
gas film coefficient.
 ln½ðCs  Ct Þ=ðCs  C0 Þ
against time, t. To provide a uniform
basis for comparison of different systems, KLa is often normal-
For many elements and compounds, including oxygen, mass ised to a 208C standard. The influence of temperature is
transfer is water-side controlled because the resistance on the described by25
water side is much greater than that on the air side, or
KL  HKa . Therefore K ffi KL , and equation (1) becomes
6 ðKL aÞ20 ¼ ðKL aÞT ð1024Þð20TÞ
dC A
3 ¼ KL ðCs  C Þ
dt V where (KLa)20 is the mass transfer coefficient at standard
conditions (1/h), (KLa)T is the mass transfer coefficient at T8C
where Cs ¼ Pa =H is the saturation concentration of oxygen in (1/h), and T is the water temperature (8C).
water, in equilibrium at local air pressure and temperature. The
term A/V is often called the specific surface area, a, or surface
The aeration performance of water jets is often expressed in
area per unit volume.
terms of the oxygen transfer efficiency, OE (kg O2/kWh), as
defined by
The integrated form of equation (3) is obtained by integrating
between the limits of C ¼ C0 and C ¼ C, and t ¼ 0 and t ¼ t,
OR  V
as follows 7 OE ¼
Nj

ðC ðt
dC
4 ¼ ðKL aÞ dt where OR is the oxygen transfer rate (mg/l/h) at 208C and 1
C0 Cs  C 0
atmosphere (standard conditions), V is the aerated volume of

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 water (m3), and Nj is the water jet power (W). OR and Nj can be Q A and OE for the circular nozzle were studied for comparison
expressed as with the venturi device.

8 OR ¼ ðKL aÞ20 Cs
The residence time of entrained air bubbles in a water body
directly affects aeration performance. The residence time is
9 Nj ¼ 12rQ
Qw Vj2 related to the bubble flow path and hence to the bubble
penetration depth (DP) into the water tank. Aeration and
where Cs* is the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen oxygen transfer will increase with air bubble penetration until
(DO) at standard conditions (mg/l), r is density (kg/m3), Q w is buoyancy prevails and bubbles rise. In these experiments, the
water discharge (m3/s), and V j is water jet velocity (m/s). water depth was always greater than bubble penetration.

4. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY Tap water was used for all experiments reported in this paper.
A series of laboratory experiments were carried out to obtain Salt content was consequently low and was monitored
the values of Q A and OE for the venturi device and the circular constantly during the experiments to prevent any build-up of
nozzle over a range of velocities between 2·5 and 15 m/s with residues caused by the deoxidant chemicals added to the water.
the length of the water jet, Lj ¼ 030 m. The 608 plunge angle Therefore the presence of chemicals or pollutants did not affect
of the water jet was used in experiments for air entrainment the results. Each experiment was started by filling the water
and 608 and 908 in experiments to measure oxygen transfer tank with the tap water. Sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) and cobalt
efficiency. The study was conducted using an experimental chloride (CoCl2) were added to the tap water to reduce the DO
apparatus in the Hydraulic Laboratory at the Engineering concentration to 0 mg/l: 7·9 g/m3 of Na2SO3 were required to
Faculty of Firat University, Elazig, Turkey. A schematic remove 1 g/m3 of DO of the tap water. Based on the DO of the
representation of the experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 3. It test tap water, the approximate Na2SO3 requirements were
consisted of a water tank, a water pump, a water rotameter, a estimated (a 10–20% excess was used). As a catalyst, 3·3 g/m3
thermometer, a DO meter, a DO probe, a venturi device, an air of CoCl2 were added to promote the deoxygenation reaction.
rotameter, an air hood, a release valve, and a scale. DO concentrations were measured using a calibrated portable
Hanna Model HI 9142 oxygen meter at the location identified
All jet experiments were carried out in a 1·8 m3 water tank with in Fig. 3. The DO meter was calibrated daily, prior to use, by the
glass walls (0·75 m wide  2·0 m long  1·2 m high). The water air calibration method recommended by the manufacturer. The
in the experimental set-up was recirculated by a pump, and a calibration was performed in humid air under ambient con-
water rotameter was used to measure discharge. The venturi ditions.
device used in the experiments was manufactured according to
the recommended proportions of the ASME venturi tubes, as 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
shown in Fig. 1. The inlet and outlet diameters of the venturi In this study, the values of Q A and OE were obtained as a
device were 20·0 mm and the exit diameter of the circular function of water jet velocity (VV j) and nozzle type (venturi
nozzle was also 20·0 mm. The air hood, for which the plan- device or circular nozzle). The following sections discuss: Je,
view dimensions were 0·70 m  0·75 m, was used to obtain the the maximum free water jet expansion dimension at the impact
values of Q A using an air rotameter installed on its surface. point; the air entrainment rate, Q A; the bubble penetration
depth produced by the water jet, Dp; and the oxygen transfer
At the throat portion of the venturi device, 2 mm diameter air efficiency results, OE, which are shown to vary with the water
holes were drilled through the wall, as illustrated in Fig. 1. A jet velocity (V
V j) in Figs 4–7.
negative pressure (below atmospheric pressure—that is, a
vacuum) occurred at the air holes. The values of Q A and OE of The values of Je for the venturi device and the circular nozzle
the venturi device were studied by varying the numbers, were measured as a function of V j, as shown in Fig. 4. It is seen
positions, and open/closed status of the air holes. The values of in the figure that the variation in Je was closely related to
numbers, positions, and the open/closed status of the air holes
at the throat portion of the venturi device. In all experiments Je
increased as the water jet velocity increased. The values for the
8 venturi device were greater than those for the circular nozzle.
7
One air hole, when open in the venturi device, distorted the jet
5 4
o o o
9
o o o o
to the form of an arc at the point of impact. However, in the
o o o o o
o o o o o o o o

venturi device with two air holes, the form of the jet was an
o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o
o o o o
o o o
o o
o
o o o o o
o o
o o o o
o o o
o o o o o

oval at the point of impact. When the air holes were closed,
o o o o
o

3
o
o o o o o
o o o
o
o o o o o

11 o
o
o
o
o o
o
o

o
o o
o

o
o

o
o
o

6 both the venturi device and the circular nozzle generated

o o

circular jets.
1
2 It is shown in Fig. 5 that the numbers, positions, and open/
10 closed status of the air holes at the throat of the venturi device
were the most important factors influencing the values of Q A. It
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of experimental apparatus: was observed that Q A increased in all experiments as the water
1, water tank; 2, water pump; 3, water rotameter; 4, jet velocity increased. The venturi device in which two air holes
thermometer; 5, DO meter; 6, DO probe; 7, venturi device;
8, air rotameter; 9, air-hood; 10, release valve; 11, scale were opened and flow was from point 2 to point 1 had the
greatest Q A for all circumstances, and the circular nozzle had

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 boundary of the submerged biphasic region in the water, was
175
measured by a scale fitted to the water tank wall. Fig. 6 shows
typical measurements of DP depending on nozzle types as a
150
function of V j. The variation in DP is closely related to the
_3
Water jet expansion: m × 10

parameters of the venturi device of previous figures. It was

125
found from the results that DP tended to increase with
increasing V j. The penetration depth for plunge angles of 608
100 and 908 was the greatest with the circular nozzle and the lowest
with the venturi device with two air holes for flow from point 2
75 to point 1. Penetration depth, DP, decreased as the air
entrainment rate increased, as shown in Figs 5 and 6. There are
50 two reasons for this behaviour. The first is the expansion of the

25
1.2

0
0 2 .5 5 .0 7. 5 10 .0 12 . 5 15 . 0 17. 5
Water jet velocity: m/s
0.9

Bubble penetration depth: m

^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1) 0.6
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
~ Circular nozzle (D = 20 mm)

Fig. 4. Variation in water jet expansion with water jet 0.3

velocity for venturi device and circular nozzle

0
600
500 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12 .5 15. 0 17.5
400 Water jet velocity: m/s
300
(a)
4
_
Air entrainment rate: m 3 /s × 10

200
1. 2

100

0.9
Bubble penetration depth: m

0.6

10
0 .3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20
Water jet velocity: m/s

^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)

& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2) 0
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1) Water jet velocity: m/s
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
~ Circular nozzle (D = 20 mm) (b)

^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)

Fig. 5. Variation in air entrainment rate with water jet & 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
velocity for venturi device and circular nozzle * 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
~ Circular nozzle (D = 20 mm)
the lowest. It was observed from Figs 4 and 5 that Q A increased
with water jet expansion in all experiments.
Fig. 6. Variation in bubble penetration depth with water jet
velocity for venturi device and circular nozzle: (a) y ¼ 608;
The penetration depth, DP, for the water jet, which was defined (b) y ¼ 908
as the vertical distance from the water surface to the lower

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 jet prior to impact induced by the inflow of air to the venturi have limited value because of the small bubble penetration
device, which in turn tends to reduce the downward momentum depth. This is especially disadvantageous when large volumes
component of the jet. The second is the buoyancy of the air of pool liquid have to be aerated.
bubbles, which imposes an upward acceleration on the fluid
within the jet. The smaller amount of air carried down by the The air entrainment rate and oxygen transfer efficiency were
circular nozzle permitted a deeper penetration of the jet. greater in the venturi device than for the circular nozzle, as
illustrated in Figs 5 and 7. It was observed from Fig. 7 that the
Figure 7 shows that OE was influenced by the parameters for circular nozzle for plunge angles of 608 and 908 had the lowest
the venturi device shown in previous figures. From the graphs values of OE of all experiments. For these plunge angles, the
in Fig. 7 it appeared that the values of OE decreased in all venturi device with air holes had greater values of OE than the
experiments as the water jet velocity increased. Although OE at venturi device without air holes. Moreover, in these experi-
low water jet velocities is very high, in practice these water jets ments a reversal of the direction of flow yielded similar values
of OE. In general, these trends for OE reflect the variations in
water jet expansion, water jet shape, air entrainment rate and
bubble penetration depth.
20

Certain trends indicated by equations (7)–(9) are evident in the

obtained experimental results. In equation (8) an increase of a
Oxygen transfer efficiency: kg O 2 /kWh

16
(surface area per unit volume) induced by aeration in the
venturi device clearly increases oxygen transfer efficiency,
V j)2 is
whereas an increase of Nj decreases it. And as Q w(V
12 3 2
proportional to Q A /A , any tendency for the jet to expand
before impact on the water surface increases a (surface area per
8
unit volume), so reducing Nj and benefiting oxygen transfer.

6. CONCLUSIONS
4 Free water jets from a venturi device and a circular nozzle
impinged on a water surface and entrained air bubbles to
generate oxygen transfer. In this study, a series of laboratory
0 experiments were carried out to obtain the values of Q A and OE
0 2. 5 5.0 7 .5 10 .0 12.5 15.0 17.5 of a venturi device and a circular nozzle with the same exit
Water jet velocity: m/s diameters. Based on the findings of this study, the following
(a) conclusions were drawn.

20 (a) It was observed from all experiments that the numbers,

positions, and open/closed status of the air holes at the
throat portion of the venturi device were the most
Oxygen transfer efficiency: kg O2 /kwh

16
important factors influencing the water jet expansion, the
air entrainment rate, the bubble penetration depth, and the
oxygen transfer efficiency.
12
(b) The variation in the air entrainment rate and the oxygen
transfer efficiency was closely related to the water jet
expansion. Increasing the water jet expansion led to higher
8
air entrainment rates in all circumstances tested.
(c) In all experiments, as the water jet velocity increased, the
4
air entrainment rate increased but the oxygen transfer
efficiency decreased.
(d ) In all experiments the shape of the water jet was an
0 important parameter influencing the air entrainment rate
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 and the oxygen transfer efficiency.
Water jet velocity: m/s (e) The circular nozzle had the lowest values of air entrain-
(b) ment rate of all experiments, whereas the venturi device in
which two air holes were opened and flow was from point
^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2)
& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2) 2 to point 1 had the greatest.
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 1 to 2) ( f ) The values of the air entrainment rate of the venturi device
^ All air holes closed in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1)
& 1 air hole opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1) for flow from point 2 to point 1 exceeded those for flow
* 2 air holes opened in venturi device (flow from 2 to 1) from point 1 to point 2. The reason for this was found to be
~ Circular nozzle (D = 20 mm)
a slight variation in the angle of the converging cone (that
is, as this angle decreased, air entrainment rate increased).
Fig. 7. Variation in oxygen transfer efficiency with water jet (g) In all tests the bubble penetration depth increased as the
velocity for venturi device and circular nozzle: (a) y ¼ 608;
(b) y ¼ 908 water jet velocity increased but decreased as the air
entrainment rate increased. The venturi device yielded

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 lower bubble penetration depths than the circular nozzle ging liquid jet. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science,
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difference is related to differing water jet shapes, air 10. OGUZ H. N. Role of surface disturbances in the entrainment
entrainment rates, and water jet expansion. of bubbles by a liquid jet. Journal of Fluid Mechanics,
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flows in either direction. Fluid Mechanics, 2000, 404, 151–177.
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values of air entrainment rate and oxygen transfer entrainment by a disturbed liquid jet. Physics of Fluids,
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Engineering of Japan, 2001, 34, No. 4, 506–512.
The financial support for this work was provided by Firat
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