FUNGI

The fungi (sing; fungus) are a group of eukaryotic non-photosynthetic organisms that generally reproduce both
sexually and asexually

General characteristics of fungi

Fungi are eukaryotic chemo-organotrophic organisms that have no chlorophyll. The vegetative body of a
fungus, called a thallus (pl. thalli) may consist of a single cell as in yeasts, or more typically consists of
filaments, 5 – 10µm across, which are commonly branched.
The yeast cell or mold filament is surrounded by a true cell wall. Some fungi are dimorphic; that is they exist in
two forms. Some pathogenic fungi of humans and other animals have unicellular and yeast-like form in their
host, but when growing saprophytically in soil or on a laboratory medium they have a filamentous mold form.
However, the opposite dimorphic phenomenon occurs in some plant pathogens. In Taphrina deformans (which
causes peach leaf curl) or in smuts (which causes cereal smuts), the mycelial form occurs in the host and the
unicellular yeast-like form occurs in laboratory culture. Thus a fungal colony may be a mass of yeast cells, or it
may be a filamentous mat of mold.

Morphology
In general, yeast cells are larger than most bacteria. Yeasts vary considerably in size, ranging from 1 – 5µm in
width and from 5 – 30µm or more in length. They are commonly egg-shaped, but some are elongated and some
spherical. Yeasts have no flagella or other organelles of locomotion.

The thallus of a mold consists essentially of two parts;

         The mycelium (pl. mycelia), and
         The spores (resistant, resting, or dormant cells).
The mycelium is a complex of several filaments called hyphae (sing. hypha). New hyphae generally arise from
a spore which on germination puts out a germ tube or tubes. The germ tubes elongate and branch to form
hyphae. Hyphae are composed of an outer tube-like wall surrounding a cavity, the lumen, which is filled or
lined by protoplasm. Between the protoplasm and the wall is the plasmalemma, a double-layered membrane
which surrounds the protoplasm. The hyphal wall consists of microfibrils composed for the most part of
hemicellulose or chitin; true cellulose occurs only in the walls of lower fungi. Wall matrix material in which the
microfibrils are embedded consists of proteins, lipids, and other substances.

Growth of a hypha is distal, near the tip. The major region of elongation takes place in the region just behind the
tip. The young hypha may become divided into cells by crosswalls which are formed
by centripetal invagination (inward growth) from the existing cell wall. These crosswalls constrict the
plasmalemma and grow inward to form generally an incomplete septum (pl. septa) that has
a central pore which allows for protoplasmic streaming. Even nuclei may migrate from cell to cell in the hypha.
Hypae occur in three forms;
1.      Nonseptate, or coenocytic hyphae – such hyphae have no septa.
2.      Septate with uninucleate cells
3.      Septate with multinucleate cells. Each cell has more than one nucleus in each compartment.

Mycelia can be either vegetative or reproductive. Some vegetative mycelium penetrates into the medium in
order to obtain nutrients; soluble nutrients are absorbed through walls. Reproductive mycelia are responsible for
spore production and usually extend from the medium into the air.

Reproduction
Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction (also called somatic or vegetative
reproduction) does not involve the union of nuclei, sex cells, or sex organs. It may be accomplished by;
1.      fission of somatic cells yielding two similar daughter cells;
2.      budding of somatic cells or spores, each bud a small outgrowth of the parent cell developing into a new
individual;
3.      fragmentation or disjointing of the hyphal cells, each fragment becoming a new organism; or
4.      spore formation.

Asexual spores, whose function is to disseminate the species, are produced in large numbers. There are many
kinds of asexual spores;
 a.      Sporangiospores – these are single-celled spores formed within sacs called sporangia at the end of special
hyphae called sporangiophores.
Aplanospores are non-motile sporangiospores. Zoospores are motile sporangiospores, their motility being due
to the presence of flagella.

b.      Conidiospores or Conidia –small, single-celled conidia are called microconidia. Large multicelled conidia are

called macroconidia. Conidia are formed at the tip or side of a hypha.

c.      Oidia or arthrospores – these are single-celled spores formed by disjointing of hyphal cells.

d.     Chlamydospores – these are thick walled, single-celled spores which are highly resistant to adverse conditions.
They are formed from cells of the vegetative hypha..

e.      Blastospores – these are asexual spores formed by budding.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is carried out by fusion of the compatible nuclei of two parent cells. The process of
reproduction begins with the joining of two cells and fusion of their protoplasts (plasmogamy), thus enabling
the two haploid nuclei of two mating types to fuse together (karyogamy) to form a diploid nucleus. This is
followed by meiosis, which again reduces the number of chromosomes to the haploid number.

The sex organelles of fungi, if they are present, are called gametangia. They may form differentiated sex cells
(gametes) or may contain instead one or more gamete nuclei. . If the male and female gametangia are
morphologically different, the male gametangium is called the antheridium and the female gametangium called
the oogonium. The various methods of sexual reproduction (by which compatible nuclei are brought together in
plasmogamy) include;
i.                   Gametic copulation – this is the fusion of naked gametes, one or both of which are motile.
ii.                 Gamete-gametangial copulation – this is where gametangia come into contact but do not fuse; the male
nucleus migrates through a pore or fertilization tube into the female gametangium.
iii.              Gametangial copulation – two gametangia or their protoplasts fuse and give rise to a zygote that develops into
a resting spore.
iv.               Somatic copulation – fusion of somatic or vegetative cells.
v.                  Spermatization – this is the union of a special male structure called a spermatium with a female receptive
structure. The spermatium empties its contents into the latter during plasmogamy.

Sexual spores, which are produced by the fusion of two nuclei include;
a.      Oospores – which are formed within a special female structure, the oogonium. Fertilization of the eggs,
or oospheres, by male gametes formed in antheridium gives rise to oospores.
b.      Zygospores – these are large, thickwalled spores formed when the tips of two sexually compatible hyphae, or
gametangia, of certain fungi fuse together.
c.       Ascospores – these are single-celled spores produced in sac-like structures called asci (sing. Ascus). There are
usually eight ascospores in each ascus.
d.      Basidiospores – these are single-celled spores borne on a club-shaped structure called a basidium.

Classification
Most fungi of domestic, industrial, or medical significance are members of the classes Phycomycetes,
Acomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycetes). Basidiomycetes are important principally
in agriculture.

Class 1: Phycomycetes
These are called the lower fungi. Majority of these are aquatic, some are amphibious, whereas others are
terrestrial. Their somatic phase is either a unicellular thallus or a non-septate (coenocytic) mycelium. Asexual
reproduction is either by sporangiospores or sometimes by conidia.

The sporangispores are formed within a sac-like structure called sporangium, borne on specialized structure
called sporangiophore. In aquatic species, the sporangiospores are motile, hence called the zoospores.  
 The zoospores are provided with one or two flagella for motility. The conidia are formed externally on
morphologically differentiated hyphae called conidiophores.

Class 2: Ascomycetes
This class comprises both saprophytic and parasitic forms. The distinguishing characters include;
         Septate mycelium with chitinous cell walls
         Production of sexual spores called ascospores inside sac-like bodies called asci (sing. Ascus). Generally, there
are eight ascospores in each ascus

The asci are formed as a result of sexual reproduction and may be contained within fruiting bodies
called ascocarps.      
There is complete absence of motile cell in this class. Ascomycetes include yeasts, some common green and
black molds, powdery mildews, cup fungi, morels, and truffles.

Class 3: Basidiomycetes
This is a class of fungi comprising both saprophytic and parasitic forms. Some of the serious plant parasites like
rusts and smuts belong to basidiomycetes. The distinguishing characters of this class include;
         Septate mycelium
         Production of sexual spores called basidiospores outside a club-shaped structure called a basidium.

Usually, there are four basidiospores on each basidium. There is also a complete absence of motile cells.

Class 4: Deuteromycetes
This class comprises fungi reproducing exclusively by asexual means, usually by conidia. They are also referred
to as “imperfect fungi” because of the lack of perfect or the sexual stage.