UNIT I ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

Ohms Law, Kirchhoff‘s Law-Instantaneous power- series and parallel circuit analysis with
resistive, capacitive and inductive network - nodal analysis, mesh analysis- network theorems -
Thevenins theorem, Norton theorem, maximum power transfer theorem and superposition
theorem, three phase supply-Instantaneous, Reactive and apparent power-star delta conversion.

Electric Circuits
Different electric circuits (according to their properties) are defined below:
 Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or is
intended flow.
 Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters like resistance,
inductance and capacitance. These parameters may be lumped or distributed.
 Linear Circuit: A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they do not change with
voltage or current.
 Non-linear Circuit: It is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current.
 Bilateral Circuit: A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either
direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral because it can be made to perform its function
equally well in either direction.
 Unilateral Circuit: It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its
operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in both
directions.
 Electric Network: A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner whatsoever,
is called an electric network.
 Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
 Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
 Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together.
 Branch is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.
 Loop: It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once.
 Mesh: It is a loop that contains no other loop within it. For ex- ample, the circuit of Fig. (a) has
seven branches, six nodes, three loops and two meshes whereas the circuit of Fig. (b) Has four
branches, two nodes, six loops and three meshes.
 a network is said to be completely solved or analyzed when all voltages and all currents in its
different elements are determined

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 There are two general approaches to network analysis :
 Direct Method
Here, the network is left in its original form while determining its different voltages and currents.
Such methods are usually restricted to fairly simple circuits and include Kirchhoff’s laws, Loop
analysis, Nodal analysis, superposition theorem, Compensation theorem and Reciprocity theorem
etc.
 Network Reduction Method
Here, the original network is converted into a much simpler equivalent circuit for rapid
calculation of different quantities. This method can be applied to simple as well as complicated
networks. Examples of this method are: Delta/Star and Star/Delta conversions. Thevenin’s
theorem and Norton’s Theorem etc.
Electric Voltage

The potential difference between two points or voltage in an electric circuit is the amount of
energy required to move a unit charge between two points. It is measured in Volts and indicated
with a letter V as shown in below figure. This voltage can be either positive or negative and
expressed mostly with prefixes like KV, mV, uV, etc. to denote sub-multiples of the voltage.
Batteries and generators are the most commonly used DC voltage sources which can produce the
DC voltage from 1V to 24V DC for functioning of general electronic circuits.

Ohms Law:
This law applies to electric to electric conduction through good conductors and may be stated as
follows:
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current (I)
flowing between them, is constant, provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.
V V
= constant or =R
I I
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In other words,
where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.
Put in another way, it simply means that provided R is kept constant, current is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the ends of a conductor. However, this linear
relationship between V and I does not apply to all non-metallic conductors. For example, for
silicon carbide, the relationship is given by V = KIm where K and m are constants and m is less
than unity. It also does not apply to non-linear devices such as Zener diodes and voltage-
regulator (VR) tubes.

Kirchhoff‘s Law
These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm’s law and are used for solving electrical networks
which may not be readily solved by the latter. Kirchhoff’s laws, two in number, are particularly
useful
(a) in determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated net- work of conductors and
(b) for calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors.
The two-laws are :
1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)
It states as follows :
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is
zero.
Put in another way, it simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total
current entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation of charge at
the junction of the network.
Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in Fig.(a). Some conductors have
currents leading to point A, whereas some have currents leading away from point A. Assuming
the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we have
I1 + (-I2) + (-I3) + (+ I4) + (-I5) = 0
or I1 + I4 -I2 -I3 -I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
Incoming currents = outgoing currents

2. Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It states as follows:
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in any
closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is zero.

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In other words, Ʃ IR + Ʃ e.m.f. = 0 ...round a mesh It should be noted that algebraic
sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of thevoltage drops
Node
R5
(b) Node (c) + V5 – Loop
(a) Loop

R1 R2 V6
R6 I1 I2
+ +

V0 R3 R8  I3
V8
– –
R4 R7 V7

+
Sum currents IN Sum Voltages (counterclockwise order) :
Branch I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 amps V5 + V6 + V7 + V8= 0 volts
Sum currents OUT Sum Voltages (Clockwise order):
Kirchhoff’s analysis for the – I1 – I2 –I3 = 0 amps
above mesh (a) is given in – V5– V –8 V6 –V7 =6 0 volts
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
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(b) and (c) Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law

The basis of this law is this: If we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh till we
come back to the starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we started.
Hence, it means that all the sources of e.m.f. met on the way must necessarily be equal to the
voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.

Instantaneous power
The electric power in watts associated with a complete electric circuit or a circuit component
represents the rate at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the moving charges
to some other form, e.g., heat, mechanical energy, or energy stored in electric fields or magnetic
fields. For a resistor in a D C Circuit the power is given by the product of applied voltage and
the electric current.
P = VI
Power = Voltage x Current
Convenient expressions for the power dissipated in a resistor can be obtained by the use
of Ohm's Law.

P= VI= V2/R=I2R (watts)

Series and parallel circuit analysis with resistive, capacitive and inductive network

Resistance
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of
electricity (i.e., electrons) through it. The practical unit of resistance is ohm. For insulators
whose resistances are very high, a much bigger unit is used i.e., mega-ohm = 106 ohm. In the
case of very small resistances, smaller units like milli-ohm = 10-3 ohm or microohm = 10-6 ohm
are used.
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that
l l
R or R=
A A

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where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor and is known as
its specific resistance or resistivity.
Conductance (G) is reciprocal of resistance*. Whereas resistance of a conductor measures the
opposition which it offers to the flow of current, the conductance measures the inducement
which it offers to its flow.
The effect of rise in temperature is:
 To increase the resistance of pure metals.
 to increase the resistance of alloys,
 to decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber, glass,
mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon. Hence, insulators are said to
possess a negative temperature-coefficient of resistance
Resistance in Series
When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in Fig.
they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent resistance or total
resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual resistances. Being a
series circuit, it should be remembered that (i) current is the same through all the three
conductors (ii) but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given
by Ohm’s Law and (iii) sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the
three conductors. There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in
Fig

V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 —Ohm’s Law

But V = IR
where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or R = R1 + R2 + R3

As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are:

1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.
2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive.

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Voltage Divider Rule

Resistances in Parallel

Three resistances, as joined in Fig are said to be connected in parallel. In this case (i) p.d. across
all resistances is the same (ii) current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law and
(iii) the total current is the sum of the three separate currents.

The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are :

1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit
2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. Branch currents are additive.
4. Conductance are additive.
5. Powers are additive.

Inductors in Series
Inductors can be connected together in a series connection, a parallel connection or combinations
of both series and parallel together.

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These interconnections of inductors produce more complex networks whose overall inductance
is a combination of the individual inductors.
Inductors are said to be connected in “Series” when they are daisy chained together in a straight
line, end to end. Inductors in series are simply “added together” because the number of coil turns
is effectively increased, with the total circuit inductance LT being equal to the sum of all the
individual inductances added together.
Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ….. + Ln

Inductors in Parallel
Inductors are said to be connected together in “Parallel” when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other inductor or inductors.

The voltage drop across all of the inductors in parallel will be the same. Then, Inductors in
Parallel have a Common Voltage across them and in our example below the voltage across the
inductors is given as:
VL1 = VL2 = VL3 = VAB …etc
In the circuit the inductors L1, L2 and L3 are all connected together in parallel between the two
points A and B.

Series and Parallel Capacitors

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the series
capacitors’ individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in series, the overall
effect is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of the plate spacing of the
individual capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate spacing, with all other factors
unchanged, results in decreased capacitance. Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of

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the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The formula for calculating the series total capacitance is
the same form as for calculating parallel resistances:

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual
capacitors’ capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall effect is
that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate areas of the individual
capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate area, with all other factors unchanged, results
in increased capacitance. Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual
capacitors’ capacitances. The formula for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same
form as for calculating series resistances

This is exactly opposite of the phenomenon exhibited by resistors. With resistors, series
connections result in additive values while parallel connections result in diminished values. With
capacitors, its the reverse: parallel connections result in additive values while series connections
result in diminished values.
Determination of Voltage Sign
In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the
algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs., otherwise results will come out to be wrong.
Following sign conventions is suggested:

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a −ve sign. Keeping this in
mind, it is clear that as we go from the −ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal (Fig. 2.3),
there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand,
we go from +ve terminal to −ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage
should be preceded by a −ve sign. It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m.f. is
independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

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(b) Sign of IR Drop
Now, take the case of a resistor in Fig,If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the
current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower potential.
Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of
the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign
It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of current
through that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source of e.m.f. in the circuit
under consideration.
Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig. As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise
direction, different voltage drops will have the following signs :

Assumed Direction of Current

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to electrical networks, the question of assuming proper direction of
current usually arises. The direction of current flow may be assumed either clockwise or
anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the actual direction, then on solving the
question, this current will be found to have a minus sign. If the answer is positive, then assumed
direction is the same as actual direction However, the important point is that once a particular
direction has been assumed, the same should be used throughout the solution of the question.

Solving Simultaneous Equations

Electric circuit analysis with the help of Kirchhoff’s laws usually involves solution of two or
three simultaneous equations. These equations can be solved by a systematic elimination of the
variables but the procedure is often lengthy and laborious and hence more liable to error.
Determinants and Cramer’s rule provide a simple and straight method for solving network
equations through manipulation of their coefficients. Of course, if the number of simultaneous
equations happens to be very large, use of a digital computer can make the task easy.

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Nodal analysis
The node-equation method is based directly on Kirchhoff’s current law unlike loop-current
method which is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law. However, like loop current method, nodal
method also has the advantage that a minimum number of equations need be written to determine
the unknown quantities. Moreover, it is particularly suited for networks having many parallel
circuits with common ground connected such as electronic circuits. For the application of this
method, every junction in the network where three or more branches meet is regarded a node.
One of these is regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero-potential node. Hence the
number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n − 1) where n is the number of
independent nodes. These node equations often become simplified if all voltage sources are
converted into current sources.

First Case
Consider the circuit of Fig which has three nodes. One of these i.e. node 3 has been taken in as
the reference node. VA represents the potential of node 1 with reference to the datum node 3.
Similarly, VB is the potential difference between node 2 and node 3. Let the current directions
which have been chosen arbitrary be as shown.

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Though the above nodal equations (ii) and (iii) seem to be complicated, they employ a very
simple and systematic arrangement of terms which can be written simply by inspection. Eq. (ii)
at node 1 is represented by
1. The product of node potential VA and (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R4) i.e. the sum of the reciprocals of
the branch resistance connected to this node.
2. Minus the ratio of adjacent potential VB and the interconnecting resistance R 2.
3. Minus ratio of adjacent battery (or generator) voltage E1 and interconnecting resistance R 1.
4. All the above set to zero.
Same is the case with Eq. (iii) which applies to node 2.

Second Case
Now, consider the case when a third battery of e.m.f. E3 is connected between nodes 1 and 2 as
shown in Fig. below. It must be noted that as we travel from node 1 to node 2, we go from the -
ve terminal of E3 to its +ve terminal. Hence, according to the sign convention given in Art. 2.3,
E3 must be taken as positive. However, if we travel from node 2 to node 1, we go from the +ve
to the -ve terminal of E3. Hence, when viewed from node 2, E3 is taken negative.

It is exactly the same expression as given under the First Case discussed above except for the
additional term involving E3. This additional term is taken as +E3/R2 (and not as -E3/R2)
because this third battery is so connected that when viewed from mode 1, it represents a rise in
voltage. Had it been connected the other way around, the additional term would have been taken
as -E3/R2.

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As seen, the additional terms is -E3/R2 (and not + E3/R2) because as viewed from this node, E3
represents a fall in potential. It is worth repeating that the additional term in the above Eq. (i) and
(ii) can be either +E3/R2 or -E3/R2 depending on whether it represents a rise or fall of potential
when viewed from the node under consideration.

Nodal Analysis with Current Sources

Consider the network of Fig. 2.68 (a) which has two current sources and three nodes out of
which 1 and 2 are independent ones whereas No. 3 is the reference node. The given circuit has
been redrawn for ease of understanding and is shown in Fig. 2.68 (b). The current directions
have been taken on the assumption that
1. both V1 and V2 are positive with respect to the reference node. That is why their respective
currents flow from nodes 1 and 2 to node 3.
2. V1 is positive with respect to V2 because current has been shown flowing from node 1 to node
2. A positive result will confirm out assumption whereas a negative one will indicate that actual
direction is opposite to that assumed.

We will now apply KCL to each node and use Ohm’s law to express branch currents in terms of
node voltages and resistances.
Node 1
I1 -I2 -I3 = 0 or I1 = I2 + I3

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The above two equations can also be written by simple inspection. For example, Eq. (i) is
represented by
1. Product of potential V1 and (1/R1 + 1 /R3) i.e. sum of the reciprocals of the branch resistances
connected to this node.
2. minus the ratio of adjoining potential V2 and the interconnecting resistance R 3.
3. All the above equated to the current supplied by the current source connected to this node.
This current is taken positive if flowing into the node and negative if flowing out of it (as per
sign convention of Art. 2.3). Same remarks apply to Eq. (ii) where I2 has been taken negative
because it flows away from node 2.

Source Conversion

A given voltage source with a series resistance can be converted into (or replaced by) and
equivalent current source with a parallel resistance. Conversely, a current source with a parallel
resistance can be converted into a voltage source with a series resistance. Suppose, we want to
convert the voltage source of Fig. (a) into an equivalent current source. First, we will find the
value of current supplied by the source when a ‘short’ is put across in terminals A and B as
shown in Fig.(b). This current is I = V/R. A current source supplying this current I and having
the same resistance R connected in parallel with it represents the equivalent source. It is shown
in Fig. 2.75 (c). Similarly, a current source of I and a parallel resistance R can be converted into
a voltage source of voltage V = IR and a resistance

R in series with it. It should be kept in mind that a voltage source-series resistance combination
is equivalent to (or replaceable by) a current source-parallel resistance combination if, and only
if their

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1. respective open-circuit voltages are equal, and
2. respective short-circuit currents are equal.
For example, in Fig. 2.75 (a), voltage across terminals A and B when they are open (i.e. open
circuit voltage VOC) is V itself because there is no drop across R. Short-circuit current across
AB = I = V/R.
Now, take the circuit of Fig. 2.75 (c). The open-circuit voltage across AB = drop across R = IR =
V. If a short is placed across AB, whole of I passes through it because R is completely shorted
out.
Maxwell’s Loop Current Method
This method which is particularly well-suited to coupled circuit solutions employs a system of
loop or mesh currents instead of branch currents (as in Kirchhoff’s laws). Here, the currents in
different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do not split at a junction into branch
currents. This method eliminates a great deal of tedious work involved in the branch-current
method and is best suited when energy sources are voltage sources rather than current sources.
Basically, this method consists of writing loop voltage equations by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in
terms of unknown loop currents.
The number of independent equations to be solved reduces from b by Kirchhoff’s laws to b − (j
− 1) for the loop current method where b is the number of branches and j is the number of
junctions in a given network. Fig.shows two batteries E1 and E2 connected in a network
consisting of five resistors. Let the loop currents for the three meshes be I1, I2 and I3. It is obvious
that current through R4 (when considered as a part of the first loop) is (I1 −I2) and that through R5
is (I2 −I3). However, when R4 is considered part of the second loop, current through it is (I2 − I1).
Similarly, when R5 is considered part of the third loop, current through it is (I3 −I2). Applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the three loops, we get,
E1 −I1R1 −R4 (I1 −I2) = 0
or I1 (R1 + R4) −I2 R4 −E1 = 0 ...loop 1

Similarly, −I2R2 −R5 (I2 −I3) −R4 (I2 −I1) = 0

or I1 R4 −I2 (R2 + R4 + R5) + I3R5 = 0 ...loop 2

Also −I3R3 −E2 −R5 (I3 −I2) = 0

or I2R5 −I3 (R3 + R5) −E2 = 0 ...loop 3
The above three equations can be solved not only to find loop currents but branch currents as
well.

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Mesh Analysis Using Matrix Form
Consider the network contains resistances and independent voltage sources and has three
meshes. Let the three mesh currents be designated as I 1, I2 and I3 and all the three may be
assumed to flow in the clockwise direction for obtaining symmetry in mesh equations. Let us
assume the following equations are written for a three mesh network.

It should be noted that signs of different items in the above three equations have been so changed
as to make the items containing self resistances positive
The matrix equivalent of the above three equations is

It would be seen that the first item is the first row i.e. (R1 + R2 + R3) represents the self resistance
of mesh (i) which equals the sum of all resistance in mesh (i). Similarly, the second item in the
first row represents the mutual resistance between meshes (i) and (ii) i.e. the sum of the
resistances common to mesh (i) and (ii). Similarly, the third item in the first row represents the
mutual-resistance of the mesh (i) and mesh (ii).
The item E1, in general, represents the algebraic sum of the voltages of all the voltage sources
acting around mesh (i). Similar is the case with E 2 and E3. while going along the current, if we
pass from negative to the positive terminal of a battery, then its e.m.f. is taken positive. If it is the
other way around, then battery e.m.f. is taken negative.
In general, let
R11 = self-resistance of mesh (i)
R22 = self-resistance of mesh (ii) i.e. sum of all resistances in mesh (ii)
R33 = Self-resistance of mesh (iii) i.e. sum of all resistances in mesh (iii)
R12 = R21 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (i) and (ii)] *
R23 = R32 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (ii) and (iii)]*
R31 = R13 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (i) and (iii)] *
Using these symbols, the generalized form of the above matrix equivalent can be written as

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If there are m independent meshes in any liner network, then the mesh equations can be written
in the matrix form as under :

The above equations can be written in a more compact form as [Rm] [Im] = [Em]. It is known as
Ohm’s law in matrix form.
In the end, it may be pointed out that the directions of mesh currents can be selected arbitrarily.
If we assume each mesh current to flow in the clockwise direction, then
(i) All self-resistances will always be postive and (ii) all mutual resistances will always be
negative.
The above main advantage of the generalized form of all mesh equations is that they can be
easily remembered because of their symmetry. Moreover, for any given network, these can be
written by inspection and then solved by the use of determinants. It eliminates the tedium of
deriving simultaneous equations.

NETWORK THEOREMS

Thevenin Theorem

It provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network, as viewed from two output
terminals, by a single voltage source with a series resistance. It makes the solution of
complicated networks (particularly, electronic networks) quite quick and easy. The application of
this extremely useful theorem will be explained with the help of the following simple example.

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Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load resistance RL, as shown in Fig. (a).
We will proceed as under :
1. Remove RL from the circuit terminals A and B and redraw the circuit as shown in Fig. (b).
Obviously, the terminals have become open-circuited.
2. Calculate the open-circuit voltage Voc which appears across terminals A and B when they are
open i.e. when RL is removed. As seen, Voc = drop across R2 = IR2 where I is the circuit current
when A and B are open.

It is also called ‘Thevenin voltage’ Vth.

Now, imagine the battery to be removed from the circuit, leaving its internal resistance r behind
and redraw the circuit, as shown in Fig. (c). When viewed inwards from terminals A and B, the
circuit consists of two parallel paths : one containing R2 and the other containing (R1 + r). The
equivalent resistance of the network, as viewed from these terminals is given as

This resistance is also called,* Thevenin resistance Rsh (though, it is also sometimes written as
Ri or R0). Consequently, as viewed from terminals A and B, the whole network (excluding R1)
can be reduced to a single source (called Thevenin’s source) whose e.m.f. equals Vth(or Vsh) and
whose internal resistance equals Rsh (or Ri) as shown in Fig.. RL is now connected back across
terminals A and B from where it was temporarily removed earlier. Current flowing through RL is
given by

It is clear from above that any network of resistors and voltage sources (and current sources as
well) when viewed from any points A and B in the network, can be replaced by a single voltage
source and a single resistance** in series with the voltage source. After this replacement of the

17
network by a single voltage source with a series resistance has been accomplished, it is easy to
find current in any load resistance joined across terminals A and B. This theorem is valid even
for those linear networks which have a nonlinear load. Hence, Thevenin’s theorem, as applied to
d.c. circuits, may be stated as under :
The current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any two terminals A and B of
a linear, active bilateral network is given by Voc || (Ri + RL) where Voc is the open-circuit
voltage (i.e. voltage across the two terminals when RL is removed) and Ri is the internal
resistance of the network as viewed back into the open-circuited network from terminals A and B
with all voltage sources replaced by their internal resistance (if any) and current sources by
infinite resistance.
How to Thevenize a Given Circuit ?
1.Temporarily remove the resistance (called load resistance R L) whose current is required.
2. Find the open-circuit voltage Voc which appears across the two terminals from where
resistance has been removed. It is also called Thevenin voltage Vth.
3. Compute the resistance of the whose network as looked into from these two terminals after all
voltage sources have been removed leaving behind their internal resistances (if any) and current
sources have been replaced by open-circuit i.e. infinite resistance. It is also called Thevenin
resistance Rth or Ri.
4. Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin source, whose voltage is Vth or Voc and
whose internal resistance is Rth or Ri.
5. Connect RL back to its terminals from where it was previously removed.
6. Finally, calculate the current flowing through RL by using the equation,

Norton’s Theorem
This theorem is an alternative to the Thevenin’s theorem. In fact, it is the dual of Thevenin’s
theorem. Whereas Thevenin’s theorem reduces a two-terminal active network of linear
resistances and generators to an equivalent constant-voltage source and series resistance,
Norton’s theorem replaces the network by an equivalent constant-current source and a parallel
resistance
This theorem may be stated as follows :
(i) Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistance when viewed
from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant-current source and a parallel resistance.
The constant current is equal to the current which would flow in a short-circuit placed across the
terminals and parallel resistance is the resistance of the network when viewed from these open
circuited terminals after all voltage and current sources have been removed and replaced by
their internal resistances.

18
Explanation
As seen from Fig. (a), a short is placed across the terminals A and B of the network with all its
energy sources present. The short-circuit current ISC gives the value of constant-current source.
For finding Ri, all sources have been removed as shown in Fig.(b). The resistance of the network
when looked into from terminals A and B gives Ri. The Norton’s* equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. (c). It consists of an ideal constant current source of infinite internal resistance having a
resistance of Ri connected in parallel with it.
Generalized form of this theorem is as follows :
The voltage between any two points in a network is equal to I SC. Ri where ISC is the short circuit
current between the two points and Ri is the resistance of the network as viewed from these
points with all voltage sources being replaced by their internal resistances (if any) and current
sources replaced by open-circuits.
Suppose, it is required to find the voltage across resistance R3 and hence current through it [Fig.
(d)]. If short-circuit is placed between A and B, then current in it due to battery of e.m.f. E 1 is
E1/R1 and due to the other battery is E2/R2.

where G1 and G2 are branch conductances.

Now, the internal resistance of the network as viewed from A and B simply consists of three
resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel between A and B. Please note that here load
resistance R3 has not been removed. In the first method given above, it has to be removed.

Current through R2 is I3 = VAB/R3.

How To Nortonize a Given Circuit ?
This procedure is based on the first statement of the theorem given above.
1. Remove the resistance (if any) across the two given terminals and put a short-circuit across
them.
2. Compute the short-circuit current ISC.
3. Remove all voltage sources but retain their internal resistances, if any. Similarly, remove all
current sources and replace them by open-circuits i.e. by infinite resistance.
4. Next, find the resistance R1 (also called RN) of the network as looked into from the given
terminals. It is exactly the same as Rth.
5. The current source (ISC) joined in parallel across Ri between the two terminals gives Norton’s
equivalent circuit.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

This theorem describes the condition for maximum power transfer from an active network to an
external load resistance. It states that in a linear, active, bilateral DC network, the maximum

19
power will be transferred from source to the load when the external load resistance equals to the
internal resistance of the source.

If the source is a practical or independent voltage source, its internal series resistance must match
with load resistance to deliver maximum power. In case of practical or independent current
source, parallel internal resistance should match with load resistance.

In the above circuit internal source series resistance alters the power delivered to the load and
hence the maximum current delivered from the source to the load is limited.

Explanation of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Let us consider the electrical system with load as shown below, to which we are going to
determine the value of load resistance so as to deliver the maximum power to the load.

Basically, the condition at which maximum power transfer can be obtained by deriving an
expression of power absorbed by the load using mesh or nodal current techniques and then
finding its derivative with respect to the load resistance.

In below figure, electrical system may be a complex circuit consisting of several elements and
sources. In such case finding of maximum power transfer condition can be tedious.

Alternatively we can find the maximum power transfer with the use of Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit (Read the step by step Thevenin’s Theorem with solved examples). Now we will replace
the electrical system which we are considered as complex part with its Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit as shown in below.

20
From the above circuit, the current flowing through the load, ‘I’ is given as

In the above equation RL is a variable, therefore the condition for maximum power delivered to
the load is determined by differentiating load power with respect to the load resistance and
equating it to zero

.
This is the condition for maximum power transfer, which states that power delivered to the load
is maximum, when the load resistance RL matches with Thevenin’s resistance RTH of the
network. Under this condition, power transfer to the load is

The above equation shows that the efficiency is 50% under maximum power transfer condition.
Due to this 50 percent efficiency, maximum power transfer is not always desirable. For a given

21
values the Thevenin’s voltage and Thevenin’s resistance, the variation of power delivered to the
load with varying load resistance is shown in below figure.

Superposition Theorem
According to this theorem, if there are a number of e.m.fs. acting simultaneously in any linear
bilateral network, then each e.m.f. acts independently of the others i.e. as if the other e.m.fs. did
not exist. The value of current in any conductor is the algebraic sum of the currents due to each
e.m.f. Similarly, voltage across any conductor is the algebraic sum of the voltages which each
e.m.f would have produced while acting singly. In other words, current in or voltage across, any
conductor of the network is obtained by superimposing the currents and voltages due to each
e.m.f. in the network. It is important to keep in mind that this theorem is applicable only to linear
networks where current is linearly related to voltage as per Ohm’s law.
Hence, this theorem may be stated as follows :
In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or source of e.m.f.), the
current which flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at that point if
each generator where considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time
being by resistances equal to their internal resistances.

(c )

22
Explanation
In Fig. (a) I1, I2 and I represent the values of currents which are due to the simultaneous action of
the two sources of e.m.f. in the network. In Fig. (b) shown the current values which would have
been obtained if left-hand side battery had acted alone. Similarly, Fig.(c) represents conditions
obtained when right-hand side battery acts alone. By combining the current values of Fig. (b) and
( c) the actual values of Fig. (a) can be obtained.
Obviously, I1 = I1′ −I1′ ′, I2 = I2′ ′−I2´, I = I′ + I′ ′.

Three Phase Circuits

Power calculations
The mean power consumed by the circuit is given by the product of V and that component of the
current I which is in phase with V.
So P = V × I cos φ = r.m.s. voltage × r.m.s. current × cos φ
The term ‘cos φ’ is called the power factor of the circuit.
Remember that in an a.c. circuit, the product of r.m.s. volts and r.m.s. amperes gives voltamperes
(VA) and not true power in watts. True power (W) = volt-amperes (VA) × power factor.
or Watts = VA × cos φ*It should be noted that power consumed
is due to ohmic resistance only because pure
inductance does not consume any power.
Now P = VI cos φ = VI × (R/Z) = (V/Z)
× I. R = I2 R (cos φ = R/Z) or
P = I2 R watt

Power Factor

Active and Reactive Components of Circuit Current I

Active component is that which is in phase with the applied voltage V i.e. I cos φ. It is also
known as ‘wattful’ component.
Reactive component is that which in quadrature with V i.e. I sin φ. It is also known as ‘wattless’
or ‘idle’ component.
It should be noted that the product of volts and amperes in an a.c. circuit gives voltamperes
(VA). Out of this, the actual power is VA cos φ = W and reactive power is VA sin φ. Expressing
the values in kVA, we find that it has two rectangular components :
(i) active component which is obtained by multiplying kVA by cos φ and this gives
power in kW.
(ii) the reactive component known as reactive kVA and is obtained by multiplying
kVA by sin φ .It is written as kVAR (kilovar).
The following relations can be easily deduced.
kVA = kW + kVAR ; kW = kVA cos φ and kVAR = kVA sin φ
These relationships can be easily understood by referring to the kVA triangle of Fig. where it
should be noted that lagging kVAR has been taken as negative.

23
Active, Reactive and Apparent Power
Let a series R-L circuit draw a current of I when an alternating voltage of r.m.s. value V is
applied to it. Suppose that current lags behind the applied voltage by φ
The three powers drawn by the circuit are as under :

Three Phase System

Definition: The system which has three phases, i.e., the current will pass through the three wires,
and there will be one neutral wire for passing the fault current to the earth is known as the three
phase system. In other words, the system which uses three wires for generation, transmission and
distribution is known as the three phase system. The three phase system is also used as a single
phase system if one of their phase and the neutral wire is taken out from it. The sum of the line
currents in the 3-phase system is equal to zero, and their phases are differentiated at an angle of

24
120º

The three-phase system has four wire, i.e., the three current carrying conductors and the one neutral. The cross
section area of the neutral conductor is half of the live wire. The current in the neutral wire is equal to the sum of the
line current of the three wires and consequently equal to √3 times the zero phase sequence components of current.
The three-phase system has several advantages like it requires fewer conductors as compared to the single phase
system. It also gives the continuous supply to the load. The three-phase system has higher efficiency and minimum
losses.
The three phase system induces in the generator which gives the three phase voltage of equal magnitude and
frequency. It provides an uninterruptible power, i.e., if one phase of the system is disturbed, then the remaining two
phases of the system continue supplies the power.The magnitude of the current in one phase is equal to the sum of
the current in the other two phases of the system.

The 120º phase difference of the three phases is must for the proper working of the system. Otherwise, the system
becomes damaged
Generation of 3 Phase E.M.Fs in a 3 Phase Circuit
In a 3 phase system, there are three equal voltages or EMFs of the same frequency having a phase difference of
120 degrees. These voltages can be produced by a three-phase AC generator having three identical windings
displaced apart from each other by 120 degrees electrical.
When these windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown in the figure A below or when
the windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown below in figure B, an emf is induced in
each winding. The magnitude and frequency of these EMFs are same but are displaced apart from one another by
an angle of 120 degrees.

Consider three identical coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this figure a1, b1 and c1 are the
starting terminals, whereas a2, b2 and c2are the finish terminals of the three coils. The phase difference of 120
degrees has to be maintained between the starts terminals a1, b1 and c1.
Now, let the three coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by both keeping coil stationary and moving

25
the magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise direction at (ω) radians per seconds. Three EMFs are induced
in the three coils respectively.

Considering the figure C, the analysis about their magnitudes and directions are given as follows.
The emf induced in the coil a1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by the waveform in the
above figure C represented as ea1a2.
The coil b1b2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in this coil is negative and is
becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave eb1b2.
Similarly, the coil c1c2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil b1b2, or we can also say that the coil c1c2 is 240
degrees behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in the coil is positive and is decreasing as shown in the figure C
represented by the waveform ec1c2.

Phasor Diagram
The EMFs induced in the three coils in a 3 phase circuits are of the same magnitude and frequency and are
displaced by an angle of 120 degrees from each other as shown below in the phasor diagram.

These EMFs of a 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations given below.

Types of Connections in Three-Phase System

The three-phase systems are connected in two ways, i.e., the star connection and the delta connection. Their detail
explanation is shown below.
Star Connection
The star connection requires four wires in which there are three phase conductors and one neutral conductor. Such
type of connection is mainly used for long distance transmission because it has a neutral point. The neutral point
passes the unbalanced current to the earth and hence make the system balance.
26
The star connected three phase systems gives two different voltages, i.e., the 230 V and 440V. The voltage
between the single phase and the neutral is 230V, and the voltage between the two phases is equal to the 440V.
In a 3 phase circuits (balanced load), the power is defined as the sum of various powers in a three phase system. i.e.

Power in star connections in a 3 phase circuits is given as

As phase voltage and line voltage in star connection are represented as shown below.

Therefore, the equation (1) can be written as

Delta Connection
The delta connection has three wires, and there is a no neutral point. The delta connection is shown in the figure
below. The line voltage of the delta connection is equal to the phase voltage.

Power in delta connections in 3 phase circuits is given by the equation shown below.

In delta connections, relation between phase and line voltage and phase and line current is given as

Hence, equation (3) can be written as

27
Thus, the Total Power in a 3 Phase balanced load system, irrespective of their connections, whether the system in
star connected or delta connected, the power is given by the relation
√3 VLILCosϕ. Its units are kilowatt (kW) or Watt (W).
Apparent Power is given as

The unit of apparent power is kilovolt-ampere (kVA) or volt-ampere (VA).

Similarly, the Reactive Power is given by the equation.

Its units are kilovolt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or volt-ampere reactive (VAR).

28
STAR DELTA CONVERSION

DELTA/STAR TRANSFORMATION
In solving networks (having considerable number of branches) by the application of Kirchhoff’s
Laws, one sometimes experiences great difficulty due to a large number of simultaneous
equations that have to be solved. However, such complicated network can be simplified by
successively replacing delta meshes by equivalent star system and vice versa.
Suppose we are given three resistances R12, R23 and R31 connected in delta fashion between
terminals 1, 2 and 3 as in Fig. (a). So far as the respective terminals are concerned, these three
given resistances can be replaced by the three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in star as
shown in Fig. (b).
These two arrangements will be electrically equivalent if the resistance as measured between any
pair of terminals is the same in both the arrangements. Let us find this condition.

29
Star/Delta Transformation
This tarnsformation can be easily done by using equations (i), (ii) and (iii) given above.
Multiplying
(i) and (ii), (ii) and (iii), (iii) and (i) and adding them together and then simplifying them, we
Get

30
 UNIT II ELECTRICAL MACHINES

DC and AC ROTATING MACHINES: Types, Construction, principle, Emf and torque equation,
application Speed Control- Basics of Stepper Motor – Brushless DC motors- Transformers-
Introduction- types and construction, working principle of Ideal transformer-Emf equation- All day
efficiency calculation

Generator principle
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical
energy (or power)
The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or motionally)
induced emf. Whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in
it according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This emf causes a current to flow if
the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are (i) a magnetic field and (ii) a
conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.

Construction of D.C machines

A D.C machine consists of two main parts:
(i) Stationary part. It is designed mainly for producing a magnetic flux.
(ii) Rotating part. It is called the armature, where mechanical energy is converted into electrical
(electrical generator), or conversely, electrical energy into mechanical energy (electric motor).
The stationary and rotating parts are separated from each other by an air gap.
The stationary part of a D.C machine consists of main poles, designed to create the magnetic flux,
commutating poles interposed between the main poles and designed to ensure sparkless operation
of the brushes at the commutator (in very small machines with a lack of space commutating poles
are not used); and a frame/yoke.
The armature is a cylindrical body rotating in the space between the poles and comprising a slotted
armature core, a winding inserted in the armature core slots, a commutator, and brush gear.

Description of Parts of D.C. machines:

The essential parts (fig)of a D.C. generator are
1. Magnetic Frame or yoke 2. Pole cores and pole shoes 3. Pole coils or field coils 4. Armature
core 5. Armature windings or conductors 6. Commutator 7. Brushes and Bearings

Parts of a D.C. generator

 Sectional view of D.C Generator
1. Yokes or Magnetic frame
The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose:
(i) It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine
(ii) it carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes are
made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed. The
modern process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylindrical mandrel
and the welding is at the bottom. The feet and the terminal box etc.

Yoke

are welded to the frame afterwards. Such yokes possess sufficient mechanical strength and have
high permeability.
2. Pole cores and pole shoes
The field magnet consists of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes
(i) spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path
(ii) support the exciting coils ( or field ) coils as shown in fig.

Pole cores and pole shoes

There are two main types of pole construction.

(a) The pole core itself may be solid piece made out of either cast iron or cast steel but pole
shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of counter sunk screws as shown in
fig. a
(b) In modern design, the complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin laminations
annealed steel which is riveted together under hydraulic pressure (fig. (b)). The thickness of
laminations varies from 1mm to 0.25 mm. The laminated poles may be secured to the yoke in
any one of the following two ways:
(i) Either the pole is secured to the yoke by means of screws bolted through the yoke and in
the pole body or
(ii) The holding screws are bolted into a steel bar which passes through the pole across the
plane of laminations (fig.(c))

3. Pole coils or field coils

The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire or strip, are former wound for the
correct dimension (fig.(a)). Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into place over
the core as shown in fig.(b)
When current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetise the poles which produce the
necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.

(a) (b)
Pole coils
4. Armature core
It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic
flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to provide a path of
very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a N-pole to a S- pole.
It is cylindrical or drum shaped and is built up of usually circular sheet steel discs or
laminations approximately 0.5mm thick (fig. (a)). It is keyed to the shaft.

(a) (b) (c)

Armature core

The slots are either die cut or punched on the outer periphery of the disc and the keyway is
located on the inner diameter as shown. In small machines, the armature stampings are keyed
directly to the shaft. Usually, these laminations are perforated for air ducts which permit axial
flow of air through the armature for cooling purposes. Such ventilating channels are clearly
visible in the laminations shown in (fig. b and c)
Upto armature diameters of about one metre, the circular stampings are cut in one piece as
shown in fig.(b) but above this size, these circles, especially of such thin sections, are difficult
to handle because they tend to distort and become wavy when assembled together. Hence, the
circular laminations, instead of being cut out in piece, are cut in a number of suitable sections or
segments which form part of a complete ring (fig. c)
A complete circular lamination is made up of four or six or even eight segmental laminations.
Usually, two keyways are notched in each segment and are dove tailed or wedge shaped to
make the laminations self locking in position.
The purpose of using laminations is to reduce the loss due to eddy currents. Thinner the
laminations, greater is the resistance offered to the induced emf, smaller the current and hence
lesser the I2 R loss in the core.
5. Armature windings or conductors
The armature windings are usually former wound. These are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors
of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots which
are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature
conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wooden or fibre wedges.
6. Commutator
The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature
conductors. Commutator rectifies i.e converts the alternating current induced in the armature
conductors into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is of cylindrical structure
and is built up of wedge shaped segments of high conductivity hard drawn or drop forged
copper. These segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica. The number of
segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each commutator segment is connected to
the armature conductor by means of a copper lug or strip (or riser). To prevent them from flying
out under the action of centrifugal forces, the segments have V- grooves, these grooves being
insulated by conical micanite rings. A view of commutator is shown in fig

commutator

7. Brushes and Bearings

The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of carbon
or graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are housed in brush
holders usually of the box type variety.
Working of D.C. Generator
Introduction
In fig. is shown a single turn rectangular copper coil ABCD rotating about its own axis in a
magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The two ends of the
coil are joined to two slip rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insulated from each other and from the
central shaft. Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip rings. Their
function is to collect the current induced in the coil and to convey it to the external load
resistance R. The rotating coil may be called ‘armature’ and the magnets as ‘field magnets’
Working
Imagine the coil to be rotating in anticlockwise direction. As the coil assumes successive
positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an emf is induced in it which it is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e = NdФdt). When the plane of the coil is at
right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is position, 1, then flux linked with the coil is maximum
but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum.

Generator with slip rings

 Sinusoidal output
It is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux, rather
they slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence, there is no induced e.m.f. in the
coil. Let us take this no – e.m.f. or vertical position of the coil as the starting position. The angle
of rotation or time will be measured from this position.
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages ( and hence induced
e.m.f. in it ) increases, till position 3 is reached where θ = 900. Here, the coil is horizontal i.e.
parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of change
of flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil when in this
position
In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 900 to 1800, the flux linked with the coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence, the induced e.m.f. decreases
gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value.
In the first half revolution of the coil, no (or minimum) e.m.f. is induced in it when in position
1, maximum when in position 3 and no e.m.f. when in position 5. The direction of this induced
e.m.f. can be found by applying Flemings’s Right – hand rule which gives its direction form A
to B and C to D. Hence, the direction of current flow is ABMLCD. The current through the load
resistance R flows from M to L during the first half revolution of the coil.
In the next half revolution i.e. from 1800 to 3600, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f. are
similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position 7 and
minimum when in position 1. But it will be found that direction of the induced current is from D
to C and B to A as shown in fig.. Hence, the path of current flow is along DCLMBA which is
just the reverse of the previous direction of flow.
Therefore, current in simple generator reverses its direction after every half revolution,. Such a
current undergoing periodic reversals is known as alternating current. It is, obviously, different
from a direct current which continuously flows in one and the same direction. It should be noted
that alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not even keep its magnitude
constant while flowing in any one direction. The two half cycles may be called positive and
negative half – cycles respectively
For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip rings are replaced
by split rings. The split rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut into two halves
or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material
 Generator with split rings
As before, the coil ends are joined to these segments on which rest the carbon or copper
brushes. In the first half revolution current flows along ABMLCD i.e. the brush No.1 in contact
with segment ‘a’ acts as the positive end of the supply and ‘b’ as the negative end. In the next
half revolution, the direction of the induced current in the coil has reversed. But at the same
time, the positions of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ have also reversed with the result that brush No.1
comes in touch with that segment which is positive i.e. segment ‘b’ in this case. Hence, current
in the load resistance again flows from M to L. The waveform of the current through the
external circuit is as shown in fig. This current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure
direct current.

Unidirectional current
It should be noted that the position of brushes is so arranged that the changeover of segments ‘a’
and ‘b’ from one brush to the other takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is at right
angles to the plane of the lines of flux. It is so because in that position, the induced e.m.f. in the
coil is zero.
Another important point worth remembering is that even now the current induced in the coil
sides is alternating as before. It is only due to the rectifying action of the split rings (also called
commutator) that it becomes unidirectional in the external circuit. Hence, it should be clearly
understood that even in the armature of a d.c. generator, the induced voltage is alternating.

E.M.F. Equation of generator or Generated E.M.F

Let Ф = flux / pole in weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= No. of slots x No. of conductors / slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)
E = E.M.F. induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated e.m.f. Eg = e.m.f. generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e. E
dφ
Average e.m.f. generated / conductor = volt (n =1)
dt
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution dФ = ФP Wb
No. of revolutions / second = N/60  time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
hence, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
dφ φPN
E.M.F. generated / conductor = = volt
dt 60
For a simples wave – wound generator
No. of parallel paths = 2
No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2
 PN Z  ZPN
 E.M.F. generated / path = X  Volt
60 2 120
For a simples lap wound generator
No. of parallel paths = P
No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
 PN Z  ZN
 E.M.F. generated / path = X  volt
60 P 60
 ZN P
In general, generated e.m.f. Eg = X volt
60 A
where A = 2 – for simplex wave winding
= P – for simplex lap winding

1  2 N  P
Also, Eg =   Z   volt   in rad / s
2  60   A

For a given d.c. machine , Z, P and A are constant. Hence, putting Ka = ZP/A, we get
Eg = Ka ФN volts --- where N is in r.p.s
Types of Generators
Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited.
Generators may be divided into (a) separately excited generators and (b) self excited generators.
(a) Separately excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an
independent external source of d.c. current.
(b) Self excited generators are those whose filed magnets are energized by the current produced
by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in
the poles. When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f. and hence some induced current is
produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the
residual pole flux.
There are three types of self excited generators named according to the manner in which their
coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
(i) Shunt wound
The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and have
the full voltage of the generator applied across them.
(ii) Series wound
In this case, the field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors. As they carry
full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips. Such generators are
rarely used except for special purposes. i.e. as boosters etc.
(iii) Compound wound
It is combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can be either short – shunt or
long shunt. In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When
series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively – compounded. On the
other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially
compounded. Various types of d.c. generator have been shown separately in fig
 Types of Generator
Applications of DC Generators:
1. DC shunt Generator
The terminal voltage of DC shunt generator is more or less constant from no load to full
load. Therefore these generators are used where constant voltage is required.
• For electro plating
• Battery charging
• For excitation of Alternators.
2. Series Generators:
The terminal voltage of series generator increases with load current from no load to full load.
Therefore these generators are,
• Used as Boosters
• Used for supply to arc Lamps
3. Compound Generator:
• Differential Compound generators are used to supply dc welding machines.
• flat compound generators are used to supply power for offices, hostels and Lodges
etc.
• Over compound generators are used to compensate the voltage drop in Feeders.
4. Separately Exited Generator:
• As a supply source to DC Motors, whose speed is to be controlled for certain
applications.
• Where a wide range of voltage is required for the testing purposes.
D.C Motor
Introduction
The electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy
Principle of operation of D.C motor
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a torque and has
a tendency to move. This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is
reversed, the direction of rotation also reverses.
When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical force, and based on
that the working principle of dc motor established. The direction of rotation of a this motor is
given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that if the index finger, middle finger and thumb
of your left hand are extended mutually perpendicular to each other and if the index finger
represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicates the direction of current, then
the thumb represents the direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the dc motor.
Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is exactly similar to a DC generator,
but electrically it is just the opposite.
The principle of motor action can be elaborated as follows:
Fig. illustrates the principle “Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left hand rule”.

The principle of motor action

Fig (a) shows the field set up by the poles.

Fig (b) shows the conductor field due to flow of current in the conductor.
Fig (c) shows the resultant field produced when the current carrying conductor wire of fig (b) is
inserted in the air gap of fig (a) with the axis of the conductor at right angles to the direction of
the flux.
On the upper side of the conductor in fig (c) the magnetizing forces of the field and of the
current in the conductor are additive while on the lower side these are subtractive. This explains
why the resultant field is strengthened above and weakened below the conductor (wire).
The above experiment shows that the wire in fig (c) has a force on it which tends to move it
downward. Thus the force acts in the direction of the weaker field. When the current in the wire
is reversed, the direction of the force is also reversed as in Fig (d).
The force ( F) developed in the conductor is given by the relation,
F= BIl newtons
Where B= flux density (Wb/m2)
I= current in conductor, A
l= exposed length of conductor, m.
The armature carries current, each of its conductors will produce a magnetic field which, when
super-imposed on the main field, causes a distribution of magnetic lines as shown in fig.
 Distribution of lines of force, on load, due to armature and magnetic field only

The magnetic field is said to be distorted, since the lines of force no longer follow
approximately straight paths.

Back or counter E.M.F

In a D.C motor when the armature rotates, the conductors on it cut the lines of force of
magnetic field in which they revolve, so that an emf is induced in the armature as in the
generator. The induced emf acts in opposition to the current in the machine and, therefore, to
the applied voltage, so that it is customary to refer to this voltage as the ‘back emf’. That this is
so can be deduced by Lenz’s law, which states that the direction of an induced emf is such as to
oppose the change causing it, which is, of course, the applied voltage.
The magnitude of the back or counter emf can be calculated by using formula for the induced
emf in a generator, and it is important in the case of the motor, to appreciate that this is
proportional to the product of the flux and the speed. This if Eb denotes the back emf, Ф the flux
and N the speed, we may write,
Eb = k Ф N
Where k is a number depending on the nature of armature winding.
The value of back emf (Eb ) is always less than the applied voltage, although difference is small
when the machine is running under normal conditions. It is the difference between these two
quantities which actually drives current through the resistance of the armature circuit. If the
resistance is represented by Ra, the back emf by Eb and the applied voltage by V, then we have
V= Eb +Ia Ra
where Ia is the current in the armature circuit.

Voltage equation of a motor

The voltage V applied across the motor armature has to
(i) Overcome the back emf Eb and
(ii) Supply the armature ohmic drop IaRa
 V = Eb + IaRa
This is known as voltage equation of a motor:
Now, multiplying both sides by Ia, we get
V Ia = Eb Ia + Ia2 Ra
VIa =electrical input to the armature
Eb Ia = electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature
Ia2 Ra = Cu loss in the armature
Hence, out of the armature input, some is wasted in I2 R loss and the rest is converted into
mechanical power within the armature.
Motor efficiency is given by the ratio of power developed by the armature to its input.

Condition for maximum power

The gross mechanical power developed by a motor is Pm = VIa –Ia Ra
Differentiating both sides with respect to Ia and equating the result to zero, we get
 dpm
 V  2 I a Ra  0
dI a
Ia Ra =V/2
As V = Ea + Ia Ra and Ia Ra =V/2
 Eb = V/2
Thus gross mechanical power developed by a motor is maximum when back emf is equal to
half the applied voltage.

Torque
Torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by the
product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r metre acted upon by a circumferential force of F Newton which
causes it to rotate at N rpm
Then torque T = F x r Newton-metre(N-m)
Work done by this force in one revolution=Force x distance
= F x 2Πr joule
Power developed =Fx 2Πr xN joule/second or watt
=(F x r) x 2ΠN watt
Now 2ΠN= angular velocity ω in radians /second and F x r= torque T
Therefore power developed =T x ω watt
Moreover, if N is in rpm, then
ω = 2ΠN/60 rad/s
P= 2ΠN/60 x T or (2Π/60) .NT = NT/9.55

Armature torque of a motor

Let Ta be the torque developed by the armature of a motor running at N r.p.s. If Ta is in N/m,
then power developed = Ta x 2ΠN watt
We also know that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature is = EbIa
watt
Equating the above two equation, we get
Ta x 2ΠN= EbIa
Since Eb = ФZN x (P/A) volt, we have
P 1 P
Ta x 2 Π N = ФZN   Ia or Ta = ZI a   N  m
 A 2  A
= 0.159 N Newton-m
P
 Ta = 0.159ZI a   N  m
 A
Note. From the above equation for the Torque, we find that Ta  ФIa

(a) In the case of a series motor, Ф is directly proportional to Ia (before saturation)

because field windings carry full armature current  Ta  Ia2
(b) For shunt motors, Ф is practically constant, hence Ta  Ia

As seen from (iii) above

Eb I a EI 60 Eb I a EI
Ta =  60 b a   9.55 b a N  m
2N 2N 2 N N
60
Shaft Torque (Tsh)

The whole of the armature torque, as calculated above, is not available for doing useful work,
because a certain percentage of its is required for supplying iron and friction losses in motor.
The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as shaft Torque Tsh. It is so called
because it is available at the shaft. The motor output uis given by
Output = Tsh x 2ΠN watt provided Tsh is in N-m and N in r.p.s

Output in watts
 Tsh = N  m  N in r. p.s
2N
Output in watts
= N  m  N in r. p.m
2 N
60
60 Output Output
=  9.55 N m
2 N N
The difference (Ta – Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to iron and friction losses of the
motor.

Note. The value of back e.m.f. Eb can be found from

(i) the equation, Eb = V – Ia Ra
P
(ii) The formula Eb = Ф Z N x   volt.
 A
Speed control of a D.C. motor
Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for performing
the specific work process. Speed control is a different concept from speed regulation where
there is natural change in speed due change in load on the shaft. Speed control is either done
manually by the operator or by means of some automatic control device.
The speed of a motor is given by the relation
ZN  P 
Eb = V – IaRa or    V  I a Ra
60  A 
V  I a Ra  60 A 
N= x  r. p.m
  ZP 
E  60 A  Eb
Now V  I a Ra  Eb  N  b x   r. p.m or N  K
  ZP  
It shows that speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f. Eb and inversely proportional to the
E
flux Ф or N = b

For series motor

Let N1 = Speed in the 1st case;

Ia1 = armature current in the 1st case
Ф1 = Flux / pole in the 1st case

N2, Ia2, Ф2 = Corresponding quantities in the 2nd case.

Then, using the above relation, we get

 Eb1 E
N1  where Eb1  V  I a1 Ra ; N 2  b 2 where Eb 2  V  I a 2 Ra
1 2

N 2 Eb 2 1
  x
N1 Eb1  2

N 2 Eb 2 I
Prior to saturation of magnetic poles;   I a   x a1
N1 Eb1 I a 2
For Shunt Motor

In this case the same equation applies,

N 2 Eb 2 1 N2 E
i.e  x if Ф2 = Ф1, then  b2
N1 Eb1  2 N1 Eb1

Speed control of D.C shunt motor

Factor controlling motor speed
The speed of the shunt motor is given by the relation

V  I a Ra  60 A 
N= x  r. p.m
  ZP 
V  I a Ra
= K r. p.s.

Where Ra = armature circuit resistance.
It is obvious that speed can be controlled by varying (i) flux/pole, Ф (flux control) (ii) resistance
Ra of the armature circuit (rheostatic control) and (iii) applied voltage V (Voltage control).

Flux control method

It is based on the fact that by varying the flux , the motor speed (N  1/) can be changed and
hence the name flux control method. In this method, a variable resistance (known as shunt field
rheostat) is placed in series with shunt field winding as shown in Fig.

Flux control method

The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux . Therefore, we
can only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed. Generally, this method permits to
increase the speed in the ratio 3:1. Wider speed ranges tend to produce instability and poor
commutation.
Advantages
This is an easy and convenient method.
It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field rheostat due to
relatively small value of Ish.
The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the machine.
Disadvantages
Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field circuit resistance
cannot be reduced below Rsh—the shunt field winding resistance.
There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if the flux is too
much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.

Note. The field of a shunt motor in operation should never be opened because its speed will
increase to an extremely high value.

Armature control method

Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V- IaRa. That is when
supply voltage V and armature resistance Ra are kept constant, speed is directly proportional to
armature current Ia. Thus if we add resistance in series with armature, Ia decreases and hence
speed decreases. Greater the resistance in series with armature, greater the decrease in speed.
This is done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series with
the armature as shown in Fig.

Flux control method

Disadvantages
A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full armature
current Ia.
The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in the
controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load.
The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
This method results in poor speed regulation.
Due to above disadvantages, this method is seldom used to control tie speed of shunt motors.
Note. The armature control method is a very common method for the speed control of d.c.
series motors. The disadvantage of poor speed regulation is not important in a series motor
which is used only where varying speed service is required.
Voltage control method
In this method, the voltage source supplying the field current is different from that which
supplies the armature. This method avoids the disadvantages of poor speed regulation and low
efficiency as in armature control method. However, it is quite expensive. Therefore, this method
of speed control is employed for large size motors where efficiency is of great importance.

Multiple voltage control.

In this method, the shunt field of the motor is connected permanently across a-fixed voltage
source. The armature can be connected across several different voltages through a suitable
switchgear. In this way, voltage applied across the armature can be changed. The speed will be
approximately proportional to the voltage applied across the armature. Intermediate speeds can
be obtained by means of a shunt field regulator.

Ward-Leonard system.
This system is used where very sensitive speed control of motor is required (e.g electric
excavators, elevators etc.) The arrangement of this system is as required in the Fig

Ward-Leonard system
M2 is the motor whose speed control is required.
M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed.
G is the generator directly coupled to M1.
Speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by the generator G. The shunt
field of the motor M1 is connected across the dc supply lines. Now, generator G is driven by
the motor M2. The speed of the motor M2 is constant. When the output voltage of the
generator is fed to the motor M1 then the motor starts to rotate. When the output voltage of
the generator varies then the speed of the motor also varies. Now controlling the
output voltage of the generator the speed of motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of
controlling the output voltage, a field regulator is connected across the generator with the dc
supply lines to control the field excitation. The direction of rotation of the motor M1 can be
reversed by excitation current of the generator and it can be done with the help of the
reversing switch R.S. But the motor-generator set must run in the same direction.
Advantages of Ward Leonard System
It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from zero to normal
speed of the motor). The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the
motor easily. The motor can run with a uniform acceleration. Speed regulation of DC
motor in this ward Leonard system is very good.
 Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System
The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are required.
Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially it is lightly loaded.

Application of Ward Leonard System

This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide and
very sensitive speed control is of a DC motor in both the direction of rotation is required.
This speed control system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes, electric excavators,
mine hoists, elevators, steel rolling mills and paper machines etc.

Speed control of D.C Series Motor

1.Armature control of DC series motor
Armature resistance control method: This is the most common method employed. Here the
controlling resistance is connected directly in series with the supply to the motor as shown in
the fig. The power loss in the control resistance of dc series motor can be neglected because
this control method is utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light
load condition. This method of speed control is most economical for constant torque. This
method of speed control is employed for dc series motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc.

Shunted armature control: The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a
rheostat in series with the armature is involved in this method of speed control. The voltage
applied to the armature is varies by varying series rheostat R 1. The exciting current can be
varied by varying the armature shunting resistance R2. This method of speed control is not
economical due to considerable power losses in speed controlling resistances. Here speed
control is obtained over wide range but below normal speed.

Armature terminal voltage control: The speed control of dc series motor can be
accomplished by supplying the power to the motor from a separate variable voltage supply.
This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
2. Field Control of DC Series Motor
Field diverter method: This method uses a diverter. Here the field flux can be reduced by
shunting a portion of motor current around the series field. Lesser the diverter resistance less
is the field current, less flux therefore more speed. This method gives speed above normal and
the method is used in electric drives in which speed should rise sharply as soon as load is
decreased.
Tapped Field control: This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux
and it is done by lowering number of turns of field winding through which current flows. In
this method a number of tapping from field winding are brought outside. This method is
employed in electric traction.
Applications of DC motors:

AC Machines
Alternators
Introduction
A machine for generating alternating currents is referred to as an alternator. They supply the
electric power used by all sectors of modern societies: industrial, commercial, agricultural,
and domestic. Synchronous machines are sometimes used as constant speed motors or as
compensators for reactive power control in large power systems. Low speed machines are
often driven by hydro turbines that employ water power for generation. Smaller synchronous
machines are sometimes used for private generation and as standby units, with diesel engines
or gas turbines as prime movers.

High speed alternators driven by steam turbines differ considerably in their construction from
the slow speed types and are distinguished by the use of the terms ‘turbo alternator’ or ‘turbo
Applications of Shaded Pole Motor
Due to their low starting torques and reasonable cost these motors are mostly
employed in small instruments, hair dryers, toys, record players, small fans, electric clocks
etc. These motors are usually available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 KW.

Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in steps.
Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop position control
systems.
Types of stepper motors:
• Permanent Magnet:
o Employ permanent magnet
o Low speed, relatively high torque
• Variable Reluctance:
o Does not have permanent magnet
o Low torque
Variable Reluctance Motor
Figure shows the construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor is made of
soft steel and has four poles as shown in Fig. It has four rotor teeth, 90° apart and six stator
poles, 60° apart. Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence.
It attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a reoccurring sequence of 2, 3,
1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30° step angle. In the non-energized condition, there is
no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft
iron; hence, there is no detent torque. This type of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance
stepper.

Fig. Variable reluctance stepper motor

Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor

In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet. Unlike the other stepping motors, the
PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to its axis.
Figure shows a simple, 90° PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying current to each phase
in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the changing magnetic fields.
Although it operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a relatively high torque
characteristic. These are low cost motors with typical step angle ranging between 7.5° to 15°.
 Permanent magnet stepper

Hybrid stepper motor

Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to provide
features of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors together. The number of
rotor pole pairs is equal to the number of teeth on one of the rotor's parts. The hybrid motor
stator has teeth creating more poles than the main poles windings

Fig. Hybrid stepper

Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the similar fashion as a permanent magnet
stepping motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive or negative direction. When a
winding is energized, north and south poles are created, depending on the polarity of the
current flowing. These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also the
finer metal teeth present on rotor. The rotor moves one step to align the offset magnetized
rotor teeth to the corresponding energized windings. Hybrid motors are more expensive than
motors with permanent magnets, but they use smaller steps, have greater torque and
maximum speed. Step angle of a stepper motor is given by,

Advantages of stepper motors :

o Low cost
o Ruggedness
o Simplicity of construction
o Low maintenance
o Less likely to stall or slip
o Will work in any environment
o Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
Disadvantages of stepper motors :
o Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
o Limited speed
o During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise occur
when running at high speed.

Applications:
o Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine
tooling automated production equipments.
o Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
o Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found
inside digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators and blood analysis
machinery.
o Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus
and zoom functions.

BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
The BLDC motor is electrically commutated by power switches instead of brushes.
The construction for modern brushless motor is very similar to the ac motor known as the
permanent magnet synchronous motor. The main parts of brushless dc motor are stator and
rotor.
STATOR
Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with slots in its inner periphery. These
slots are accommodated either in closed or open distributed armature winding. This winding is
to be wound for specified number of poles. This winding is connected to dc supply through
power electronic switching circuits.

ROTOR
Rotor is made up of permanent magnet. The number of poles of the rotor is same as
that of stator. The rotor shaft carries a rotor position sensor. A position sensor provides
information about the position of the shaft at any instant for the controller which sends signals
to the electronic commutator.
Operation
The schematic diagram of brushless dc motor is shown in fig. It also shows the three
phases of the stator and rotor with d and q axis indicated therein. The stator is connected to a
variable voltage current source through an inductor and an inverter comprising six SCRs.
Diodes are connected across SCRs to protect these form the voltage induced in the armature
coil undergoing commutation position sensors placed on the rotor provide signal to the sensor
decoders and gate drivers which cause the SCRs to be fired in sequence so as to be in
synchronism with the rotor mechanical position. The armature winding of a stator draws the
current from the inverter circuit. The current distribution in the stator winding depends upon
rotor position and the devices turn on. The mmf perpendicular to the permanent magnet flux
is set up. Then the armature conductor experiences a force. The reactive force develops a
torque in the rotor. If this torque is more than the opposing fractional and load torque, the
motor starts. It is self starting motor. As the motor picks up then there exists a relative speed
between permanent field and armature conductors. As per faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction emf is induced in the conductors. This emf opposes a cause as a result the
developed torque is reduced. Finally the rotor will attain a steady state condition.
Transformer
A transformer is a static electromagnetic device by means of which electric power in one
circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
Constructional details
The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core. Other
necessary parts are: some suitable container for assembled core and windings; a suitable
medium for insulating the core and its windings from its container; suitable bushings (either
of porcelain, oil filled or capacitor type) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of
windings from the tank.
In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations
assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air gap included. The
sheet used is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability
and of low Hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is
minimized by laminating the core, the laminations being insulated from each other by a light
coat of core- plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface. The thickness of laminations
varies from 0.35mm for a frequency of 50 hz to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25 hz. The core
laminations are joined as shown in Fig. It is seen that the joints in the alternate layers are
staggered in order to avoid the presence of narrow gaps right through the cross- section of the
core. Such staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’.

Constructionally, the transformers are of two types, they are differentiated by the manner in
which the primary and the secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two
types are (i) core type (ii) Shell type. Another recent development is spiral- core or wound-
core type.
In core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the core whereas in
shell type, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings as shown in fig
 In the simplified diagram for the core type transformers the primary and secondary winding
are shown located on the opposite legs of the core, but in the actual construction, these are
always interleaved to reduce leakage flux. As shown in fig half the primary and half the
secondary winding have been placed side by side or concentrically on each limb, not primary
on one limb and secondary on the other.

In both core type and shell type transformers, the individual laminations are cut in the form of
long strips of L’s, E’s and I’s as shown in fig

Core type transformers

The coils wound are form-wound and are of the cylindrical type. The general form of these
coils may be circular or oval or rectangular. In small core-type transformers, a simple
rectangular core is used with cylindrical coils which are either circular or rectangular in form.
But for large- size core-type transformers, round or circular cylindrical coils are used which
are so wound as to fit over a cruciform core section as shown in fig. The circular cylindrical
coils are used in most of the core-type transformers because of their mechanical strength.
Such cylindrical coils are wound in helical layers with the different layers insulated from each
other by paper, cloths, micarta board or cooling ducts. Fig shows the general arrangement of
these coils with respect to the core. Insulating cylinders of fuller board are used to separate the
cylindrical windings from the core and from each other. Since the low-voltage winding is
easiest to insulate, it is placed nearest to the core
Because of laminations and insulation, the net or effective core area is reduced. The reduction
in the core area due to the presence of paper, surface oxide etc. is of order of 10%
approximately.
Shell type Transformer
The coils are form-wound but are multi-layer disc type usually wound in the form of
pancakes. The different layers of such multi-layer discs are insulated from each other by
paper. The complete winding consists of stacked discs with insulation space between the
coils. The spacing forms the horizontal cooling and cooling ducts. A shell type transformer
may have a simple rectangular form as shown in fig

It may be pointed out that the cores and coils of transformers must be provided with rigid
mechanical bracing in order to prevent movement and possible insulation damage. Good
bracing reduces vibration and the objectionable noise- a humming sound during operation.
Transformers are generally housed in tightly fitted sheet metal; tanks filled with special
insulating oil. This oil has been highly developed and its function is twofold. By circulation, it
not only keeps the coils reasonably cool, but also provides the transformer with additional
insulation not obtainable when the transformer is left in the air.
In the cases where a smooth tank surface does not provide sufficient cooling area, the sides of
the tank are corrugated or provided with radiators mounted on the sides. Good transformer oil
should be free from alkalies, sulphur and particularly from moisture. The presence of even an
extremely small percentage of moisture in the oil is highly detrimental from the insulation
view point because it lowers the dielectric strength of the oil considerably. The importance of
avoiding moisture in the transformer oil is clear from the fact that even an addition of 8 parts
of water in 1,000,000 reduces the insulating quality of the oil to a value generally recognized
as below standard. Hence, the tanks are sealed air tight in smaller units. In the case of large
sized transformers where complete air tight construction is impossible, chambers known as
breathers are provided to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and contract as its
temperature increases or decreases. The atmospheric moisture is entrapped in these breathers
and is not allowed to pass on to the oil.
Another thing to avoid in the oil is sledging which is simply the decomposition of oil with
long and continued use. Sledging is caused principally by exposure to oxygen during heating
and results in the formation of large deposits of dark and heavy matter that eventually clogs
the cooling ducts in the transformer.
All the transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable bushings. There are
many designs of these, their size and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. For
moderate voltages, porcelain bushings are used to insulate the leads as they come out through
the tank.
Another means of classifying the transformers is according to the type of cooling employed.
The following types are in common use:
(a)oil-filled self-cooled (b) oil-filled water-cooled (c) air-blast type
Small and medium size distribution transformers are so called because of their use on
distribution systems as distinguished from line transmission are of type (a). The assembled
windings and cores of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil tight steel tank provided
with steel cover. After putting the core at its proper place, the tank is filled with high quality,
purified insulating oil. The oil serves to convey the heat from the core and the windings to the
case from where it is radiated out to the surroundings. For small size, the tanks are usually
smooth surfaced, but for large sizes, the cases are corrugated or fluted to get greater heat
radiation area without increasing the cubical capacity of the tank. Still larger sizes are
provided with radiators or pipes.
Construction of very large self-cooled transformers is expensive, a more economical form of
construction for such large transformers is provided in the oil-immersed, water-cooled type.
As before, the windings and the core are immersed in the oil, but a cooling coil is mounted
near the surface of the oil through which cold water is kept circulating. The heat is carried
away by this water. The largest transformers such as those used with high voltage
transmission lines, are constructed in this manner.
Oil filled transformers are built for outdoor duty and as require no housing other than their
own, a great saving is thereby effected. These transformers require only periodic inspection.
For voltages below 25,000 v transformers can be built for cooling by means of an air blast.
The transformer is not immersed in oil, but is housed in a thin sheet metal box open at both
ends through which air is blown from the bottom to the top by means of a fan or blower.

Working principle of a Transformer

A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower
the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical
basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic
flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in fig2.15. The two coils
possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an
alternating flux is setup in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in
which it produces mutually induced emf (according to faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction). If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is
transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in
which electric energy is fed from the a.c mains, is called primary winding and the other from
which energy is drawn out, it is called secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device
that
1. Transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. It does so without a change of frequency
3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.
E.M.F Equation of a Transformer
Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
Фm = maximum flux in the core in webers
= Bm x A
f= frequency of a.c input in Hz
As shown in fig, flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Фm in one quarter of the
cycle i.e. in ¼ f second.

m
Therefore, average rate of change of flux =
1
4f
= 4f Фm Wb/s or volt
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts.
 Average e.m.f /turn = 4f Фm volt
If the flux Ф varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying
the average value with form factor.
r.m.s.value
Form factor =  1.11
averagevalue

 r.m.s. value of emf /turn = 1.11x 4f Фm = 4.444f Фm volt

Now, r.m.s. value of the induced emf in the whole of primary winding
= (induced emf /turn) x No. of primary turns
E1 = 4.444f N1 Фm = 4.44 f N1BmA -------------------- (i)
Similarly, r.m.s. value of the induced emf in the whole of secondary winding

= (induced emf /turn) x No. of secondary turns

E2 = 4.444f N2 Фm = 4.44 f N2BmA ---------------------- (ii)

E1 E2
It is seen from (i) and (ii) that   4.44 f m . It means that emf/turn is the same in
N1 N 2
both the primary and secondary windings.
In an ideal transformer on no load, V1 = E1 and V2 =E2
where V2 is the terminal voltage.
Transformation Ratio (K)
From equations (i) and (ii) we get
E2 N 2
 K
E1 N1
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
(i) If N2 > N1 i.e. K>1, then transformer is called step-up transformer.
(ii) If N2 < N1 i.e. K<1, then transformer is called step-down transformer.
Again, for an ideal transformer,
input VA = output VA
I V 1
V1 I1  V2 I 2 or 2  1 
I1 V2 K
Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its windings has no ohmic resistance,
there is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no I2 R and core losses. In other words, an
ideal transformer consists of purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core. It may,
however, be noted that it is impossible to realize such a transformer in practice. From this
transformer step by step approach the actual transformer.

Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary is open and whose primary is connected to
sinusoidal alternating voltage V1. This potential difference causes an alternating current to
flow in the primary. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(secondary being open) the primary draws the magnetising current Iμ only. The function of
this current is merely to magnetize the core; it is small in magnitude and lags by 90°. This
alternating current Iμ produces an alternating flux Ф which is, at all times, proportional to the
current (assuming permeability of the magnetic circuit to be constant) and, hence, is in phase
with it. This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings.
Therefore, it produces a self-induced e.m.f. in the primary. This self-induced emf E1 is, at
every instant, equal to and in opposition to V1. It is also known as counter emf or back emf of
the primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced emf E2 which is known as mutually
induced emf. This emf is antiphase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns.
The instantaneous values of applied voltage, induced emfs, flux and magnetising current are
shown by sinusoidal waves in fig.a. Fig. b. shows the vectorial representation of the effective
values of the above quantities.
 Fig a fig. b

Efficiency of a transformer
The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the output
divided by input the two being measured in the same units (either watts or kilowatts)
output
Efficiency =
input
But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment, has very small loss, hence it is
impractical to try to measure transformer efficiency by measuring input and output. These
quantities are nearly of the same size. A better method is to determine the losses and then to
calculate the efficiency from;

output output
efficiency 
output  losses output  Culoss  ironloss

input  losses losses

  1
input input
It may be noted here that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt amperes,
although loses are proportional to VA. Hence, at any volt-ampere load, the efficiency depends
on power factor, being maximum at a power factor of unity.

Condition for maximum efficiency

Cu loss =I12 R01 or I22 R02
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss +eddy current loss
= Wh +We =Wi
Considering primary side,
Primary input = V1 I1 cosФ1

V1 I1 cos 1  losses V1 I1 cos 1  I12 R01  Wi

 
V1 I1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
I1 R01 Wi
 1 
V1 I1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
Differentiating both sides with respect to I1, we get

d R01 Wi
 0 
dI1 V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
2

For η to be maximum,
 d
0
dI1
R01 Wi
 or Wi  I12 R01 or I 2 2 R02
V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
2

Cu loss = Iron loss

Wi
The output current corresponding to maximum efficiency is I 2 
R02
Note (i) If the iron loss and Cu loss are given, then the load at which two losses would be
equal is given by
ironloss
 fullload x
fullloadCuloss

(ii) The efficiency at any load is given by

x  fullloadKVA  p. f
 100
( x  fullloadKVA  p. f )  Wcu  Wi

Why transformer rating in KVA?

Cu loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage. Hence, total transformer
loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between voltage and current i.e. it
is independent of load power factor. That is why transformer rating is in KVA and not in KW.
All Day Efficiency of a Transformer
Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer throughout the
day. It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power in kWh or wh of the
transformer over 24 hours. Mathematically, it is represented as

All day efficiency of the transformer depends on their load cycle. The load cycle of the
transformer means the repetitions of load on it for a specific period.
Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial efficiency as the load on
certain transformer fluctuate throughout the day. For example, the distribution transformers
are energised for 24 hours, but they deliver very light loads for the major portion of the day,
and they do not supply rated or full load, and most of the time the distribution transformer has
50 to 75% load on it.
As we know, there are various losses in the transformer such as iron and copper loss. The iron
loss takes place in the core of the transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss occurs for the whole
day in the distribution transformer.The second type of loss known as copper loss takes place
in the windings of the transformer also known as the variable loss. It occurs only when the
transformers are in the loaded condition.Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot
be judged by the commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the efficiency is calculated or judged
by All Day Efficiency also known as operational efficiency or energy efficiency which is
computed by energy consumed during 24 hours.
49
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UNIT IV ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

PN Junction-VI Characteristics of Diode, zener diode, Transistors configurations - amplifiers. Op

amps- Amplifiers, oscillator, rectifiers, differentiator, integrator, ADC, DAC. Multi vibrator using
555 Timer IC . Voltage regulator IC using LM 723,LM 317.

PN JUNCTION DIODE
When the N and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large density
gradient exists between both sides of the junction so some of the free electrons from the donor
impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P- type
material producing negative ions.

FORWARD BIAS CONDITION

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and negative terminal to N-
type of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias condition.
Operation
• The applied potential in external battery acts in opposition to the internal potential
barrier which disturbs the equilibrium.
• As soon as equilibrium is disturbed by the application of an external voltage, the Fermi
level is no longer continuous across the junction.
• Under the forward bias condition the applied positive potential repels the holes in P
type region so that the holes move towards the junction and the applied positive
potential repels the electrons in N type region so that the electrons move towards the
junction.
• When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the depletion
region and internal potential barrier disappear.

V-I Characteristics
As the forward voltage increased for VF < Vo, the forward current IF almost zero
because the potential barrier prevents the holes from P region and electrons from N region to
flow across the depletion region in opposite direction.
 2

V-I characteristics of a diode under forward bias

For VF > Vo, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence, the holes cross
the junction from P to N type and electrons cross the junction to opposite direction, resulting large
current flow in external circuit.
A feature noted here is the cut in voltage or threshold voltage V F below which the current is very
small. At this voltage the potential barrier is overcome and the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.
Cut in voltage is 0.3V for germanium and 0.7 for silicon.

UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and positive terminal to
N-type of the PN junction diode that is known as reverse bias condition.

Operation
• The holes from the majority carriers of the P side move towards the negative terminal
of the battery and electrons which from the majority carrier of the N side are attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery.
• Hence, the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge carriers
increases. Thus, the electric field produced by applied reverse bias, is in the same
direction as the electric field of the potential barrier.
• Hence the resultant potential barrier is increased which prevents the flow of majority
carriers in both directions. The depletion width W is proportional to under reverse bias.

V-I characteristics
Theoretically no current flow in the external circuit. But in practice a very small amount of current of
the order of few microamperes flows under reverse bias.
 3

• Electrons forming covalent bonds of semiconductor atoms in the P and N type regions may absorb
sufficient energy from heat and light to cause breaking covalent bonds. So electron hole pairs
continuously produced.

• Consequently the minority carriers’ electrons in the P region and holes in the N region, wander over
to the junction and flow towards their majority carrier side giving raise a small reverse current. This
current is known as reverse saturation current Io.

• The magnitude of this current is depends on the temperature because minority carrier is thermally
broken covalent bonds.

ZENER DIODE

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction
like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the
breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was
named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
 4

Diode symbol

However, the Zener Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called, are basically the same
as the standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a low pre- determined Reverse
Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage.

The point at which a Zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" (Vz).The
Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of silicon PN junction.

When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated
current, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse saturation current remains fairly
constant over a wide range of voltages.

The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a
process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the current flowing through the
Zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series
resistor).
This breakdown voltage point is called the "Zener voltage" for Zener diodes.

Avalanche Breakdown:
There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase until the diode breakdown
voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Break down region. At this stage maximum current
will flow through the Zener diode. This breakdown point is referred as “Zener voltage”.

The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1%tolerance) in the
doping stage of the diodes construction giving the diode a specific Zener breakdown voltage, (Vz)
ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred volts. This Zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is
almost a vertical straight line.
Zener diode characteristics
The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the Zener
diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of
the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes
in current as long as the Zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the
maximum current rating IZ(max).
 5

TRANSISTORS
INTRODUCTION
The transistor is the main building block element of electronics. It is a semiconductor device
and it comes in two general types: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field Effect
Transistor (FET).
It is named as transistor which is an acronym of two terms: transfer-of-resistor It means that
the internal resistance of transistor transfers from one value to another values depending on the
biasing voltage applied to the transistor. Thus it is called Transfer resistor: i.e. TRANSISTOR.
A bipolar transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the operation
depends on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar.
The voltage between two terminals controls the current through the third terminal. So it is
called current controlled device. This is the basic principle of the BJT
It can be used as amplifier and logic switches. BJT consists of three terminals:
• Collector : C
• Base : B
• Emitter : E
 6

TYPES
There are two types of bipolar transistors
1. NPN transistor and
2. PNP transistor.
TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION
PNP Transistor: In PNP transistor a thin layer of N-type silicon is sandwiched between two layers of
P-type silicon.
NPN Transistor: In NPN transistor a thin layer of P-type silicon is sandwiched between two layers of
N-type silicon. The two types of BJT are represented in figure
 7

TRANSISTOR Biasing

There are two junctions in bipolar junction transistor. Each junction can be forward or reverse biased
independently. Thus there are four modes of operations:
 8

CONFIGURATION OF TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

A transistor is a three terminal device. But require ‗4‘ terminals for connecting it in a circuits. (i.e.) 2
terminals for input, 2 terminals for output. Hence one of the terminal is made common to the input
and output circuits. Common terminal is grounded.

TYPES OF CONFIGURATIONS
Three types of configuration is available
1) Common base (CB) configuration
2) Common emitter (CE) configuration
3) Common collector (CC) configuration
COMMON BASE(CB) CONFIGURATION
In common base configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here base is grounded and it is used as the
common terminal for both input and output.

It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as a input terminal where as collector
is the output terminal.
Input characteristics:
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current whereas output
voltage is constant.
 9

To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero and emitter
current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEB.
This is repeated for higher fixed values of VCB.
A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector base voltage
is shown in figure. When VCB is zero EB junctions is forward biased. So it behaves as a diode so that
emitter current increases rapidly.

Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltages to output current whereas
input current is constant. To determine output characteristics, the emitter current IE is kept constant
at zero and collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing VCB. This is repeated for higher
fixed values of IE.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of VCB and the
curves are parallel to the axis of VCB.As the emitter base junction is forward biased the majority
carriers that is electrons from the emitter region are injected into the base region.
In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the quasi-
neutral width in the base. The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base therefore changes,
yielding an increased collector current as the collector-base current is increased. This effect is
referred to as the early effect.
 10

CE CONFIGURATION (Common Emitter Configuration)

In common emitter configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here emitter is grounded and it is used
as the common terminal for both input and output. It is also called as grounded emitter configuration.
Base is used as a input terminal whereas collector is the output terminal.

Input Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current whereas output
voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero and base
current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBE. This is repeated for higher fixed values of VCE.
A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector base voltage is
shown in figure. Here the base width decreases. So curve moves right as VCE increases.

Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltages to output current whereas
input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB i s kept constant at zero and collector current
Ic is increased from zero by increasing VCE. This is repeated for higher fixed values of IB.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, Ic is independent of VCB and the
curves are parallel to the axis of VCE.
 11

The output characteristic has 3 basic regions:

- Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements.

- Cut-off region – region where the collector current is 0A

- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V.

CC CONFIGURATION(Common Collector)

In common collector configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here collector is grounded and it is
used as the common terminal for both input and output. It is also called as grounded collector
configuration. Base is used as a input terminal whereas emitter is the output terminal.
 12

Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current
whereas output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the emitter base voltage VEB is kept constant at zero and
base current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBC. This is repeated for higher fixed values of
VCE.
A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure

Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current whereas input
current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at zero and emitter current IE
is increased from zero by increasing VEC. This is repeated for higher fixed values of IB.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, IE is independent of VEB and the
curves are parallel to the axis of VEC.

TRANSISTOR as AMPLIFIERS
An amplifier is used to increase the signal level. It is used to get a larger signal output
from a small signal input. Assume a sinusoidal signal at the input of the amplifier. At the output,
signal must remain sinusoidal in waveform with frequency same as that of input. To make the
transistor work as an amplifier, it is to be biased to operate in active region. It means base-emitter
junction is forward biased and base-collector junction is reverse biased.
 13

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

 14

Common Collector Amplifier Circuit:

 15

Common Base Amplifier Circuit:

 16

IC741 Operational Amplifier

• The short form of the operational amplifier is op-amp, is a one kind of solid state IC.
• An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output
• It consists of two inputs, namely inverting and non inverting terminals.
• The applications of operational amplifier mainly involve in filters, comparators, pulse
generators, oscillators, etc.
• It is available in 8 pin, 10 pin or 14 pin configuration.
Ideal OP-AMP Characteristics:
An ideal OP-AMP would have the following characteristics:
1. The input resistance RIN would be infinite
2. The output resistance ROUT would be zero
3. The voltage gain, VG would be infinite
4. The bandwidth (how quickly the output will follow the input) would be infinite
5. If the voltages on the two inputs are equal than the output voltage is zero (If the output is not zero
it is said to have an offset)
Pin Diagram of IC 741 Op-Amp
Pin-1 is Offset null.
Pin-2 is Inverting (-) i/p terminal.
Pin-3 is a non-inverting (+) i/p terminal.
Pin-4 is -Ve voltage supply (VCC)
Pin-5 is offset null.
Pin-6 is the o/p voltage.
Pin-7 is +ve voltage supply (+VCC)
 17

Pin-8 is not connected.

Applications of OP-AMP:
1) Inverting Amplifier:
In an IC 741 op amp, pin2 and pin6 are the input and output pins. When the voltage is given to the
pin-2 then we can get the output from the pin-6. If the polarity of the i/p pin-2 is +Ve, then the
polarity which comes from the o/p pin6 is-Ve. So the o/p is always opposite to the i/p.

Current i1 through R1 is given by

Since the op-amp draws no current, all the current flowing through R1 must flow through Rf.The
output voltage is

The gain of the non inverting amplifier is given as

2. Non Inverting Op-Amplifier

In an IC 741 op amp pin3 and pin6 are input and output pins. When the voltage is given to the pin3
then we can get the output from the pin-6. If the polarity is +Ve at the input pin-3, then the polarity
which comes from the o/p pin-6 is also+Ve. So the o/p is not opposite.
 18

3.Differential Amplifier:
Standard operational amplifier has two inputs, inverting and no-inverting; we can also connect
signals to both of these inputs at the same time producing another common type of operational
amplifier circuit called a Differential Amplifier.
Then differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages making this type of
operational amplifier circuit a Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which adds or sums together
the input voltages. This type of operational amplifier circuit is commonly known as a Differential
Amplifier configuration

By connecting each input in turn to 0v ground we can use superposition to solve for the output
voltage Vout. Then the transfer function for a Differential Amplifier circuit is given as:
 19

When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the differential amplifier can
be simplified to the following expression:

OSCILLATORS

4. RC Phase Shift Oscillator Using Op-Amp

An RC phase shift oscillator is a sinusoidal oscillator used to produce the well shaped sine wave
oscillations. This oscillator is used in numerous applications like as a local oscillator for
synchronous receivers, study purposes, musical instruments. The essential component used in an RC
phase shift oscillator is an operational amplifier inverting amplifier with its output fed back into its
input using a regenerative feedback RC filter n/w, hence the name is called an RC phase shift
oscillator. The frequency of oscillations can be changed by changing the capacitor.
 20

The feedback RC network has a phase shift of 60 degrees each; hence the total phase shift provided
by the three RC networks is 180 degrees. The op amp is connected as an inverting amplifier, so
hence the total phase shift around the loop will be 360 degrees. This condition is essential for
continued oscillations.
Working of RC Phase Shift Oscillator
The feedback network offers 1800 phase shift at the oscillation frequency and the operational
amplifier is arranged as an Inverting amplifier, and it also provide 180 degrees phase shift. Hence,
the total phase shift around the loop is 360 degrees, it is essential for sustained oscillations.

At the oscillation frequency each of the capacitor, resistor, filter produces a phase shift of 60° so the
whole filter circuit generates 180° of a phase shift.

The energy storage capacity of a capacitor in this circuit produces a noise voltage which is like to a
small sine wave, it is then amplified using an op amp inverting amplifier.

By taking feedback, the o/p sine wave also reduces 1/29 times while passing through the RC
network, so the gain of the inverting amplifier should be 29 in order to keep the loop gain as unity.

The unity loop gain and 360 degree phase shift are essential for the continued oscillation.

RC Oscillators are constant and provide a well shaped sine wave output with the frequency being
proportional to 1/RC and therefore, when we are using a variable capacitor a wide frequency range is
possible.

Though, RC Oscillators are controlled to frequency applications because at high frequency the
reactance offered by the capacitor is very low so it acts as a short circuit.
Frequency of oscillation (F)

F= 1/2πRC√2N
1/2πRC√2×3
1/2πRC√6
 21

For 6.5kHz= 1/2πx1000x0.01×10-6X√6

Gain of the Op Amp inverting amplifier (G)
G= -Rf/Ri=29
The feedback RC network offers an attenuation that is 1/29, so the gain of the inverting amplifier
should be 29
5. Differentiator:
The circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation (i.e.) the output waveform is the
derivative of the input waveform. The differentiator may be constructed from a basic inverting
amplifier if an input resistor R1is replaced by a capacitor C1. Since the differentiator performs the
reverse of the integrator function. Thus the output V0 is equal to RF C1 times the negative rate of
change of the input voltage Vin with time. The –sign indicates a 180 phase shift of the output
waveform V0 with respect to the input signal. The below circuit will not do this because it has some
practical problems. The gain of the circuit (RF /XC1) R with R in frequency at a rate of
20dB/decade. This makes the circuit unstable. Also input impedance XC1s with R in frequency
which makes the circuit very susceptible to high frequency noise.

Since the node voltage of the operational amplifier at its inverting input terminal is zero, the current,
i flowing through the capacitor will be given as:

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance x Voltage across the capacitor

capacitor charge

The rate of change of this charge is:

 22

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current, i

6. Integrator:

A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage waveform
is the integrator or Integration Amplifier. Such a circuit is obtained by using a basic inverting
amplifier configuration if the feedback resistor RF is replaced by a capacitor CF.

The expression for the output voltage V0 can be obtained by KVL eqn. at node V2.
 23

Rectifiers:

An inverting amplifier can be converted into an idea half wave rectifier by adding two diodes.

When Vi is positive Diode D1 conducts causing VOA to go to negative by one diode drop. Hence
Diode D2 is reverse biased. The output voltage Vo is zero, because for all practical purposes, no
current flows through Rf and the input current flows through D1.

For Negative input i.e., Vi<0, Diode D2conducts and D1 is off. The negative input Vi forces the op-
amp output VOA positive and causes D2 to conduct. The circuit then acts like an inverter for Rf=R1
and the output becomes positive.

The input and output waveforms are shown below

The op-amp in the circuit must be a high speed op-amp since it alternates between open loop and
closed loop operations. The principal limitation of this circuit is the slew rate of the op-amp. As the
 24

input passes through zero, the op-amp output VoA must change from 0.6 V to -0.6 V or Vice versa as
quickly as possible in order to switch over the conduction from one diode to the another.

PRECISION FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

In PFWR, for both the half cycles output is produced & in one direction only. The diagram below
shows an inverting type of Precision FWR with positive output. It is also called as absolute value
circuit because output signal swing is only in positive direction. So we get absolute value of input
signal.
 25

555 TIMER IC
The 555 is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce accurate & highly stable time delays or
oscillation. The timer basically operates in one of two modes: either
(i) Monostable (one - shot) multivibrator or
(ii) Astable (free running) multivibrator
The important features of the 555 timer are these:
(i) It operates on +5v to +18 v supply voltages
(ii) It has an adjustable duty cycle
(iii) Timing is from microseconds to hours
(iv) It has a current o/p

PIN CONFIGURATION OF 555 TIMER:

Pin 1: Ground: All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.
Pin 2: Trigger: The o/p of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to
this pin.
 26

Pin 3: Output: There are 2 ways a load can be connected to the o/p terminal either between pin3 &
ground or between pin 3 & supply voltage
(Between Pin 3 & Ground- ON load )
(Between Pin 3 & + Vcc - OFF load )
(i) When the input is low: The load current flows through the load connected between Pin 3 & +Vcc
in to the output terminal & is called the sink current.
(ii) When the output is high: The current through the load connected between Pin 3 & +Vcc (i.e. ON
load) is zero. However the output terminal supplies current to the normally OFF load. This current is
called the source current.
Pin 4: Reset: The 555 timer can be reset (disabled) by applying a negative pulse to this pin. When
the reset function is not in use, the reset terminal should be connected to +Vcc to avoid any false
triggering.
Pin 5: Control voltage: An external voltage applied to this terminal changes the threshold as well as
trigger voltage. In other words by connecting a potentiometer between this pin & GND, the pulse
width of the output waveform can be varied. When not used, the control pin should be bypassed to
ground with 0.01 capacitor to prevent any noise problems.
Pin 6: Threshold: This is the non inverting input terminal of upper comparator which monitors the
voltage across the external capacitor.
Pin 7: Discharge: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor Q1.
When the output is high Q1 is OFF.
When the output is low Q is (saturated) ON.
Pin 8: +Vcc: The supply voltage of +5V to +18V is applied to this pin with respect to ground.

Block Diagram of 555 Timer IC:

From the figure, three 5k internal resistors act as voltage divider providing bias voltage of 2/3 Vcc to
the upper comparator & 1/3 Vcc to the lower comparator. It is possible to vary time electronically by
applying a modulation voltage to the control voltage input terminal (5).
(i) In the Stable state:
The output of the control FF is high. This means that the output is low because of power amplifier
which is basically an inverter. Q = 1; Output = 0
 27

(ii) At the Negative going trigger pulse:

The trigger passes through (Vcc/3) the output of the lower comparator goes high & sets the FF. Q =
1; Q = 0
(iii) At the Positive going trigger pulse: It passes through 2/3Vcc, the output of the upper comparator
goes high and resets the FF. Q = 0; Q = 1 The reset input (pin 4) provides a mechanism to reset the
FF in a manner which overrides the effect of any instruction coming to FF from lower comparator.
Monostable Operation:

Functional block diagram of IC 555 in monostable operation

Initially when the output is low, i.e. the circuit is in a stable state, transistor Q1 is ON & capacitor C
is shorted to ground. The output remains low. During negative going trigger pulse, transistor Q1 is
OFF, which releases the short circuit across the external capacitor C & drives the output high. Now
the capacitor C starts charging toward Vcc through RA. When the voltage across the capacitor
equals 2/3 Vcc, upper comparator switches from low to high. i.e. Q = 0, the transistor Q1 = OFF ;
the output is high.
 28

Since C is unclamped, voltage across it rises exponentially through R towards Vcc with a time
constant RC (fig b) as shown in below. After the time period, the upper comparator resets the FF, i.e.
Q = 1, Q1 = ON; the output is low.[i.e discharging the capacitor C to ground potential (fig c)]. The
voltage across the capacitor as in fig (b) is given by

Vc = Vcc (1-e-t/RC) ……………. (1)

Therefore At t = T, Vc = 2/3 Vcc

2/3 Vcc = Vcc(1-e-T/RC) or

T = RC ln (1/3) Or T = 1.1RC seconds ……………. (2)

If the reset is applied Q2 = OFF, Q1 = ON, timing capacitor C immediately discharged. The output
now will be as in figure (d & e). If the reset is released output will still remain low until a negative
going trigger pulse is again applied at pin 2.

Applications of Monostable Mode

(a) Frequency Divider

(b) Pulse width modulation
(c) Pulse Stretcher
The 555 timer as an Astable Multivibrator:

An Astable multivibrator, often called a free running multivibrator, is a rectangular wave generating
circuit. Unlike the monostable multivibrator, this circuit does not require an external trigger to
 29

change the state of the output, hence the name free running. However, the time during which the
output is either high or low is determined by 2 resistors and capacitors, which are externally
connected to the 555 timer.
 30

Initially, when the output is high :

Capacitor C starts charging toward Vcc through RA & RB. However, as soon as voltage across the
capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc. Upper comparator triggers the FF & output switches low.

When the output becomes Low:

Capacitor C starts discharging through RB and transistor Q1, when the voltage across C equals
1/3Vcc, lower comparator output triggers the FF & the output goes High. Then cycle repeats. The
capacitor is periodically charged & discharged between 2/3 Vcc & 1/3 Vcc respectively.

The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3 Vcc equal to the time the output is
high & is given by

tc = 0.69 (RA+RB)C Where RA & RB are in ohms.

And C is in farads. Similarly, the time during which the capacitors discharges from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3
Vcc is equal to the time, the output is low and is given by,

tc = RBC 0.69 …………………..(2)

where RB is in ohms and C is in farads.

Thus the total period of the output waveform is

T = tc + td = 0.69 (RA+2RB)C …………….(3)

This, in turn, gives the frequency of oscillation as,

f 0 = 1/T = 1.45/(RA+2RB)C ………(4)

Equation 4 indicates that the frequency f 0 is independent of the supply voltage Vcc. Often the term
duty cycle is used in conjunction with the astable multivibrator. The duty cycle is the ratio of the
time tc during which the output is high to the total time period T. It is generally expressed as a
percentage.

% duty cycle = (tc / T )* 100

% DC = [(RA+RB)/ /(RA+2RB)] * 100

Applications:

• Square Wave Oscillator

• Free – running Ramp generator
 31

IC 723 – GENERAL PURPOSE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a stable dc voltage for powering other
electronic circuits. It should be capable of providing substantial output current. The types are series
voltage regulator and switching regulators. These have the following limitations
• No short circuit protection
• Output voltage is fixed.
These limitations can be overcome in the 723 general purpose voltage regulators.

Features of IC723:
1. Unregulated dc supply voltage at the input between 9.5V & 40V
2. Adjustable regulated output voltage between 2 to 3V.
3. Maximum load current of 150 mA (ILmax = 150mA).
4. With the additional transistor used, ILmax up to 10A is obtainable.
5. Positive or Negative supply operation
6. Internal Power dissipation of 800mW.
7. Built in short circuit protection.
8. Very low temperature drift.
9. High ripple rejection.
Pin Diagram of IC 723

The simplified functional block diagram can be divided in to 4 blocks.

1. Reference generating block
2. Error Amplifier
3. Series Pass transistor
4. Circuitry to limit the current
 32

1. Reference Generating block:

The temperature compensated Zener diode, constant current source & voltage reference
amplifier together from the reference generating block. The Zener diode is used to generate a fixed
reference voltage internally. Constant current source will make the Zener diode to operate at affixed
point & it is applied to the Non – inverting terminal of error amplifier. The Unregulated input
voltage ±Vcc is applied to the voltage reference amplifier as well as error amplifier.

2. Error Amplifier:
Error amplifier is a high gain differential amplifier with 2 input (inverting & Non-inverting).
The Non-inverting terminal is connected to the internally generated reference voltage. The Inverting
terminal is connected to the full regulated output voltage.
3. Series Pass Transistor:
Q1 is the internal series pass transistor which is driven by the error amplifier. This transistor
actually acts as a variable resistor & regulates the output voltage. The collector of transistor Q1 is
connected to the Un-regulated power supply. The maximum collector voltage of Q1 is limited to
36Volts. The maximum current which can be supplied by Q1 is 150mA.

4. Circuitry to limit the current:

It refers to the ability of the regulator to prevent the load current from increasing above a
present value. The current limit Ilimit is set by connecting an external resistor Rsc between the
terminals CL and CS.
 33

Applications of IC723
 34

Adjustable Voltage Regulator LM317

• LM317 series adjustable 3 terminal positive voltage regulator, the three terminals are Vin, Vout &
adjustment (ADJ).
 35

• The two resistors R1 and R2 used for setting the output voltage along with a output side filter
capacitor C2 and an input bypass capacitor C1 of 1 μF tantalum. In order to improve the transient
response behaviour,additional electrolytic capacitor of 1 to 1000 μF can be used at output side.

Advantages of Adjustable Voltage Regulator over fixed voltage regulator are,

1. Adjustable output voltage from 1.2v to 37 v
2. Output current 0.10 to 1.5 A
3. Better load & line regulation
4. Improved overload protection
5. Improved reliability under the 100% thermal overloading
 36

ADC AND DAC USING OP-AMPS

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) are very important
components in electronic equipment. Since most real world signals are analog, these two converting
interfaces are necessary to allow digital electronic equipments to process the analog signals and
display it.
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44
UNIT V ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Characteristic of measurement-errors in measurement, torque in indicating instruments- moving coil and
moving iron meters, Energy meter and watt meter. Transducers- classification-thermo electric, RTD,
Strain gauge, LVDT, LDR and piezoelectric. Oscilloscope-CRO

CHARACTERISTIC OF MEASUREMENT

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories: i)
Static characteristics ii) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which
are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called ‘static
characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are: i) Accuracy ii) Precision iii) Sensitivity iv) Linearity v)
Reproducibility vi) Repeatability vii) Resolution viii) Threshold ix) Drift x) Stability xi)
Tolerance xii) Range or span

Accuracy: Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the actual or true value,
and is expressed in the form of the maximum error (= measured value – true value) as a
percentage of full scale reading.

Precision: Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument (but does not
indicate accuracy). If an instrument is used to measure the same input, but at different instants,
spread over the whole day, successive measurements may vary randomly. The random
fluctuations of readings, (mostly with a Gaussian distribution) is often due to random variations
of several other factors which have not been taken into account, while measuring the variable.

The difference between precision and accuracy needs to be understood carefully. Precision
means repetition of successive readings, but it does not guarantee accuracy; successive readings
may be close to each other, but far from the true value. On the other hand, an accurate instrument
has to be precise also, since successive readings must be close to the true value (that is unique).

Sensitivity: It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the incremental input.
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument
responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the
value of the quantity to be measured.

Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input quantity
under measurement. It should have linear input - output characteristic.

Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.

Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same
environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.
Resolution: If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be
found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is
called resolution.
Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the
threshold of the instrument.

Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified

operating life.

Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some
value which is called tolerance.

Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is
designed to measure is called its range or span.

Dynamic characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called
‘dynamic characteristics’.

The various Dynamic characteristics are: i) Speed of response ii) Measuring lag iii) Fidelity iv)
Dynamic error

Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.

Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to

changes in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types: a) Retardation type: In
this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in
measured quantity has occurred.

b) Time delay lag: In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time
after the application of the input.

Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measurand quantity without dynamic error.

Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Errors accompany any measurement, however well it is conducted. The error may be inherent in
the measurement process or it may be induced due to variations in the way the experiment is
conducted. The errors may be classified as:
(a) Gross errors
(b) Systematic errors
(c) Random errors

Gross Errors

These errors are due to the gross blunder on the part of the experimenters or observers. These
errors are caused by mistake in using instruments, recording data and calculating measurement
results. For example: A person may read a pressure gage indicating 1.01 N/m2 as 1.10 N/m2.
Someone may have a bad habit of memorizing data at a time of reading and writing a number of
data together at later time. This may cause error in the data. Errors may be made in calculating
the final results. Another gross error arises when an experimenter makes use (by mistake) of an
ordinary flow meter having poor sensitivity to measure low pressure in a system.

Systematic Errors

These are inherent errors of apparatus or method. These errors always give a constant deviation.
On the basis of the sources of errors, systematic errors may be divided into following sub-
categories :
i. Constructional Error
None of the apparatus can be constructed to satisfy all specifications completely. This is the
reason of giving guarantee within a limit. Therefore, a manufacturers always mention the
minimum possible errors in the construction of the instruments.
Errors in Reading or Observation
Following are some of the reasons of errors in results of the indicating instruments :
(a) Construction of the Scale : There is a possibility of error due to the division of the scale not
being uniform and clear.
(b) Fitness and Straightness of the Pointer : If the pointer is not fine and straight, then it
always gives the error in the reading.
(c) Parallax : Without a mirror under the pointer there may be parallax error in reading.
(d) Efficiency or Skillness of the Observer : Error in the reading is largely dependent upon the
skillness of the observer by which reading is noted accurately.

ii. Determination Error

It is due to the indefiniteness in final adjustment of measuring apparatus. For example, Maxwell
Bridge method of measuring inductances, it is difficult to find the differences in sound of head
phones for small change in resistance at the time of final adjustment. The error varies from
person to person.
 iii. Error due to Other Factors

Temperature Variation
Variation in temperature not only changes the values of the parameters but also brings changes in
the reading of the instrument. For a consistent error, the temperature must be constant.
Effect of the Time on Instruments
There is a possibility of change in calibration error in the instrument with time. This may be
called ageing of the instrument.
Effect of External Electrostatic and Magnetic Fields
These electrostatic and magnetic fields influence the readings of instruments. These effects can
be minimized by proper shielding.
Mechanical Error
Friction between stationary and rotating parts and residual torsion in suspension wire cause
errors in instruments. So, checking should be applied. Generally, these errors may be checked
from time to time.

Random Errors
After corrections have been applied for all the parameters whose influences are known, there is
left a residue of deviation. These are random error and their magnitudes are not constant. Persons
performing the experiment have no control over the origin of these errors. These errors are due to
so many reasons such as noise and fatigue in the working persons. These errors may be either
positive or negative. To these errors the law of probability may be applied. Generally, these
errors may be minimized by taking average of a large number of readings.

Absolute and Secondary Instruments

The various electrical instruments may, in a very broad sense, be divided into
(i) Absolute instruments
(ii) Secondary instruments.
Absolute instruments are those which give the value of the quantity to be measured, in
terms of the constants of the instrument and their deflection only. No previous calibration or
comparison is necessary in their case.
Secondary instruments are those, in which the value of electrical quantity to be measured
can be determined from the deflection of the instruments, only when they have been pre
calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument. Without calibration, the deflection of such
instruments is meaningless. It is the secondary instruments, which are most generally used in
everyday work; the use of the absolute instruments being merely confined within laboratories, as
standardizing instruments.
Secondary instruments are divided into
(i) indicating instruments ii)recording instruments and (iii) integrating instruments.

Indicating instruments are those which indicate the instantaneous value of the electrical quantity
being measured at the time at which it is being measured. Their indications are given by pointers
moving over calibrated dials. Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters belong to this class.

Recording instruments are those, which, instead of indicating by means of a pointer and a scale
the instantaneous value of an electrical quantity, give a continuous record or the variations of
such a quantity over a selected period of time. The moving system of the instrument carries an
inked pen which rests lightly on a chart or graph, that is moved at a uniform and low speed, in a
direction perpendicular to that of the deflection of the pen. The path traced out by the pen
presents a continuous record of the variations in the deflection of the instrument.
Integrating instruments are those which measure and register by a set of dials and pointers either
the total quantity of electricity (in amp-hours) or the total amount of electrical energy (in watt-
hours or kWh) supplied to a circuit in a given time. This summation gives the product of time
and the electrical quantity but gives no direct indication as to the rate at which the quantity or
energy is being supplied because their registrations are independent of this rate provided the
current flowing through the instrument is sufficient to operate it.

Essentials of Indicating Instruments

As defined above, indicating instruments are those which indicate the value of the quantity that is
being measured at the time at which it is measured. Such instruments consist essentially of a
pointer which moves over a calibrated scale and which is attached to a moving system pivoted in
jeweled bearings. The moving system is subjected to the following three torques :
1. A deflecting (or operating) torque
2. A controlling (or restoring) torque
3. A damping torque.

Deflecting Torque

The deflecting or operating torque (Td) is produced by utilizing one or other effects mentioned
as magnetic, electrostatic, electrodynamic, thermal or inductive etc. The actual method of torque
production depends on the type of instrument This deflecting torque causes the moving system
(and hence the pointer attached to it) to move from its ‘zero’ position i.e. its position when the
instrument is disconnected from the supply.

Controlling Torque

The deflection of the moving system would be indefinite if there were no controlling or restoring
torque. This torque oppose the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the moving
system. The pointer is brought to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are equal.
The deflecting torque ensures that currents of different magnitudes shall produce deflections of
the moving system in proportion to their size. Without such at torque, the pointer would swing
over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the current to be
measured. Moreover, in the absence of a restoring torque, the pointer once deflected, would not
return to its zero position on removing the current. The controlling or restoring or balancing
torque in indicating instruments is obtained either by a spring or by gravity as described below :
(a) Spring Control

A hair-spring, usually of phosphorbronze, is attached to the moving system of the instrument as

shown in Fig. With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite direction.
This twist in the spring produces restoring torque which is directly proportional to the angle of
deflection of the moving system. The pointer comes to a position of rest (or equilibrium) when
the deflecting torque (Td) and controlling torque (Tc) are equal. For example, in permanent-
magnet, moving-coil type of instruments, the deflecting torque is proportional to the current
passing through them.

Since deflection ɵ is directly proportional to current I, the spring-controlled instruments have a

uniform or equally-spaced scales

(b) Gravity Control

Gravity control is obtained by attaching a small adjustable weight to some part of the moving
system such that the two exert torques in the opposite directions. The usual arrangements is
shown in Fig.

It is seen from Fig.(b) that the controlling or restoring torque is proportional to the sine of the
angle of deflection i.e.

The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down the carrying system. It
then for position of rest

( c ) Damping Torque

A damping force is one which acts on the moving system of the instrument only when it is
moving and always opposes its motion. Such stabilizing or damping force is necessary to bring
the pointer to rest quickly, otherwise due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will
oscillate about its final deflected position for quite some time before coming to rest in the steady
position.
The degree of damping should be adjusted to a value which is sufficient to enable the pointer to
rise quickly to its deflected position without overshooting. In that case, the instrument is said to
be dead-beat. Any increase of damping above this limit i.e. over damping will make the
instruments slow and lethargic.
The damping force can be produced by (i) air frictions (ii) eddy currents and (iii) fluid friction
(used occasionally).
Two methods of air-friction damping are shown in Fig. (a) and (b).
In fig. (a), the light aluminum piston attached to the moving system of the instrument is arranged
to travel with a very small clearance in a fixed air chamber closed at one end. The cross-section
of the chamber is either circular or rectangular. Damping of the oscillation is affected by the
compression and suction actions of the piston on the air enclosed in the chamber. Such a system
of damping is not much favored these days.
In the latter method, one or two light aluminum vanes are mounted on the spindle of the moving
system which move in a closed sector-shaped box as shown. Fluid-friction is similar in action to
the air friction. Due to greater viscosity of oil, the damping is more effective. However, oil
damping is not much used because of several disadvantages such as objectionable creeping of
oil, the necessity of using the instrument always in the vertical position and its obvious
unsuitability for use in portable instruments.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument(PMMC)

Principle of Working
These instruments are used either as ammeters or voltmeters and are suitable for d.c work only.
PMMC instruments work on the principle that, when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor. The current carrying coil, placed in
magnetic field is attached to the moving system. With the movement of the coil, the pointer
moves over the scale to indicate the electrical quantity being measured. This type of movement is
known as D’ Arsenoval movement.
Construction
It consists of a light rectangular coil of many turns of fine wire wound on an aluminium former
inside which is an iron core as shown in fig. The coil is delicately pivoted upon jewel bearings
and is mounted between the poles of a permanent horse shoe magnet. Two soft-iron pole pieces
are attached to these poles to concentrate the magnetic field. The current is led in to and out of
the coils by means of two control hair- springs, one above and other below the coil, as shown in
fig (b). These springs also provide the controlling torque. The damping torque is provided by
eddy currents induced in the aluminium former as the coil moves from one position to another.
Working:-
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the operating
current flows through the coil. Since the current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field of
thepermanent magnet, a mechanical torque acts on it. As a result of this torque, the pointer
attached to the moving system moves in clockwise direction over the graduated scale to indicate
the value of current or voltage being measured.
This type of instruments can be used to measure direct current only. This is because, since
the direction of the field of permanent magnet is same, the deflecting torque also gets reversed,
when the current in the coil reverses. Consequently, the pointer will try to deflect below zero.
Deflection in the reverse direction can be prevented by a “stop” spring.
 Deflecting torque equation:-
The magnetic field in the air gap is radial due to the presence of soft iron core. Thus, the
conductors of the coil will move at right angles to the field. When the current is passed through
the coil, forces act on its both sides which produce the deflecting torque.
Let, B = flux density, Wb/m2
l = length or depth of coil, m
b = breadth of the coil.
N = no. of turns of the coil.
If a current of ‘I’ Amperes flows in the coil, then the force acting on each coil side is given by,
Force on each coil side, F = BIlN Newtons.
Deflecting torque, Td = Force × perpendicular distance
= (BIlN) × b
Td = BINA Newton metre.
Where, A = l × b, the area of the coil in m2.
Thus, Td α I
The instrument is spring controlled so that, Tc α θ
The pointer will comes to rest at a position, where Td =Tc
Therefore, θ α I
Thus, the deflection is directly proportional to the operating current. Hence, such instruments
have uniform scale.
Advantages:-
a) Uniform scale.ie, evenly divided scale.
b) Very effective eddy current damping.
c) High efficiency.
d) Require little power for their operation.
e) No hysteresis loss (as the magnetic field is constant).
f) External stray fields have little effects on the readings (as the operating magnetic field is very
strong).
g) Very accurate and reliable.
Disadvantages:-
a) Cannot be used for a.c measurements.
b) More expensive (about 50%) than the moving iron instruments because of their accurate design.
c) Some errors are caused due to variations (with time or temperature) either in the strength
of permanent magnet or in the control spring.
Applications:-
a) In the measurement of direct currents and voltages.
b) In d.c galvanometers to detect small currents.
c) In Ballistic galvanometers used for measuring changes of magnetic flux linkages
Moving Iron Instruments
M.I instruments are mainly used for the measurement of alternating currents and voltages,
though it can also be used for d.c measurements.
The general principle of a M.I instrument can be explained under;
Let a plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms the moving element of
the system. The iron vane is situated so as, it can move in a magnetic field produced by a
stationary coil. The coil is excited by the current or voltage under measurement. When the coil is
excited, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane moves in such a way so as to increase the
flux of the electromagnet. Thus, the vane tries to occupy a position of minimum reluctance.
Thus, the force produced is always in such a direction so as to increase the inductance of the coil.
There are two types of Moving- iron instruments.
i. Attraction type:-
In this type of instrument, a single soft iron vane (moving iron) is mounted on the
spindle, and is attracted towards the coil when operating current flows through it.

Deflecting torque equation

The force F, pulling the soft -iron piece towards the coil is directly proportional to;
a) Field strength H, produced by the coil.
b)pole strength ‘m’ developed in the iron piece.
F α mH
Since, m α H,
F α H2
Instantaneous deflecting torque α H2
Also, the field strength H = μi
If the permeability(μ) of the iron is assumed constant,
Then, H α i
Where, i instantaneous coil current, Ampere
Instantaneous deflecting torque α i2
 Average deflecting torque, Td α mean of i2 over a cycle.
Since the instrument is spring controlled,
Tc α θ
In the steady position of deflection, Td = Tc
θ α mean of i2 over a cycle
α I2

Since the deflection is proportional to the square of coil current, the scale of such instruments
is non-uniform (being crowded in the beginning and spread out near the finishing end of the
scale).
ii.Repulsion type:-
In this two soft iron vanes are used; one fixed and attached the stationary coil, while
the other is movable (moving iron), and mounted on the spindle of the instrument. When
operating current flows through the coil, the two vanes are magnetised, developing similar
polarity at the same ends. Consequently, repulsion takes place between the vanes and the
movable vane causes the pointer to move over the scale.
Two types
i.radial vane type: - vanes are radial strips of iron.
ii.co-axial vane type:-vanes are sections of coaxial cylinders.

Thus, the deflection is proportional to the square of the coil current. The scale of the
instrument is non- uniform; being crowded in the beginning and spread out near the finish end of
the scale. However, the non- linearity of the scale can be corrected to some extent by the
accurate shaping and positioning of the iron vanes in relation to the operating coil.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Such instruments are cheap and robust, give a reliable service and can be used both on a.c. and
d.c. circuits, although they cannot be calibrated with a high degree of precision with d.c. on
account of the effect of hysteresis in the iron rods or vanes. Hence, they are usually calibrated by
comparison with an alternating current standard.
WATTMETERS

The two main types of wattmeters in general use, that is, (i) the dynamometer or electro dynamic
type and (ii) the induction type.
Dynamometer Wattmeter
An electro dynamic instrument is a moving-coil instrument, in which the operating field is
produced, not by a permanent magnet but by another fixed coil. This instrument can be used
either as an ammeter or a voltmeter but is generally used as a wattmeter. The connections of a
dynamometer type wattmeter are shown in Fig. The fixed circular coil which carries the main
circuit current I1 is wound in two halves positioned parallel to each other. The distance between
the two halves can be adjusted to give a uniform magnetic field. The moving coil which is
pivoted centrally carries a current I2 which is proportional to the voltage V. Current I2 is led into
the moving coil by two springs which also supply the necessary controlling torque. The
equivalent diagrammatic view is shown in Fig.below.

circular coil which carries the main circuit current I1 is wound in two halves positioned parallel
to each other. The distance between the two halves can be adjusted to give a uniform magnetic
field. The moving coil which is pivoted centrally carries a current I2 which is proportional to the
voltage V. Current I2 is led into the moving coil by two springs which also supply the necessary
controlling torque. The equivalent diagrammatic view is shown in Fig.below.

Deflecting Torque
Since coils are air-cored, the flux density produced is directly proportional to the current I1.

In d.c. circuits, power is given by the product of voltage and current in amperes, hence torque is
directly proportional to the power.
 Let us see how this instrument indicates true power on a.c. circuits.

Scales of dynamometer wattmeters are more or less uniform because the deflection is
proportional to the average power and for spring control, controlling torque is proportional to the
deflection. Hence, θ α power. Damping is pneumatic with the help of a piston moving in an air
chamber as shown in Fig. below.

Advantages and Disadvantages

By careful design, such instruments can be built to give a very high degree of accuracy. Hence
they are used as a standard for calibration purposes. They are equally accurate on d.c. as well as
a.c. circuits. However, at low power factors, the inductance of the voltage coil causes serious
error unless special precautions are taken to reduce this effect

Energy Meters
Energy meters are integrating instruments, used to measure quantity of electric energy supplied
to a circuit in a given time. They give no direct indication of power i.e., as to the rate at which
energy is being supplied because their registrations are independent of the rate at which a given
quantity of electric energy is being consumed. Supply or energy meters are generally of the
following types :
(i) Electrolytic meters - their operation depends on electrolytic action.
(ii) Motor meters - they are really small electric motors.
(iii)Clock meters - they function as clock mechanisms.

Induction type single phase energy meter:

Single phase induction type energy meter is extensively used to measure energy supplied to a
single phase circuit.

Operating principle of Single phase induction type energy meter:

The operation of induction type energy meter depends on the passage of alternating current
through two suitably located coils producing rotating magnetic field which interacts with a
metallic disc suspended near to the coils and causes the disc to rotate.

The current coil carries the line current and produces field in phase with the line current. The
pressure coil is made highly inductive so that the current through it lags behind the supply
voltage by 90 degrees. Thus, a phase difference of 90 degrees exists between the fluxes produced
by the two coils. This sets up rotating field which interacts with the disc to cause it to rotate.

Construction of Single phase induction type energy meter:

A single phase induction type energy meter generally has:

1. Moving system
2. Operating mechanism
3. Recording mechanism

Moving system: The moving system consists of a light aluminium disc mounted on a vertical
spindle. The spindle is supported by a up-shaped jewelled bearings at the bottom end and has a
spring journal bearing at the top end.
There is no pointer and control spring so that the disc makes continuous rotation under the action
of deflecting torque.

Operating mechanism: It consists of series magnet, shunt magnet and braking magnet.
Series magnet: The series magnet consists of a number of U-shaped laminations assembled
together to form a core. A thick wire of few turns is wound on both legs of the U-shaped
laminated core. The wound coil is known as current coil and is connected in series with the load
so that it carries the load current. The series magnet is placed underside the aluminum disc and
produces magnetic field proportional to and in phase with the current.

Shunt Magnet: The shunt magnet consists of a number of M-shaped laminations assembled
together to form a core. A fine wire of large turns is wound on the central limb of this magnet.
The wound coil is known as pressure coil and is connected across the load so that it carries
current proportional to supply voltage. the shunt magnet is placed above the aluminum disc as
shown.
In order to obtain deflecting torque, current in the pressure coil must lag behind the supply
voltage by 90 degrees. This necessary phase shift is obtained by placing a copper ring over
central limb of shunt magnet. This copper ring acts as a short circuited transformer secondary.
As its inductance is high as compared with its resistance, the current circulating in the ring will
lag by nearly 90 degrees behind the voltage producing it.

Braking magnet: The speed of aluminum disc is controlled to the required value by the C-shaped
permanent braking magnet . The magnet is mounted so that the disc revolves in the air gap
between the polar extremities. As the disc rotates, currents are induced in the disc because it cuts
the flux produced by the breaking magnet. The direction of the current in the disc is such that it
opposes the rotation of the disc. Since the induced currents in the disc are proportional to the
speed of the disc, therefore, breaking torque is proportional to the disc speed.

Recording mechanism: The number of revolutions of the disc s a measure of the electrical
energy passing through the meter and is recorded on dials which are geared to the shaft.

Working:
When the energy meter is connected in the circuit to measure electrical energy, the current coil
carries the load current whereas the pressure coil carries current proportional to the supply
voltage. The magnetic field due to current coil is in phase with line current whereas the magnetic
field produced due to pressure coil lags approximately 90 degrees behind the supply voltage. The
current coil field produces eddy currents in the disc which reacts with the field due to the
pressure coil. Thus, a driving force is created which causes the disc to rotate. The braking
magnet provides the braking torque on the disc. By altering the position of this magnet, desired
speed can be obtained. The spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so that electrical energy
consumed in the circuit is directly registered in kWh.
TRANSDUCERS
The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is nonelectrical. In order to use electrical
methods and techniques for measurement, the nonelectrical quantity is converted into a
proportional electrical signal by a device called transducer.

Another definition states that transducer is a device which when actuated by energy in one
system, supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a second system.

When transducer gives output in electrical form it is known as electrical transducer. Actually,
electrical transducer consists of two parts which are very closely related to each other. These two
parts are sensing or detecting element and transduction element. The sensing or detecting
element is commonly known as sensor.

Definition states that sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a Change in a
physical condition. The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an electrical
output, as shown in the Fig.

Classification of Electrical Transducers

Transducers may be classified according to their structure, method of energy conversion and
application. Thus we can say that transducers are classified
• As active and passive transducer
• According to transduction principle
• As analog and digital transducer
• As primary and secondary transducer
• As transducer and inverse transducer
Active and Passive Transducer
Active Transducers
Active transducers are self-generating type of transducers. These transducers develop an
electrical parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is proportional to the quantity under
measurement. These transducers do not require any external source or power for their operation.
They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types
Passive Transducers
Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves. To obtain an electrical
signal from such transducers, an external source of power is essential. Passive transducers
depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L, or C). They are also known as
externally power driven transducers.
They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types.

According to Transduction Principle

The transducers can be classified according to principle used in transduction.
• Capacitive transduction
• Electromagnetic transduction
• Inductive transduction
• Piezoelectric transduction
• Photovoltaic transduction
• Photoconductive transduction
Analog and Digital Transducers
The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may be a continuous function
of time or the output may be in discrete steps.

Analog Transducers
These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function
of time. A strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples or thermistors are called analog transducers as
they produce an outp which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducers
Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms an
unique code.Unique code is generated for each discrete value sensed.
Primary or Secondary
Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical device. In such
transducers mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts physical quantity into
mechanical signal. The electrical device then converts mechanical signal produced by primary
transducer into an electrical signal. Therefore, electrical device acts as a secondary
transducer. For an example, in pressure measurement Bourdons tube acts as a primary
transducer which converts a pressure into displacement and LVDT acts as a secondary
transducer which converts this displacement into an equivalent electrical signal.

Transducer and Inverse Transducer

Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity whereas inverse transducer
converts electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity. For example, microphone is a transducer
which converts sound signal into an electrical signal whereas loudspeaker is an inverse
transducer which converts electrical signal into sound signal.
Advantages of Electrical Transducers
• Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily processed (mainly
amplified) and brought to a level suitable for output device which may be an indicator or
recorder.
• The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power
• The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
• With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become extremely small in
size, requiring small space for their operation.
• No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical systems. Therefore there is no
question of mechanical wear and tear and no possibility of mechanical failure.
Disadvantages of Electrical Transducers
• The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than mechanical type because of the
ageing and drift of the active components.
• Also, the sensing elements and the associated signal processing circuitry are
comparatively expensive.
• With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry, the range of
accuracy and stability have been increased for electrical transducers.
• Using negative feedback technique, the accuracy of measurement and the stability of the
system are improved, but all at the expense of increased circuit complexity, more space,
and obviously, more cost.
Temperature Transducers
Temperature is one of the fundamental parameters indicating the physical condition of
matter, i.e. expressing its degree of hotness or coldness. Whenever a body is heat’ various
effects are observed. They include
• Change in the physical or chemical state, (freezing, melting, boiling etc.)
• Change in physical dimensions,
• Changes in electrical properties, mainly the change in resistance,
• Generation of an emf at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

One of these effects can be employed for temperature measurement purposes. Electrical
methods are the most convenient and accurate methods of temperature measurement. These
methods are based on change in resistance with temperature and generation of thermal e.m.f.
The change in resistance with temperature may be positive or negative. According to that
there are two types
• Resistance Thermometers —Positive temperature coefficient
• Thermistors —Negative temperature coefficient
Thermo electric Sensors(Temperature Transducers)
They are also called thermo-electric transducers. For example, Thermocouples.

Thermocouples

When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two common
junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is
produced, the actual value being dependent on the materials used and the temperature difference
between hot and cold junctions. The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due to the
combination of two effects: Peltier effect and Thomson effect. A typical thermocouple junction
is shown in fig.
The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the relationship:
ΔVAB = α ΔT

where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

Thermocouples are extensively used for measurement of temperature in industrial situations. The
major reasons behind their popularity are: (i) they are rugged and readings are consistent, (ii)
they can measure over a wide range of temperature, and (iii) their characteristics are almost
linear with an accuracy of about 0.05%. However, the major shortcoming of thermocouples is
low sensitivity compared to other temperature measuring devices (e.g. RTD, Thermistor).

Thermocouple Materials

Type Material Range

J Iron and Constantan 100°C - 500°C

K Chromel and Alumel 0°C - 1000°C

T Copper and Constantan Nonlinear

Applications of Thermocouples
• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process
• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron
and aluminum industry
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Construction:
The wire resistance thermometer usually consists of a coil wound on a mica or ceramic former,
as shown in the Fig.The coil is wound in bifilar form so as to make it no inductive. Such coils
are available in different sizes and with different resistance values ranging from 10 ohms to
25,000 ohms.

Advantages of Resistance Thermometers

1. The measurement is accurate.
2. Indicators, recorders can be directly operated.
3. The temperature sensor can be easily installed and replaced.
4. Measurement of differential temperature is possible.
5. Resistance thermometers can work over a wide range of temperature from -20° C to + 650°
C.
6. They are suitable for remote indication.
7. They are smaller in size.
8. They have stability over long periods of time.
Limitations of Resistance Thermometers
1. A bridge circuit with external power source is necessary for their operation.
2. They are comparatively costly.
Strain gauge
Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the application of force or strain. They
can be used for measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure, displacement, acceleration etc.
What are Strain Gauges?
It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc that can be felt
easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the dimensions like force, stress
and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any instrument. For such cases special devices
called strain gauges are very useful.
There are some materials whose resistance changes when strain is applied to them or when they
are stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily. For applying the strain you
need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can be calibrated to measure the applied
force. Thus the devices whose resistance changes due to applied strain or applied force are called
as the strain gauges.

Principle of Working of Strain Gauges

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the strain. The more is the
applied force, more is the strain and more is the increase in length of the wire. If L 1 is the initial
length of the wire and L2 is the final length after application of the force, the strain is given as: ε
= (L2-L1)/L1 Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its diameter decreases

Now, we know that resistance of the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As the
length of the conductor increases its resistance decreases. This change in resistance of the
conductor can be measured easily and calibrated against the applied force. Thus strain gauges
can be used to measure force and related parameters like displacement and stress. The input and
output relationship of the strain gauges can be expressed by the term gauge factor or gauge
gradient, which is defined as the change in resistance R for the given value of applied strain ε.
Materials Used for the Strain Gauges
Earlier wire types of strain gauges were used commonly, which are now being replaced by the
metal foil types of gauges as shown in the figure below. The metals can be easily cut into the
zigzag foils for the formation of the strain gauges. One of the most popular materials used for the
strain gauges is the copper-nickel-manganese alloy, which is known by the trade name
‘Advance.’ Some semiconductor materials can also be used for making the strain gauges.
Applications of the Strain Gauges
The strain gauges are used for two main purposes:
1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high loads, they come under
strain, which can be measured easily with the strain gauges. The strain can also be used to carry
out stress analysis of the member.
2) Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in resistance due to applied force
can also be calibrated to measure a number of other quantities like force, pressure, displacement,
acceleration etc since all these parameters are related to each other. The strain gauges can sense
the displacements as small as 5 µm. They are usually connected to the mechanical transducers
like bellows for measuring pressure and displacement and other quantities.

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

An LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer, is a transducer that converts a linear

displacement or position from a mechanical reference (or zero) into a proportional electrical
signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude information (for distance)
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of
linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity
error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure 2.2.6 shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three
coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other
two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs
oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be
monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.

Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion
in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced
from the central position as shown in Figure say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then
more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from
the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in
proportion with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass
filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position
sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is
highly reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms,
automated measurement in machine tools.
Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Light sensors
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/photo resistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications.
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
Photo resistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance semiconductor
material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photo resistor varies inversely to the
amount of light incident upon it. Photo resistor follows the principle of photoconductivity which
results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor
material.
Figure shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic
substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coils electrodes are
connected to the control system though lead wires. On incidence of high intensity light on the
electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used further to generate the
appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.
Photo resistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control, safety,
amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.
Applications of photo resistor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to automatically
control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots. The light
sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific
reaction if a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control
Piezo electric transducer
A piezoelectric crystal transducer/sensor is an active sensor and it does not need the help of an
external power as it is self-generating. It is important to know the basics of a piezoelectric quartz
crystal and piezoelectric effect before going into details about the transducer.

Piezoelectric Quartz Crystal

A quartz crystal is a piezoelectric material that can generate a voltage proportional to the stress
applied upon it. For the application, a natural quartz crystal has to be cut in the shape of a thin
plate of rectangular or oval shape of uniform thickness. Each crystal has three sets of axes –
Optical axes, three electrical axes OX1, OX2, and OX3 with 120 degree with each other, and three
mechanical axes OY1, OY2 and OY3 also at 120 degree with each other. The mechanical axes
will be at right angles to the electrical axes.
Some of the parameters that decide the nature of the crystal for the application are
• Angle at which the wafer is cut from natural quartz crystal
• Plate thickness
• Dimension of the plate
• Means of mounting
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Definition: The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electrical instrument which is used
for showing the measurement and analysis of waveforms and others electronic and electrical
phenomenon. It is a very fast X-Y plotter shows the input signal versus another signal or versus
time. The CROs are used to analyse the waveforms, transient, phenomena, and other time-
varying quantities from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies.

The CRO is mainly operated on voltages. Thus, the other physical quantity like current, strain,
acceleration, pressure, are converted into the voltage with the help of the transducer and thus
represent on a CRO. It is also used for knowing the waveforms, transient phenomenon, and other
time-varying quantity from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies.

The CRO has Stylus (i.e., a luminous spot) which move over the display area in response to an
input voltage. This luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking on a fluorescent
screen. The normal form of the CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is an internally
generated ramp voltage called “time base”.

The horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a horizontal direction from left to
right over the display area or screen. The vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation. The
vertical voltage moves the luminous spot up and down on the screen. When the input voltage
moves very fast on the screen, the display on the screen appears stationary. Thus, CRO provides
a means of the visualising time-varying voltage.

Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The main parts of the cathode ray oscilloscope are as follows.

• Cathode Ray Tube
• Electronic Gun Assembly
• Deflecting Plate
• Fluorescent Screen For CRT
• Glass Envelop
Cathode Ray Tube
The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the electrical signal into the visual
signal. The cathode ray tube mainly consists of electron gun and the electrostatic deflection
plates (vertical and horizontal).The electron gun produces a focused beam of the electron which
is accelerated to high frequency.
The vertical deflection plate moves the beams up and down and the horizontal beam moved the
electrons beams left to right. These movements are independent to each other and hence the
beam may be positioned anywhere on the screen.

Electronic Gun Assembly

The electron gun emits the electrons and forms them into a beam. The electron gun mainly
consists a heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating
anode. For gaining the high emission of electrons at the moderate temperature, the layers of
barium and strontium is deposited on the end of the cathode. After the emission of an electron
from the cathode grid, it passes through the control grid. The control grid is usually a nickel
cylinder with a centrally located co-axial with the CRT axis. It controls the intensity of the
emitted electron from the cathode. The electron while passing through the control grid is
accelerated by a high positive potential which is applied to the pre-accelerating or accelerating
nodes. The electron beam is focused on focusing electrodes and then passes through the vertical
and horizontal deflection plates and then goes on to the fluorescent lamp. The preaccelerating
and accelerating anode are connected to 1500 V, and the focusing electrode is connected to 500
V. There are two methods of focusing on the electron beam. These methods are Electrostatic
focusing and Electromagnetic focusing. The CRO uses an electrostatic focusing tube.

Deflecting Plate

The electron beam after leaving the electron gun passes through the two pairs of the deflecting
plate. The pair of plate producing the vertical deflection is called a vertical deflecting plate or Y
plates, and the pair of the plate which is used for horizontal deflection is called horizontal
deflection plate or X plates.
Fluorescent Screen for CRT
The front of the CRT is called the face plate. It is flat for screen sized up to about
100mm×100mm. The screen of the CRT is slightly curved for larger displays. The face plate is
formed by pressing the molten glass into a mould and then annealing it.

The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal. The phosphor converts
electrical energy into light energy. When an electronics beam strike phosphor crystal, it raises
their energy level and hence light is emitted during phosphorous crystallisation. This
phenomenon is called fluorescence.
Glass Envelope
It is a highly evacuated conical shape structure. The inner surface of the CRT between the neck
and the screen is coated with the aquadag. The aquadag is a conducting material and act as a
high-voltage electrode. The coating surface is electrically connected to the accelerating anode
and helps the electron to be focused.

Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through the control grid. The
control grid controls the intensity of electron in the vacuum tube. If the control grid has high
negative potential, then it allows only a few electrons to pass through it. Thus, the dim spot is
produced on the lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control grid is low, then the
bright spot is produced. Hence the intensity of light depends on the negative potential of the
control grid.

After moving the control grid the electron beam passing through the focusing and accelerating
anodes. The accelerating anodes are at a high positive potential and hence they converge the
beam at a point on the screen. After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under
the effect of the deflecting plates. When the deflecting plate is at zero potential, the beam
produces a spot at the centre. If the voltage is applied to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron
beam focuses at the upward and when the voltage is applied horizontally the spot of light will be
deflected horizontally.