Transmission of a signals through linear systems

Definition : A system refers to any physical device that produces an output signal in
response to an input signal .

Definition : A system is linear if the principle of superposition applies .

If x1(t) produces output y1(t)

x2(t) produces output y2(t)

Then a1x1(t)+ a2x2(t) produces output a1y1(t)+ a2y2(t)

Example of linear systems include filters and communication channels .

Definition : A filter refers to a frequency selective device that is used to limit the spectrum
of a signal to some band of frequencies .

Definition : A channel refers to a transmission medium that connects the transmitter and
receivers of a communication system .
-time domain and frequency domain may be used to evaluate system perform.

Time response :

Definition : the impulse response h(t) is defined as the

response of a system to an impulse applied at the input
δ (t )
at t=0 .

Definition : A system in time-invariant when the shape of the

impulse response in the same no matter when the impulse is
applied to the system .

(δ (t ) h(t) , δ (t−t d ) h(t - td) )

- When the input to a linear time-invariant system in a

signal x(t) , then the output is given by
∞ ∞
y(t) = ∫ x ( λ ) h ( t−λ ) dλ = ∫ h ( λ ) x ( t−λ ) dλ ;
−∞ −∞
convolution integral

Definition : A system is said to be causal if it doesn't respond

before the excitation is applied , i.e. ,
h(t)=0 t<0
The caused system is physically realizable .

Definition : A system is said to be stable if the output signal is bounded for all bounded
input signals .

If | x(t) | ≤ M
∞ ∞
Then | y(t) | ≤ ∫ |h ( τ )|∨x ( t−τ ) ∨dτ = M ∫ |h ( τ )|dτ
−∞ −∞

A necessary and sufficient condition for stability is

∞

∫ h ( t ) dt < ∞ ; h(t) is absolutely integrable .

−∞

∴ zero initial conditions assumed .

Frequency Response :

Definition : the transfer function of a linear time invariant system is defined as the Fourier
transform of the impulse response .
H(f)= {h(t)}
Since y(t)=x(t)*h(t) , then
Y(f)=H(f) X(f)
Y (f )
or =H ( f )
X (f )
H(f) is a complex function
H(f)=|H(f)| e j θ (f )
Where
H(f) : amplitude response
θ(f) : phase response
System Input – output Energy Spectral Density
Let x(t) be applied to a LTI system , then
Y(f)=H(f) X(f)
|Y(f)|2 = |H(f)|2 | X(f)|2
SY(f) = |H(f)|2 SX(f)
 Output energy spectral density =|H(f)|2 x Input spectral density
+∞

The total output energy== ∫ SY ( f ) df

−∞
+∞ +∞
2 2 2
= ∫ ¿ H ( f )∨¿ ¿ X (f )∨¿ df =¿ ∫ ¿ H (f )∨¿ S X ( f ) df ¿ ¿ ¿¿
−∞ −∞

Signal Distortion in Transmission

a. Linear Distortion

: Example
?Find the transfer function and the impulse response of the zero order hold circuit shown

: Solution
δ (t ) = When x(t)
t t t t
y(t)= ∫ [ x ( t )−x ( t−T ) ] dt= ∫ [ δ ( t )−δ ( t−T ) ] dt =∫ δ ( t ) dt − ∫ δ ( t−T ) dt
−∞ −∞ −∞ −∞

h(t)=u(t)-u(t-T)
H(f)= T sinc(f T) e jπfT

Remark 1: this system is causal since h(t)=0 for t<0

T
Remark2 : This system is stable since ∫ h ( t ) dt=T ; a bounded value
0
 A signal transmission is said to be distortionless if the output signal y(t) is an
exact replica of the input signal x(t) , i.e., y(t) has the same shape as the input
condition in the time domain for a distbutionless
transmission .
y(t)=k x(t-td)
where k : is a constant amplitude scaling
td: is a constant time delay
in the frequency domain
Y(f)=k x(f) e− j2 πf t d

Y (f )
or H(f)= = k e− j2 πf t =k e jθ (f )
d

x(f )

Conditions for a distortionless transmission in the

frequency domain
1. |H(f)|=k ; where k is a
constant amplitude for the frequency of interest.
2. θ ( f )=−2 πf t d =−(2 π t d )f ; linear phase with negative slope that passes
through the origin .

When |H(f)| is not a constant for all frequency of interest result in amplitude
distortion when θ ( f ) ≠−2 πf td ± 1800 ,then we have phase distortion (or delay
distortion).

b. Non Linear Distortion

System contains nonlinear elements .It is not described by a transfer function ,
but by a transfer characteristic of the form
y(t)= a1 x(t) +a2 x2(t) +a3 x3(t) + …………….
In the frequency domain
Y(f)= a1 X(f) +a2 X2(f) +a3 X3(f) + …………….
Here , output contains new frequencies not originally
present in the original signal . the nonlinearity produces
undesirable frequency component for |f|≤ w.
Example : Amplitude Distortion
1
Consider the signal x (t)=cos w o t− cos 3 wo t . If this signal passes through a channel with zero time delay and
3
amplitude spectrum as shown in the figure
a. Find y(t)
b. Is this a distortionless transmission (the signal experiences zero time delay in the channel , i.e. , t d=0)

: Solution
x(t) consists of two frequency components, f O and 3fO . upon passing through the channel . each one of them
. will be scaled by a different factor
1 1
a. y ( t ) =cos w o t− . cos 3 w o t
2 3
b. Since y(t) ≠ k x(t), this is not a distortionless transmission .

Example : Phase Distortion

If x(t) in the previous example is passed through a channel whose amplitude spectrum is constant k . Each

π
component in x(t) suffers a phase shift
2
a. Find y(t).
b. Is this a distortionless transmission ?
: Solution
1
x ( t )=cos w o t− cos 3 wo t
3
π 1 π
2 3 2(
y ( t ) =k cos(w ¿ ¿ o t− ¿ )− k cos 3 wo t− ¿ ¿ )
π 1 π
y ( t ) =k cos w o (t−
2 wo ¿ 3 (
)− k cos 3 w o (t −
2 x 3 wo
) ¿)
1
y ( t ) =k cos w o (t −t d 1 ¿ )− k cos ( 3 wo ( t−t d 2) ) ¿
3
Note that td1 ≠ td2 , i.e., each component in suffers from a different time delay . Hence this
Harmonic Distortion
Note we use the
Let x(t)=cos2πfot following
This signal is applied to a channel with characteristic : identities
y(t)=a1x+a2x2+a3x3 = Cos2x
upon substituting x(t) , we get 1
1{ soc
+ 2x }
1 3 1 1 2
2 ( 4 )
y ( t ) = a2 + a1+ a3 cos 2 πf o t+ a 2 cos 4 π f O t+ a3 cos 6 π f O t
2 4 =Cos3x
Note that in addition to the desired signal proportional to x(t) , y(t) 1
xsoc
3{ soc
+ 3x }
contains a second and a third harmonic term. 4
Define second harmonic distortion
|amplitude of secound harmonic|
D 2=
|amplitude of funadmental|
1 ¿
D2=¿ a 2∨ ¿
2 3
( )
¿ a1 + a3 ∨¿ x 100 % ¿
4
1 ¿
D3=¿ a 3∨ ¿
Define second harmonic distortion 4 3
( )
¿ a 1+ a 3 ∨¿ x 100 % ¿
4
 Filters and Filtering
A filter is a frequency selective device . It allows certain frequencies to pass almost
without attenuation wile it suppresses other
frequencies
A. Ideal Filter:
Ideal low pass filter :
− j 2 πf t
H (f )= k e ∨f ∨¿ B
{
d

0o .w

h ( t )=2 Bk sin c 2 B(t−t d )

since h(t) is the response to an impulse applied at t=0 ,and because h(t) has nonzero
values for t<0 , the filter is noncausal (physically non realisable)
Band Pass Filter
− j 2 πf t
H (f )= k e f l <¿ f ∨¿ f u
{
d

0o.w

Filer bandwidth B=fu ─ fl

fu +fl
f C= h ( t )=2 Bk sinc B ( t−t d ) cos wc (t−t d )
2
High pass filter :
− j 2 πf t
H (f )= k e ∨f ∨¿ B
{
d

0o .w
 Band Rejection or Notch Filter
− j 2 πf t
H (f )= k e o.w
{
d

0 f 1 <¿ f ∨¿ f 2

B. Real Filter:
Here we only consider a
Butterworth low pass filter
The transfer function of a low
pass Butterworth filter is of the form
1
H (f )=
jf
Pn ( )
B
B is the 3-dB bandwidth of the filter and Pn(jf/B) is a complex polynomial of order n .
The family of Butterworth polynomials is defined by the property
jf 2 f 2n
¿ Pn( ) B
¿ =1+( )
B
So that
1
|H ( f )|=
f 2n
√
Pn ( x ) =1+ x
1+( )
B

P2 ( x ) =1+ √2 x+ x2
P3 ( x ) =( 1+ x ) (1+ x + x 2)

A first order LPF :

1
j2π fc 1
H (f )= =
1 1+ j 2 πfRC
R+
j2π f c
1
Let B=
2 πRC
1 1 1
H (f )= = =
1+ jf / B P 1( jf /B) P1 ( x )
A Second order LPF :
1
B=
2 π √ LC
1
H (f )=
jwL 2
1+ −( 2 π √ LC f )
R
1
H (f )=
1+ j √ 2 f / B−( f / B )2
L
where R=
2C√ 1
H (f )=
1+ j √ 2 f / B−( f / B )2
1
H (f )=
P2 ( jf / B)

Hilbert Transform

The quadrature filter : is an all pass filter that shifts the phase of positive
frequency by ( -90° ) and negative frequency by ( +90° ) .
The transfer function is
−j f >0
H(f) = { j f <0
Using the duality property of Fourier transform the impulse response is
1
h(t)=
πt
The Hilbert transform of a signal g(t) is
∞
1 g( λ)
^g (t )= * g(t) = ∫ dλ
πt −∞ π (t−λ)

^ ( t ) = -j sgn(f) G(f)
G

Hilbert transform can be found by using :

1
 Direct convolution in the time domain of g(t) and .
πt
 ^ ( t ) ,and turn the inverse Fourier transform.
Finding the Fourier transform G
∞
^g (t ) = ∫ G^ ( f ) e j 2 πft df
−∞

Some properties of the Hilbert transform

 1. A signal g(t) and it's Hilbert transform ^g (t ) have the same energy spectral
density
2 2
|G^ ( f )| =|− j sgn ( f )|G ( f )|¿ 2=|− j sgn ( f )| |G ( f ) ¿2
¿∨G(f ) ¿2

If a signal g(t) is bandlimited ,then ^g (t ) is bandlimited to the same
bandwidth , |G ^ ( f )|=¿ G ( f ) ∨¿
 ^g (t ) and g(t) have the same total energy (or power).
 ^g (t ) and g(t) have the same autocorrelation function.
2. A signal g(t) and ^g ( t ) are orthogonal
∞

∫ g ( t ) ^g ( t ) dt=0
−∞
∞ ∞
^ ¿ (t ) df =¿ ∫ G ( f ) {− jsgn ( f ) G ( f ) }¿ df ¿
¿ ∫ G( f )G
−∞ −∞
∞
¿ ∫ − jsgn ( f ) ∨G ( f ) ¿ 2 df
−∞
3. If ^g ( t ) is a Hilbert transform of g(t) , then the Hilbert transform of ^g ( t ) is−g(t)
.
: Example
sin t
Find the Hilbert transform of g ( t ) =
t
: Solution

Aπ ( τt ) transform Aτ sinc fτ ; when τ= 1π

↔

t 1 sin πfτ 1 sin f

A π(
1/π )
transform A =
↔ π πfτ π f
t sin f
π π( ) transform
1/ π ↔ f
f sin t
So π rect (
1/π )
transform
↔t
f
i.e. , G ( f ) =π rect ( )
1 /π
^ ( f ) =− jsgn ( f ) G ( f )= − jπ 0< f <1/2 π
G {
jπ−1/2 π < f <0
∞
^g (t ) = ∫ G^ ( f ) e j 2 πft df
−∞
0 1/ 2 π
j 2 πft
= ∫ jπ e df − ∫ jπ e j 2 πft df
−1/ 2 π 0
1
= ( 1−e− jt ) − 1 ( e jt −1 )
2t 2t
jt − jt
(e + e )
= 1− 1
t t 2
1−cos t
=
t