BS Physics(S.

S)
Session 2017-2021

LAB REPORT

Submitted To:
Sir Ghulam Murtaza
Submitted By :

Adnan Ali Babar

BPHF17ME11
Shahid Rasool
BPHF17ME21
Hassan Shehzad Khan
BPHF16ME31R
Habbib Ur Rehman
BPHF17ME33
Malik Muhammad Shakeel
BPHF17ME46
Shoaib Ul Hassan Shah
BPHF17ME52

EXPRIMENT NAME :

To determine the Cauchy’s Constants by using Sepectrometer

Introduction:

In optics, Cauchy's transmission equation is an empirical relationship between the refractive

index and wavelength of light for a particular transparent material. It is named for the
mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who defined it in 1836.[1]
The most general form of Cauchy's equation is

B C
n=A + + ……..
λ2 λ 4

where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, A, B, C, etc., are coefficients that can be determined
for a material by fitting the equation to measured refractive indices at known wavelengths. The
coefficients are usually quoted for λ as the vacuum wavelength in micrometers. Usually, it is sufficient to
use a two-term form of the equation:

B
n=A +
λ2

Where the coefficients A and B are determined specifically for this form of the equation. This is known
as Cauchy’s equation, the constant A is called the coefficient of refraction and B is known as the
coefficient of dispersion. Note that the coefficient of refraction is different from the index of refraction.
Cauchy’s equation is an approximation and applies reasonably well to many non-absorbing materials, in
the optical region.

When a parallel beam goes through the prism getting refracted twice, the emergent beam bends
through some angle with respect to the incident beam. This angle is called the angle of deviation. It
changes with the angle of incidence and is minimum when the incident and emergent beams make
equal angles with the corresponding refracting surfaces.

The angle of minimum deviation D is related to the angle of prism A and the refractive index n of the
material of the prism as

n=
sin { A+2 D }……….(1)
A
sin
2

A narrow beam of light from a spectral line source, which emits visible radiation of characteristic and
known wavelengths, is made incident on the prism. By measuring the minimum deviation corresponding
to each wavelength we may establish the dependence of n upon λ. The dispersive power of a material is
defined by the equation

nB −n R
ω=
nY −1

Where nB , nR and nY are refractive endices of material for blue, red, and yellow lights respectively. The
reciprocal of the dispersive power is called dispersive index and it lies between 20 and 60 for most
optical glasses.

Refractive index:
In optics, the refractive index (also known as refraction index or index of refraction) of
a material is a dimensionless number that describes how fast light travels through the material.
It is defined as
C
n=
λ
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the phase velocity of light in the medium.
For example, the refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning that light travels 1.333 times as
fast in vacuum as in water. Increasing refractive index corresponds to decreasing speed of
light in the material.
The refractive index determines how much the path of light is bent, or refracted, when
entering a material. This is described by Snell's law of refraction, 
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
where θ1 and θ2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively, of a ray crossing
the interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2 .
Angle of Prism:

Angle of prism is the angle between the two surface of the prism from which the light enters
into the prism and from the light goes out after refraction.

Angle minimum Deviation:

In a prism, the angle of deviation decreases with increase in the angle of incidence up to a
particular angle. This angle of incidence where the angle of deviation in a prism is minimum is
called the Minimum Deviation Position of the prism and that very deviation angle is known as
the Minimum Angle of Deviation denoted by D, 

Background History:
Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy  ( 21 August 1789 – 23 May 1857) was a French mathematician,
engineer, and physicist who made pioneering contributions to several branches of
mathematics, including mathematical analysis and continuum mechanics. He was one of the
first to state and rigorously prove theorems of calculus, rejecting the heuristic principle of
the generality of algebra of earlier authors. He almost singlehandedly founded complex
analysis and the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra.
A profound mathematician, Cauchy had a great influence over his contemporaries and
successors;  Hans Freudenthal stated: "More concepts and theorems have been named for
Cauchy than for any other mathematician (in elasticity alone there are sixteen concepts and
theorems named for Cauchy).  Cauchy was a prolific writer; he wrote approximately eight
hundred research articles and five complete textbooks on a variety of topics in the fields of
mathematics and mathematical physics. In optics he give the Cauchy's transmission equation.[2]

Cauchy around 1840. Lithography by Zéphirin Belliard after a painting by Jean Roller.

Thomas Young was presumably the person who first used, and invented, the name "index of
refraction", in 1807.  At the same time he changed this value of refractive power into a single
number, instead of the traditional ratio of two numbers. The ratio had the disadvantage of
different appearances. Newton, who called it the "proportion of the sines of incidence and
refraction", wrote it as a ratio of two numbers, like "529 to 396" (or "nearly 4 to 3"; for water).
Hauksbee, who called it the "ratio of refraction", wrote it as a ratio with a fixed numerator, like
"10000 to 7451.9" (for urine).  Hutton wrote it as a ratio with a fixed denominator, like 1.3358
to 1 (water).
Young did not use a symbol for the index of refraction, in 1807. In the next years, others started
using different symbols: n, m, and µ.  The symbol n gradually prevailed. [3]

Appratus:
o Spectrometer
o Prism
o Reading lens
o Spectral lamp with spectral power supply.
o spirit level
Procedure:
1. Level the spectrometer and prism table using spirit level.
2. Find the least count of spectrometer.
3. Put the prism and find the angle of the prism as follow:
 Prism table is rotated in which the sharp edge of the prism is facing towards the
collimator.

 Rotate the telescope in one direction up to which the reflected ray is shown through the
telescope.
 Note corresponding main scale and vernier scale reading in both vernier (vernier I and
vernier II).
 Rotate the telescope in opposite direction to view the reflected image of the collimator
from the second face of prism.
 Note corresponding main scale and vernier scale reading in both vernier(vernier I and
vernier II).
 Find the difference between two readings, i.e.θ
 Angle of prism, A=θ/2.
4. Keep the prism on prism table and obtain the spectral lines.
5. Set the prism for minimum deviation position.
6. Note down spectrometer readings from both the windows for different spectral lines.
7. Remove the prism to take direct reading. Calculate angle of minimum deviation and
refractive indices for all spectral lines.
8. Find the angle of minimum deviation for different color.(Say ,violet, blue,, yellow and
red).
9. Find the refractive index for these colors. Using equation 
 n=
sin { A+2 D }
A
sin
2

10. Draw the graph with n along the y-axis and 1/λ2 along x-axis with zero as the origin for
both axes.
The graph is a straight line. The Y intercept gives A and the slope gives B.
 

Observation And Calculation:

Least Count of Spectrometer
 
One main scale division (N)  =30 minute
Number of divisions on vernier (v) =30.

N 30'
L .C= = =1'
V 30

Table for angle of the prism:

Sr. Vernier Reading focused on face 1 Reading focused on face 2 Diffrence
No. (ϴ 1 ¿ (ϴ 2 ¿ ϴ=ϴ 1 −ϴ 2
MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total
ϴ1 ϴ2
◦
1 V1 60 8 60◦8’ 300 ◦ 4 300◦4’ 120◦4’
V2 240◦ 7 240◦7’ 120◦ 5 120◦5’ 120◦2’

Mean of ϴ =120◦4’+120◦2’/2=120◦3’

ϴ 120.05
Angle of prism(A)= = = 60.025 = 60◦1’
2 2

Table for angle of minimum deviation for different colour:

Sr. Color Vernier Dispersed image of Direact Reading Diffrence

No. telescope In minimum (a-b)
devition position
MS VS Total MS VS Total
(a) (b)

1 Red V1 297 20 297.3 335 20 335.5 38.1

V2 128 40 128.6 166 20 166.3 38.3
2 Orange V1 283 10 283.1 235 40 235.6 38.55
V2 118 10 118.1 156 30 156.5 3.44
3 Yellow V1 283 30 283.5 245 0 245.0 38.55
V2 117 60 117.9 156 20 156.3 38.55
4 Green V1 281 5 281.0 242 20 242.3 38.71
V2 103 10 103.1 141 50 141.8 38.70
5 Violet V1 279 20 279.3 239 60 239.9 39.40
Table for to calculate A and B:

Sr. No. Color Wavelength λ−2 m −2 Angle of minimum

(λnm) deviation (δm)
1 Red 690.7 2.10x1012 38.15
2 Orange 615.0 2.68x1012 38.45
Graph: 3 Yellow 579.1 2.98x1012 38.55
Calculation from graph:

The comstant A can be measure as follow

A = OP = Intercept on Y- axis

A = 1.511
B can be measured by Slope

BC 1.518−1.514
Slope = = × 10−12m2
AB 3.35−2.68

B=Slope=0.005970×10−12 m2

B= 5.970 ×10−15 m2
Error :
The actual Cauchy's constant for prism is A=1.621 ,B=8.8x10-15m2

Aplications:
 To determine refrective index:
The refractive index is one of the essential physical parameters that govern optical
phenomena. Many research efforts have been devoted to determining this index to
quantitatively analyze optical spectra. For the cuticle of the Morpho butterfly wing scale,
a few values have been reported, for example, 1.55 (Mason, 1927; Land, 1972) and
1.56 + 0.06i (Vukusic et al., 1999). Leertouwer and colleagues (2011) recently reported
careful measurements for a transparent scale of a Papilio butterfly (Graphium sarpedon)
using Jamin–Lebedeff interference microscopy. They determined the cuticle's refractive
index nc to be 1.572, 1.552, and 1.541 at wavelengths of 400 nm, 500 nm, and 600 nm,
respectively. The slight wavelength dependence is described well by Cauchy's equation,
 Geometrical measurements:
The strong relationship of refractive index of a material with wavelengths dates back to
more than a century especially where Sellmeier's equation was invented by Wolfgang
Sellmeier in 1871 and then developed by Cauchy for visible region of electromagnetic
waves. In this work, we studied the interchangeability of Cauchy constants A and B for a
glass prism by using inert gas light sources such as He and Ne and metal vapor light
sources as Hg, Cd, HgCd, and Na. Cauchy formula represents this dependence where A
and B are Cauchy constants and their value are harmonically interchangeable. We
investigated that each light sources have a different value of A and B and does not
follow the same pattern of graphical representation. From this result, one can notice
that Cauchy constants have a crucial role on this dependence of refractive indices on the
wavelength of the light sources. The novelty of this work is the combination of
Geometrical Optics and Wave Optics, then formulating a new equation, which is exactly
geometrical measurements.
Spectrometer application:
 In visible light a spectrometer can separate white light and measure individual
narrow bands of color, called a spectrum.
 Spectrometers are used in astronomy to analyze the chemical composition
of stars and planets, and spectrometers gather data on the origin of the
universe.
  The capability of spectroscopy to determine chemical composition drove its
advancement and continues to be one of its primary uses.

Creative idea:
 If we know the angle of angle of incidence and the angle of refraction and Cauchy
constant A and B we can find the wavelength of that light.as follow
(angle of incident ¿)
sin ¿=constant
sin(angle of reflection)
Which constant is known as refractive index of that light.

(angle of incident ¿)
n= μ=sin ¿
sin(angle of reflection)

Then using Cauchy’s relation

B
n=A + .
λ2