 BS Physics(S.

S)
Session 2017-2021

LAB REPORT

Submitted To:
Sir Ghulam Murtaza
Submitted By :

Adnan Ali Babar

BPHF17ME11
Shahid Rasool
BPHF17ME21
Hassan Shehzad Khan
BPHF16ME31R
Habbib Ur Rehman
BPHF17ME33
Malik Muhammad Shakeel
BPHF17ME46
Shoaib Ul Hassan Shah
BPHF17ME52

EXPRIMENT:

To determine the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of electron by fine

beam tube mathed

Introduction:
The mass-to-charge ratio (m/Q) or (q/m) is a physical quantity that is most widely used in
the electrodynamics of charged particles, e.g. in electron optics and ion optics. It appears in the
scientific fields of electron microscopy, cathode ray tubes, accelerator physics, nuclear
physics, Auger electron spectroscopy, cosmology and mass spectrometry.[1] The importance of
the mass-to-charge ratio, according to classical electrodynamics, is that two particles with the
same mass-to-charge ratio move in the same path in a vacuum, when subjected to the same
electric and magnetic fields. Its SI units are kg/C. In rare occasions the thomson has been used
as its unit in the field of mass spectrometry. Measuring separately the electric charge (e) and
the rest mass (m) of an electron is a difficult task because both quantities are extremely small
(e = 1.60217733×10-19 coulombs, m = 9.1093897×10-31 kilograms). Fortunately, the ratio of these
two fundamental constants can be determined easily and precisely from the radius of curvature
of an electron beam traveling in a known magnetic field. Common symbols m/Q ,SI unit
Kg/C ,In SI base units kg⋅A-1⋅s-1 and is Dimension [MI-1L-1].[2]
There are two other common ways of measuring the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron, apart
from Thomson and Dunnington's methods.

 The magnetron method: Using a GRD7 Valve (Ferranti valve ), electrons are expelled
from a hot tungsten-wire filament towards an anode. The electron is then deflected
 using a solenoid. From the current in the solenoid and the current in the Ferranti Valve,
e/m can be calculated .
 Fine beam tube method: A heater heats a cathode, which emits electrons. The electrons
are accelerated through a known potential, so the velocity of the electrons is known.
The beam path can be seen when the electrons are accelerated through a helium (He)
gas. The collisions between the electrons and the helium gas produce a visible trail. A
pair of Helmholtz coils produces a uniform and measurable magnetic field at right
angles to the electron beam. This magnetic field deflects the electron beam in a circular
path. By measuring the accelerating potential (volts), the current (amps) to the
Helmholtz coils, and the radius of the electron beam, e/m can be calculated.[3]

Here we use the method of fine beam tube to calculate e/m ratio.
Fine beam tube :
The e/m or fine-tube is bulb-like and contains a filament, a cathode, a grid, a pair of deflection
plates and an anode. The tube is filled with helium at a very low pressure. Some of the
electrons emitted by the cathode collide with helium atoms which get excited and radiate
visible light. The electron beam thus leaves a visible track in the tube and all manipulations on it
can be seen. The tube is placed between a pair of fixed Helmholtz coils which produce a
uniform and known magnetic field. The socket of the tube can be rotated so that the electron
beam is at right angles to the magnetic field. The beam is deflected in a circular path of radius r
depending on the accelerating potential V, the magnetic field B and the charge to mass ratio
e/m. This circular path is visible and the diameter d can be measured and e/m obtained from
the relation The tube is mounted on a rotatable socket and is placed between a pair of
Helmholtz coils. The tube can be rotated about a vertical axis, varying the orientation of the
electron beam with respect to the Helmholtz coils.This allows magnetic deflection of the beam
to be demonstrated. Circular, helical or undeflected paths can be seen. The direction of the
current can be changed. The magnetizing current I and the accelerating voltage V are
respectively measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter mounted on the front of the panel. The
diameter of the electron beam path is measured by a detachable scale mounted in front of the
bulb of the tube. This scale has a slider with a hollow tube (fitted with cross wires at its both
ends) to fix the line of sight while making the measurements of the beam path diameter. Base
of the unit contains the power supply that provides all the required potentials and the current
to the Helmholtz coils. The entire apparatus is contained in a wooden case for convenient
storage.
To demonstrate deflection in magnetic fields and calculate the specific charge e /m the fine
beam tube is placed in a magnetic field of two Helmholtz coils.
Helmholtz coil :
A Helmholtz coil is a device for producing a region of nearly uniform magnetic field, named
after the German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. It consists of two electromagnets on the
same axis. Besides creating magnetic fields, Helmholtz coils are also used in scientific apparatus
to cancel external magnetic fields, such as the Earth's magnetic field.

Figure: Helmholtz coil schematic

drawing
Helmholtz coils of
14 Specifications
radii
Number of turns 160 on each coil
Accelerating
0 – 250V
Voltage
Deflection plates
50V – 250V
voltage
Operating Voltage 220V AC/ 50Hz
Background History:
Sir Joseph John Thomson  (18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) was a
British physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics, credited with the discovery of the electron, the
first subatomic particle to be discovered.
In 1897, Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of previously unknown negatively
charged particles (now called electrons), which he calculated must have bodies much smaller
than atoms and a very large charge-to-mass ratio.[4] 

In the late 19th  century, physicist J.J. Thomson began experimenting with cathode ray tubes.
Cathode ray tubes are sealed glass tubes from which most of the air has been evacuated. A high
voltage is applied across two electrodes at one end of the tube, which causes a beam of
particles to flow from the cathode (the negatively-charged electrode) to the anode (the
positively-charged electrode). The tubes are called cathode ray tubes because the particle
beam or "cathode ray" originates at the cathode. The ray can be detected by painting a
material known as phosphors onto the far end of the tube beyond the anode. The phosphors
spark, or emit light, when impacted by the cathode ray. To test the properties of the particles,
Thomson placed two oppositely-charged electric plates around the cathode ray. The cathode
ray was deflected away from the negatively-charged electric plate and towards the positively-
charged plate. This indicated that the cathode ray was composed of negatively-charged
particles.

Thomson also placed two magnets on either side of the tube, and observed that this magnetic
field also deflected the cathode ray. The results of these experiments helped Thomson
determine the mass-to-charge ratio of the cathode ray particles, which led to a fascinating
discovery-−minusthe mass of each particle was much, much smaller than that of any known
atom.
A diagram of J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube. The ray originates at the cathode and passes through a slit in the anode.

The cathode ray is deflected away from the negatively-charged electric plate, and towards the positively-charged electric

plate. The amount by which the ray was deflected by a magnetic field helped Thomson determine the mass-to-charge ratio
of the particles.
[5]

In 1898, Wilhelm Wien separated ions (canal rays) according to their mass-to-charge ratio with
an ion optical device with superimposed electric and magnetic fields (Wien filter). In
1901 Walter Kaufman measured the increase of electromagnetic mass of fast electrons
(Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments), or relativistic mass increase in modern terms. In
1913, Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratio of ions with an instrument he called a
parabola spectrograph. Today, an instrument that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of
charged particles is called a mass spectrometer.

Theory :
An electron moving in a uniform magnetic field travels in a helical path around the field lines.
The electron's equation of motion is given by the Lorentz relation. If there is no electric field,
then this relation can be written as
FB=−e(v×B)
where FB is the magnetic force on the electron, −e = -1.6×10-19 coulombs is the electric charge of
the electron, v is the velocity of the electron, and BB is the magnetic field. In the special case
where the electron moves in an orbit perpendicular to the magnetic field, the helical path
becomes a circular path, and the magnitude of the magnetic force is
FB=evB.
Recall from Physics that an object traveling around a circle experiences a centripetal force. For
an electron of mass m moving at speed v in a circle of radius r, the magnitude of the centripetal
force FC is
 FC=mv2/r.
Therefore,

evB=mv2/r

or

eB=mv/r. (5)

The initial potential energy of the electrons in this experiment is eV , where V  is the
accelerating voltage used in the electron-beam tube. After the electrons are accelerated
through a voltage V , this initial potential energy is converted into kinetic energy (1/2)mv2. Since
energy is conserved, it follows that

eV=(1/2)mv2

Subitute this in eqa 5 we get

e/m=2V/B2r2.

This is the experiation which we use in our experiment ,where V is the voltage and r is the
radius of circular path of electron in magnetic field which can bhe measure exprimently,and the
B is the magnetic field that apply in hemlotz coil which can be determine by using given formula
8⋅I ⋅N
B=μ 0 .
√ 125 ⋅ R

I = coil current, μ0 = vacuum permeability, N = windings, R = radius and distance of coils

The magnetic field of the Helmholtz coil used on the next pages, depending on the coil current
I, is:

B≈7,48⋅10−4(T/A)⋅I

I = coil current, μ0=4π x 10-7, N = 130 windings, R = 15 cm.

Apparatus :
The electron-beam bulb used in this experiment has a cathode that is heated indirectly, a
collimating grid with a hole, and an anode with a hole.Electrons leave the heated cathode and
are attracted by the anode, which has a positive potential with respect to the cathode. Most
electrons are stopped by the collimating grid and the anode. Those that are able to pass
through the hole in the anode emerge from the back of the anode as a thin, monochromatic
beam. The kinetic energy of the electrons in this beam is equal to the potential energy
difference between the anode and the cathode.
To make the path of the electrons visible, we use the following method. The large evacuated
glass bulb that houses the cathode and anode is spiked with a trace of mercury, enough to
produce nearly saturated mercury vapor with a small pressure of approximately 1×10-3 mm Hg.
(By comparison, recall that normal atmosphere pressure is approximately 760 mm Hg.)
Occasionally an electron from the beam with a kinetic energy of about 300 eV collides with a
mercury atom, causing the atom to become excited — a process that requires 10.4 eV of
energy. The excited atom then decays quickly back to the ground state, emitting several
photons in the process (including the one that has the characteristic blue color of mercury
light). Thus, the blue halo in the glass bulb marks the path of the electrons. Note that the
electron-beam tube, along with its socket, can be rotated nearly 90°.

The Helmholtz coils consist of a pair of identical circular coils of wire, each of radius r,
connected in series.

Procedure :
1. Connect the power supplies to device.Turn on the heater supply, and allow two
minutes for the filament to heat up.
2. Currents exitly set in at a value 1A.and change the voltage across the tube
through voltage changer knob .with this see the formation ring in cathode
tube,radius of the rings changes with changes in applied or accelerating voltage.
 3. Accelerating voltage vary from 100 to 200 gradualyy.
4. For a given value accelerating voltage the currents is set to constant value of 1A
and by scale the location of left extreme point of the ring and right extreme
point of the ring are noted.
5. Difference between left extreme point of the ring and right extreme point of the
ring gives us the diameter of the ring.
6. By knowing diameter the radius of the ring can be calculate .
7. Then we tabulate a table according to the formula:

e/m=2V/B2r2
8. Value of B is used for 1A Is B≈7,48⋅10−4(T/A).
9. Plot the graph from the reading of tabe between 2V(on y-axis) and B2r2(x-axis).
Slope of this graph give us the value of e/m.

Observation and calculation:

TABLE:

Sr Voltage 2V Diameter of Reflected beam(R- D r2 B2 B2r2

r= (cm2) 2 -2 -2
(kg s C ) (kg2s-2C-2
No. V(volt) L) 2
(7.48x10−4)2 cm2)
X 10-7
L.H.S R.H.S D=R-L(cm)
1 110 220 6.4 13.2 6.8 3.4 11.56 5.5 X 10-7 63.58
-7
2 120 240 6.3 13.3 7.0 3.5 12.25 5.5 X 10 67.375
-7
3 130 260 5.9 13.2 7.5 3.75 14.06 5.5 X 10 77.34
4 140 280 5.9 13.8 7.9 3.95 15.60 5.5 X 10-7 85.81
-7
5 150 300 5.6 13.8 8.2 4.1 16.81 5.5 X 10 92.55
-7
6 160 320 5.8 14.1 8.3 4.15 17.22 5.5 X 10 94.72
7 170 340 5.6 14.2 8.6 4.3 18.49 5.5 X 10-7 101.69
-7
8 180 360 5.3 14.1 8.8 4.4 19.36 5.5 X 10 106.48
-7
9 190 380 5.1 14.2 9.1 4.55 20.70 5.5 X 10 113.86
10 200 400 4.9 14.9 10 5 25 5.5 X 10-7 137.5

Graph :
Scale: Big Box Small Box

Along X-axis(kg2s2C2 cm2) 30 X 10-7 3.0 X 10-7

Along Y-axis(Volt) 90 9.0

Calculations :

e
Slope =
m

From the Graph

change∈2V
Slope =
change∈ B2 r 2

e 280−240 Volt
Slope = = X 107
Kg s C cm2
2 −2 −2
m 85.81−67.37

40 Volt
= = 2.1 X 107 2 −2 −2 2
18.5 Kg s C cm

Unit conservation
Volt J /C J Kgm s−2 4 C
2 −2 −2 2
= 2 −2 −2 2
= 2 −2 −2+1 2
= 2 −2 −1 −4 2
=10
Kg s C cm Kg s C cm Kg s C cm Kg s C ×10 m Kg
so

e 4 C
Slope = = 2.1 × 107. 10
m Kg

e C
=2.1× 1011
m Kg

Percentage error

2.1× 10 11 −1.77 ×10 11

% error = × 100 %
1.77 ×10 11

=18.5 %.
Result:
C
The ratio of e/m is calculated as 2.1× 1011 with exceptable %error of 18.5%.
Kg

Applications:

 Mass spectrometry:
one of the important application of e/m is mass spectrometry, Mass spectrometry (MS) is an
analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. The results are typically
presented as a mass spectrum, a plot of intensity as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio.
Mass spectrometry is used in many different fields and is applied to pure samples as well as
complex mixtures.A mass spectrum is a plot of the ion signal as a function of the mass-to-
charge ratio. These spectra are used to determine the elemental or isotopic signature of a
sample, the masses of particles and of molecules, and to elucidate the chemical identity or
structure of molecules and other chemical compounds.
In a typical MS procedure, a sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is ionized, for
example by bombarding it with electrons. This may cause some of the sample's molecules to
break into charged fragments or simply become charged without fragmenting. These ions are
then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, for example by accelerating them and
subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field: ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will
undergo the same amount of deflection.[1] The ions are detected by a mechanism capable of
detecting charged particles, such as an electron multiplier. Results are displayed as spectra of
the signal intensity of detected ions as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. The atoms or
molecules in the sample can be identified by correlating known masses (e.g. an entire molecule)
to the identified masses or through a characteristic fragmentation pattern.
 Electron microscope:
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source
of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that
of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a higher resolving power than light
microscopes and can reveal the structure of smaller objects. A scanning transmission electron
microscope has achieved better than 50 pm resolution in annular dark-field imaging mode
and magnifications of up to about 10,000,000× whereas most light microscopes are limited
by diffraction to about 200 nm resolution and useful magnifications below 2000×.
Electron microscopes use shaped magnetic fields to form electron optical lens systems that are
analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope.
Electron microscopes are used to investigate the ultrastructure of a wide range of biological
and inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells,
large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and crystals. Industrially, electron microscopes are
often used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce
electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the
images.

A modern transmission electron microscope.

 Cathode-ray tube (CRT):
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron
guns and a phosphorescent screen, and is used to display images.  It modulates,
accelerates, and deflects electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The
images may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures
(television, computer monitor), radar targets, or other phenomena. CRTs have also
been used as memory devices, in which case the visible light emitted from the
fluorescent material (if any) is not intended to have significant meaning to a visual
observer (though the visible pattern on the tube face may cryptically represent the
stored data).
 Auger electron spectroscopy:
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES; pronounced [oʒe] in French) is a common analytical
technique used specifically in the study of surfaces and, more generally, in the area
 of materials science. Underlying the spectroscopic technique is the Auger effect, as it
has come to be called, which is based on the analysis of energetic electrons emitted
from an excited atom after a series of internal relaxation events. The Auger effect was
discovered independently by both Lise Meitner and Pierre Auger in the 1920s. Though
the discovery was made by Meitner and initially reported in the journal Zeitschrift für
Physik in 1922, Auger is credited with the discovery in most of the scientific community.
[1]
 Until the early 1950s Auger transitions were considered nuisance effects by
spectroscopists, not containing much relevant material information, but studied so as to
explain anomalies in X-ray spectroscopy data. Since 1953 however, AES has become a
practical and straightforward characterization technique for probing chemical and
compositional surface environments and has found applications in metallurgy, gas-
phase chemistry, and throughout the microelectronics industry.
 To calculate the mass of a particle:
The charge-to-mass ratio is the only quantity that can be measured directly. Often, the
charge can be inferred from theoretical considerations, so that the charge-to-mass ratio
provides a way to calculate the mass of a particle.
Often, the charge-to-mass ratio can be determined from observing the deflection of a
charged particle in an external magnetic field. The cyclotron equation, combined with
other information such as the kinetic energy of the particle, will give the charge-to-mass
ratio. One application of this principle is the mass spectrometer. The same principle can
be used to extract information in experiments involving the cloud chamber.

 The mass-to-charge ratio (m/Q) is a physical quantity that is most widely used in

the electrodynamics of charged particles, e.g. in electron optics and ion optics.  The
importance of the mass-to-charge ratio, according to classical electrodynamics, is that
two particles with the same mass-to-charge ratio move in the same path in a vacuum,
when subjected to the same electric and magnetic fields.

Creative idea about e/m:

 Let's imagine, we have the nucleus of protium and deuterium. They are the two notable
isotopes of hydrogen atom. Now your problem is to find the mass difference between
these two nucleus. They are same in charge and have the same physical properties. The
only difference is the mass of these two nucleus and furthermore, this mass difference is
so short to measure according to our usual way of mass measurement. In this situation,
we apply the mass-charge ratio to find out the difference.
 By applying a magnetic field perpendicular to the motion of nucleus, we can measure
the deflection of charges and find out the difference of their masses.

The mathematics will be-

mv2r=qvB
m/q=B/rv
where m is the mass of the nucleus, B is the strength of magnetic field, r is the radius of
circular path the charge will create as a response of magnetic field.

 Electrons and protons have the same charge.(1.602×10^-19c)But protons are 1840
times heavier than electrons.e/m of any particle decreases if the mass is increased. So
the e/m of electron is higher than the proton.

Alpha particle is a helium nucleus which consists two protons and two electrons. It has
+2 charge and the mass of four protons. So the alpha particle has the least e/m because
of its large mass.You can see that its e/m is equal to 1/2 time e/m of a proton.

Neutron has no charge. Then its e/m is 0.

If we arrange those particles in the order of increasing e/m we get,

Neutron,Alpha particles,protons and at last electrons.

Refrences:
[1]2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "mass-to-charge ratio,
m/z in mass spectrometry

[2]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio.

[3] PASCO scientific, Instruction Manual and Experimental guide for the PASCO scientific Model
SE-9638, pg. 1.

[4]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson

[5]https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/electronic-structure-of-atoms/history-of-
atomic-structure/a/discovery-of-the-electron-and-nucleus.