Chapter 1

Communication: Types and Levels of

Communication, Processes, Principles and Ethics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the types of communication in relation to mode, context, purpose, and style.
2. Explain the various communication models.
3. Discuss the value of communication in enhancing one‟s personal and professional
relationships.
4. Recognize the importance of a code in ethics in communication.

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Imagine the world without communicating with each other. What could
happen? Write your thoughts in 8-10 sentences on the most extreme situation
that can happen.

Engage
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 Explore

What is communication?

 Communication is the transmission of information and understanding from one

person or group to another. The goal is to get a set of information and to
understand this. Critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is
common understanding. Understanding exists when both parties involved in the
communication process have a mutual agreement as to not only the information
but also its meaning. Communicating with others is the heart of every activity and
of the very process of living.
 Communication is the thread that ties the actions of the individual or organization
to desired objectives.
 Communication as a process enables one to share his/her ideas with others.
 The means of communication are usually spoken or written words, pictures or
symbols but we also give information through body language, gestures, and looks-
facial expressions.

TASK 1: What are examples of messages that can be communicated thru the following
means of communication?
Name three (3) examples for each.

Spoken Word

Visual Images

Written Word

Body Language

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 Explain

TOPIC 1: Types of Communication

Communication may be classified according to: communication mode, context, and

purpose and style.

A. Types according to Mode

1. Verbal and Von-verbal
2. Visual communication which uses signs, symbols, imagery, maps, graphs,
charts, diagrams to convey information. Visuals have greater success in catching
attention. Thus, graphic elements in presentations such as color, size, shape, number
of words and design must be considered with care.

Communication mode refers to the channel through which one uses to express
his/her intent.
 Face-to-face
 Video (Skype, Facebook, Messenger, Viber, WhatsApp, Apple FaceTime)
 Audio (Telephone, Voice Message, Voice Mail)
 Text-based ( e-mail, facsimile, text messaging, social networking sites
such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram)

B. Types according to Context

1. Intrapersonal Communication means talking to oneself. Some label it as

self or inner talk, inner monologue or inner dialogue. Psychologists call it with other
names as self-verbalization or self-statement.

2. Interpersonal Communication is an interactive exchange between or

among interlocutors. It is meant to establish or deepen one‟s relationship with others.
However, if the objective is to achieve something at the end of the conversation, it
becomes transactional.

3. Extended Communication involves the use of electronic media to include

tele-, audio and phone conferencing; video conferencing; Skype calls; and, other
technological means.

4. Intercultural communication refers to the interaction between or among

people having different linguistic, religious, ethnic, social and professional
backgrounds. Interpretations of cultures must be appropriate.

5. Organizational Communication focuses on the role that communication

plays in organizational context. For an organization to be successful, a system of
communication should be put in place. A set of rule or standards for communication
protocol should be clear so that interaction patterns are established. On the part of the
individual, he/she should be equipped with the needed oral and written
communication skills that the organization expects him/her to possess.
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 Identify the type of communication (according to
context) that happens in the following:

1. Meditation
2. Friends chatting during breaks
3. Haggling with an online seller
4. Asking for a leave from work
5. Brainstorming during group work

Two Types of Organizational Structure

1. Formal structure- allows communication to take place via designated

channels of message flow between positions in the organization using use of four
approaches.

a. Downward/ Top-down communication flows from upper to

lower position.

b. Upward/Bottom-up communication takes place where

subordinates send communication details to their bosses.

https://keydifferences.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/upward-vs-downward-communication.jpg

c. Horizontal communication is lateral in approach as it takes place

among people belonging to the same level but coming from different
departments to facilitate performance of tasks through proper
coordination.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-organizationalbehavior/chapter/directions-of-communication/

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 d. Crosswise communication approach is diagonal in nature as
employees from different units or departments working at various levels
communicate with each other.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontobusiness/chapter/communication-flows/

2. Informal structure comes from unofficial channels of message flow.

C. Type according to Purpose and Style

1. Formal communication employs formal language delivered orally or in written

form. Lectures, speech, research and project proposals, reports and business
letters, among others are all considered formal situations and writings.

2. Informal Communication does not employ formal language. It involves personal

and ordinary conversations with friends, family members and acquaintances. The
purpose is to socialize and to enhance relationships.

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 Explain

TOPIC 2: The Communication Process

Communication has certain elements and follows a process. In the diagram, notice
that the sender encodes a message that the receiver decodes. If the message is well received,
the receiver in turn sends a feedback or a response. In some situations, there are barriers or
disturbances that disrupt communication.

To make you an effective verbal communicator, you should be a communicator who:

• Clarifies;
• Listens;
• Encourages empathically;
• Acknowledges; and,
• Restates/repeats.

To make you an effective nonverbal communicator, you should be a communicator

who:
• Relaxes;
• Opens up;
• Leans toward the other person;
• Establishes eye contact; and,
• Shows appropriate facial expression.

Barrier
SENDER
Barrier RECEIVER
(encodes)
(decodes)

Feedback/Response

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Effective communication requires the message to be:
• Clear and concise;
• Accurate;
• Relevant to the needs of the receiver;
• Timely;
• Meaningful; and,
• Applicable to the situation.
Effective communication requires the sender to:
• Know the subject well;
• Be interested in the subject;
• Know the audience members and establish a rapport with them;
• Speak at the level of the receiver; and,
• Choose an appropriate communication channel.
The channel should be:
• Appropriate;
• Affordable; and,
• Appealing.
The receiver should:
• Be aware, interested, and willing to accept the message;
• Listen attentively;
• Understand the value of the message; and,
• Provide feedback.

A. Communication Models

1. Aristotle’s Model

2. Laswell’s Model

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 3. Shannon-Weaver’s Model

4. David Berlo’s Model

Elaborate

We meet different people in different situations. The context, the mode and the type
differ in every situation. Also, there may be barriers in communication that can disrupt the
success of communication.

Barriers to Effective Communication

• Language
• Values and beliefs
• Sex/gender and age
• Economic status
• Educational level
• Physical barriers
• Attitude
• Timing
• Understanding of message
• Trust

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 Think of some situations that you have had a successful and unsuccessful
communication with someone. How did you make it successful? How did you overcome the
barriers?
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TASK 2: If you were to make your own communication model, how will it be different from
the four communication models discussed?

Make an illustration of your communication model.

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 Evaluate

TASK 3: There are some communication situations that require us to strategize how we
respond. Read the situation below and respond to the questions.

A. Tom, a first-year college student, is called upon by the teacher to read a poem aloud. “Do
we really have to take this up now?” says Tom. “It‟s boring!” shout some other friends
and classmates. Others giggle. But one shouts, “But I like it!” The rest are silent, awaiting
the teacher‟s reaction.

Now, respond to the following statements/questions.

1. Write down at least 3 different responses the teacher might do to handle the situation.
2. What might be the effects of each of them?
3. What would your own response be? Why?
4. Is there any kind of response you would wish to avoid? Why?

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 Explain

TOPIC 3: Functions of Communication

In every communication situation, there is always a purpose. For example, teachers
speak to students to impart knowledge, motivational speakers upload their speeches to inspire
their viewers and politicians lay down their platforms to encourage people to vote for them.
The following are some of the functions of communication:

1. Informative Function
We want to inform other people of what we know – facts, information, and
knowledge. In school, most of our speaking activities are directed to get and give
information to develop or improve our knowledge and skills.

2. Instructive Function
Many times, older people who hold important information, and those in higher
rank communicate to instruct people on what to do, when and where to do them, and
on why and how to do them.

3. Persuasive Function
You may find yourself wanting to influence the opinion of others to believe
and accept your stand or claim on an issue or problem; so, you think of strategies on
how to persuade them to change their perspectives or opinion.

4. Motivation Function
We communicate to entice and direct people to act and reach their objectives
or goals in life. In the process, we use positive language to make them realize that
their actions lead them to something beneficial for their being.

5. Aesthetic Function
We use communication for pleasure and enjoyment.

6. Therapeutic Function or Emotional Expression

Communication is curative and serves to maintain good health. Sometimes,
talking to a person does not mean asking for his help; we talk to another person
merely to vent our feelings. After we talk, we find ourselves in a much better
condition.

7. Regulation or Control
People use communication to maintain control over other people‟s attitude
and behavior. Your parents use it to guide, inspire, or reprimand you when you seem
to lose control over your schedule, studies, and relationships, among others.

8. Social Interaction
Communication helps us start, maintain, regulate, or even end relationships
with other people. We usually establish a positive climate at home, in school, and in
the workplace by greeting the people around us and by exchanging pleasantries with
them.

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 Elaborate

What examples can you give for each of the functions?

1. Informative Function

2. Instructive Function

3. Persuasive Function

4. Motivation Function

5. Aesthetic Function

6. Therapeutic or Emotional Function

7. Regular or Control

8. Social Interaction

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 Explain

TOPIC 4: Levels of Communication

1. Cliché Communication uses conventional messages to establish rapport, to break
the ice, and/or to end a conversation. Clichés are overused expressions that have lost
their original (content) meanings and have taken on new relational meanings. We
expect cliché communication at the beginning and end of every conversation,
regardless of our feelings about a person.

2. Factual Communication uses events, makes observations, and offers knowledge

to others in a manner which can be called chit chat or small talk. Factual
communication includes reporting what you‟ve read in a textbook, what you‟ve
studied for a test, and exchanging biographical information about yourself. Factual
communication is relatively safe and most do this well.

3. Evaluative Communication offers opinions, ideas and judgments to others. This

is risky business because the odds are that others will reciprocate with their own
evaluations, which may be different from yours. When people consistently use
evaluative communication, they must be prepared for eventual conflict. It‟s important
to consider the value of critical and creative thinking, as well as the relational
meanings of messages that are exchanged. When using evaluative communication,
consider carefully the importance of descriptive, provisional, and responsible
expressions. Strive to avoid cautionary language, sarcasm, and nonverbal put-downs
(e.g., rolling your eyes in response to another‟s comments).

4. Gut-level Communication involves sharing our emotions and feelings with

others. We are sharing our very essence when we allow others to know our heart.

5. Peak Communication is the highest level of communication. This is also called

"communal-level communication." Peak communication is rare, even among close
friends and family members.

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 Explain

TOPIC 5: General Principles of Effective Communication

1. Know your purpose in communicating.
2. Know your audience.
3. Know your topic.
4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation.
5. Work on the feedback given you.

Principles of Effective Oral Communication

1. Be clear with your purpose.
2. Be complete with the message.
3. Be natural with your delivery.
4. Be specific and timely with your feedback.

Principles of Effective Written Communication: The 7Cs

1. Be clear.
2. Be concise.
3. Be concrete.
4. Be correct.
5. Be coherent.
6. Be complete.
7. Be courteous.

Ethics of Communication
It is important to note that one‟s behavior should be regulated by honesty, decency,
truthfulness, sincerity, and moral uprightness.

1. Establish an effective value system that will pave way for the development of
integrity as a person. One‟s behavior and decision-making style affect, in turn, the
operation of an organization.

2. Provide complete and accurate information. Data should always be contextualized

and correct.

3. Disclose vital information adequately and appropriately. Never conceal or hide

information for the purposes of transparency.

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Ten Basics of Ethical Communication
 Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and interactions with other group
members.
 Listen when others speak.
 Speak non-judgmentally.
 Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own thoughts,
needs, and feelings.
 Seek to understand others (rather than to be “right” or “more ethical than thou”).
 Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others have said
without checking your understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs,
values, and conclusions, assuming everyone shares them.
 Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable
sharing.
 Respect the personal boundaries of others.
 Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
 Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have relatively equal
“air time” if they want it.

https://www.rysec.org/10-basics-of-ethical-communication/

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 Evaluate

TASK 4: As a responsible communicator, identify which are ethical to post on social media
and which are not. Explain your answer.

Reference: Madrunio, M. & Martin. (2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City: C&
E Publishing, Inc.

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Chapter 2

Communication and Globalization

Local and Global Communication in Multicultural
Settings
Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written
Language
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the impact of globalization on communication

2. Demonstrate an understanding of how cultural diversity affects communication
3. Demonstrate an understanding of the concepts of varieties of English

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What other words can you think of that you can relate
to the globalization?

Engage
Globalization

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 Explore

TOPIC 1: Language and Communication

Read the essay entitled “What is Globalization Anyway?

What is Globalization Anyway?

By Alex Gray (World Economic Forum, 2017)

How Globalization Works

In simple terms, globalization is the process by which people and goods move easily
across borders. Principally, it's an economic concept – the integration of markets, trade and
investments with few barriers to slow the flow of products and services between nations.
There is also a cultural element, as ideas and traditions are traded and assimilated.

Globalization has brought many benefits to many people; but not to everyone.

Storm in a Coffee Cup

To help explain the economic side of globalization, let's take a look at the well-known
coffee chain Starbucks.

The first Starbucks outlet opened its doors in 1971 in the city of Seattle. Today it has
15,000 stores in 50 countries. These days you can find a Starbucks anywhere, whether
Australia, Cambodia, Chile or Dubai. It's what you might call a truly globalized company.

And for many suppliers and jobseekers, not to mention coffee-drinkers, this was a
good thing. The company was purchasing 247 million kilograms of unroasted coffee from 29
countries. Through its stores and purchases, it provided jobs and income for hundreds of
thousands of people all over the world.

But then disaster struck. In 2012, Starbucks made headlines after a Reuters
investigation showed that the chain hadn't paid much tax to the UK government, despite
having almost a thousand coffee shops in the country and earning millions of pounds in profit
there.

As a multinational company, Starbucks was able to use complex accounting rules that
enabled it to have profit earned in one country taxed in another. Because the latter country
had a lower tax rate, Starbucks benefited. Ultimately, the British public missed out, as the
government was raising less tax to spend on improving their well-being.

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How did globalization happen?

We might think of globalization as a relatively new phenomenon, but it‟s been around
for centuries.

One example is the Silk Road, when trade spread rapidly between China and Europe
via an overland route. Merchants carried goods for trade back and forth, trading silk as well
as gems and spices and, of course, coffee. (In fact, the habit of drinking coffee in a social
setting originates from a Turkish custom, an example of how globalization can spread culture
across borders.)

What drives it?

Globalization has speeded up enormously over the last half-century, thanks to great
leaps in technology.

The internet has revolutionized connectivity and communication, and helped people
share their ideas much more widely, just as the invention of the printing press did in the 15th
century. The advent of email made communication faster than ever.

The invention of enormous container ships helped too. In fact, improvements in

transport generally – faster ships, trains and airplanes – have allowed us to move around the
globe much more easily.

What's good about it?

Globalization has led to many millions of people being lifted out of poverty.

For example, when a company like Starbucks buys coffee from farmers in Rwanda, it
is providing a livelihood and a benefit to the community as a whole. A multinational
company's presence overseas contributes to those local economies because the company will
invest in local resources, products and services. Socially responsible corporations may even
invest in medical and educational facilities.

Globalization has not only allowed nations to trade with each other, but also to
cooperate with each other as never before. Take the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, for
instance, where 195 countries all agreed to work towards reducing their carbon emissions for
the greater global good.

What's bad about it?

While some areas have flourished, others have floundered as jobs and commerce
move elsewhere. Steel companies in the UK, for example, once thrived, providing work for
hundreds of thousands of people. But when China began producing cheaper steel, steel plants
in the UK closed down and thousands of jobs were lost.

Every step forward in technology brings with it new dangers. Computers have vastly
improved our lives, but cyber criminals steal millions of pounds a year. Global wealth has
skyrocketed, but so has global warming.

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 While many have been lifted out of poverty, not everybody has benefited. Many
argue that globalization operates mostly in the interests of the richest countries, with most of
the world's collective profits flowing back to them and into the pockets of those who already
own the most.

Although globalization is helping to create more wealth in developing countries, it is

not helping to close the gap between the world's poorest and richest nations. Leading charity
Oxfam says that when corporations such as Starbucks can legally avoid paying tax, the
global inequality crisis worsens.

Basically, done wisely globalization could lead to “unparallel peace and prosperity.”
Done poorly, “to disaster”.

What is globalization in your own understanding?

How does it affect you?
What is the impact on communication?

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 From the essay above, transition to the next essay entitled “The Effects of
Globalization on Global Communication” by Anam Ahmed and reviewed by: Elisa
Shoenberger, M.B.A. to understand the effect of globalization to communication.

Link: https://bizfluent.com/info-8232542-effects-globalization-global-communication.html

“The Effects of Globalization on Global Communication”

by Anam Ahmed and reviewed by: Elisa Shoenberger, M.B.A.

Connecting with people on the other side of the world is now much easier than it was
a few years ago. Satellites, fiber-optic cables and the internet make it effortless to share
information with those in different time zones and locations. Global communication is
directly affected by the process of globalization, and helps to increase business opportunities,
remove cultural barriers and develop a global village. Both globalization and global
communication have changed the environmental, cultural, political and economic elements of
the world.

Increased Business Opportunities

Many companies today hire employees that are located in other countries. Using
communication vehicles such as video calling make it simple to converse with colleagues
across the globe, almost making it feel as if they are in the same room. Technology also
makes it easier to connect with suppliers and customers all over the world, and to
streamline those relationships through improved ordering, shipment tracking and so on.
With this kind of communication technology, many businesses are able to take advantage
of opportunities in different countries or cities, improving the economic outlook on a global
level.

Thanks to global communications, information itself can be transferred as a

valuable business asset from one country to another. This has the effect of making
everyone's operations more modern and efficient, regardless of where they are located.

Fewer Cultural Barriers

Many people perceive culture to be the root of communication challenges. When

people from two different cultures try to exchange information, the way they speak, their
body language or their mannerisms can be interpreted differently by the other person. The
way people approach problems and how they participate in communities is all influenced
by culture.

Globalization has made it possible, for example, for someone in Japan to understand
how someone in the U.S. goes about his/her day. With television and movies, cultural
barriers are becoming less prevalent. Being able to communicate effectively and frequently
with colleagues or friends across the planet helps people understand each other‟s cultures a
little better.

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Creation of a Global Village

You‟ve likely heard of the phrase "global village," coined by theorist Marshall
McLuhan. Affected both by globalization and global communication, the global village is
created when distance and isolation no longer matter because people are connected by
technology. Wide-spread telephone and internet access have been life-changing for many
people across the world, especially those in developing countries. Many are now enrolling
in universities across the world without having to leave their desk chair. Virtual assistant
jobs are becoming commonplace, where employees from developing countries work with
companies in North America or Europe, providing administrative support and other
business services that can easily be conducted over the phone or via the internet.

Globalization and global communication have made it easier to see people on the
other side of the world as a neighbor, instead of a stranger from a faraway land. There is so
much knowledge about other countries and cultures available online, that it‟s no longer a
complete mystery.

Which among the effects mentioned do you think applies to you?

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 Explain

TOPIC 2: Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Settings

Terms to understand:

Culture is defined as the sum of a way of life, including expected behavior, beliefs,
values, language and living practices shared by members of a society. It consists of both
explicit and implicit rules through which experience is interpreted.

Intercultural Competence is the ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and

attitudes that lead to visible behavior and communication that are both effective and
appropriate in intercultural interactions.

We communicate with other people with different cultures. Frank (2013) presents the
3P model of culture to raise awareness among communicators in various cultures.

3P of Culture

Perspectives Practices Products

Perspectives describe "what members of a culture think, feel, and value". This includes
ideas about what is important in life, and beliefs about how younger people should relate
to older members of society. Perspectives define what members of a particular culture
consider appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

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Perspectives shape practices. Practices include the traditions and typical behaviors in a
culture. The way people communicate can differ greatly from one culture to another, not
just in terms of language but also what people talk about; with whom; how direct they are
when communicating; the gestures they use; their use of eye contact; etc. Practices include
other behaviors as well, from the formal – for example wedding ceremony traditions – to
the informal, such as how people dress and eat on a day-to-day basis.

Food is often the first cultural product that people think of when they think about another
culture. The special foods associated with a particular culture are often the first thing
someone unfamiliar with the culture learns about it. Other cultural products include
clothing, music, and literature.

Culture is strengthened through its expression. The more people engage in the
traditions and ways of living of their culture, the more that culture's perspectives, practices,
and products are reinforced. A tradition that has been practiced for hundreds of years is a
very strong tradition. A culture's perspectives, practices, and products can change over time.
In today‟s globalized world, most people have encounters with members of other
cultures, and for many people, this is on a regular basis. These encounters happen in social,
political, and commercial contexts. It is therefore important for people, in all areas of their
lives, to be able to interact successfully with people who are from cultures that are different
from theirs. This ability is called intercultural competence. Intercultural competence is
needed for people from different cultures – with their different values, practices, and ways of
communicating – to avoid conflict and misunderstanding. Intercultural competence requires
people to be flexible in their thinking and to recognize that people are complex. To see
people in ways that are simple and not complex is to stereotype people.
Intercultural competence is not an all-or-nothing ability. People have different levels
of intercultural competence, among themselves, and from context to context. People‟s
intercultural competence will be more or less effective depending on their familiarity with
the particular culture they are encountering and the particular stereotypes that they may
believe. No one can be completely prepared for all the intercultural experiences they will
have in the future, and so intercultural competence requires flexibility. This makes the
development of intercultural competence an ongoing process; it never ends. It requires the
ability to think critically about differences. Critical thinking is also necessary to negotiate
differences and use strategies to minimize conflict and misunderstandings.

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 Elaborate
Micro-culture is….

An identifiable group of people who share a set of

values, beliefs, and behaviors and who possess a common
history and verbal and nonverbal symbol system that is similar
to but systematically varies from the larger, often dominant
cultural milieu, (Neuleip, 2015).

An identifiable group of people: If other people do not

recognize them as a group, their culture may not be strong
enough to really be a micro-culture.

People in a micro-culture…

…share a set of values, beliefs, and behaviors: This fits

perfectly with the 3P model of culture. Cultures are defined by
their perspectives, practices, and products.

…possess a common history: Having a common history

is another requirement for an identifiable cultural group.

…possess a common… verbal system: The verbal

system is language. The members of the micro-culture speak the
same language. Often this includes special terms that only
people in the micro-culture use (slang or jargon). Sometimes this
means that the micro-culture speaks a different language from
the larger culture. An example of this would be the Spanish-
speaking Latinos in the United States.

…possess a common… nonverbal symbol system: The

members of the micro-culture may use different clothing that
helps to identify them. They may have in common a special type
of art or music. They may use different gestures when they are
together.

… similar to, but systematically varies from, the

larger, often dominant cultural milieu: This means that the
micro-culture has a lot in common with the larger culture, but
they also have certain key differences.

If you start to think about it, you are a member of many micro-cultures. Your
classroom is one micro-culture that you move through (and create) each day. Other micro-
cultures in your life might have to do with your hobbies, family ties, profession, religion, or
politics. We can see that there are many micro-cultures, and this is connected to the many
different aspects of a person‟s identity.

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 Elaborate Types of micro-culture:
High-context culture vs. Low-context cultures

In anthropology, high-context culture and low-context culture are measures of how

explicit the messages exchanged in a culture are, and how important the context is in
communication. High and low context cultures fall on a continuum that describes how a
person communicates with others through their range of communication abilities: utilizing
gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages. These concepts
were first introduced by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1976 book Beyond Culture.
According to Hall, in a low-context culture, the message will be interpreted through just the
words (whether written or spoken) and their explicit meaning. In a high-context culture,
messages are also interpreted using tone of voice, gesture, silence or implied meaning, as
well as context or situation. There, the receiver is expected to use the situation, messages and
cultural norms to understand the message.

High-context cultures often stem from less direct verbal and nonverbal
communication, utilizing small communication gestures and reading into these less direct
messages with more meaning. Low-context cultures are the opposite; direct verbal
communication is needed to properly understand a message being said and doing so relies
heavily on explicit verbal skills.

"High" and "low" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or
regional communities. However, they have also been applied to corporations, professions and
other cultural groups, as well as settings such as online and offline communication.

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 Are You from a High-Context or Low-Context Culture?
Answer “Yes” or “No” to the following questions and explain
why.

1. In your culture, is it okay to call your teacher or boss by his or her first name?

2. Do you feel frustrated when people do not answer your questions directly?

3. Is it important to you that many people know about your personal accomplishments?

4. Do you feel comfortable with short-term casual friendships?

5. Do you rely more on words than nonverbal means to express yourself?

6. Do you seek rational solutions to problems or personal ones?

7. Do you prefer an individual approach over group decision-making processes for learning
and problem solving?

8. Are results just as important as personal relationships in terms of achieving goals?

9. Is your identity strongly defined outside of group associations (family, work, culture)?

10. Do you feel conflict is a necessary part of human relations and should not be avoided?

If you answer “yes” to six or more questions, odds are you are from a low context culture.

Reflect on how these questions differentiate between high- and low-context cultures.
With your new grasp of high- and low-context cultures, think of scenarios where
communication might break down based on cultural differences. You can also think of how
misunderstanding stemming from different cultural contexts could cause problems. Think of
strategies to avoid potential conflict.

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 Elaborate

Monochronic vs. Polychronic Cultures

Monochronic cultures like to do just one thing at a time. They value a certain
orderliness and sense of there being an appropriate time and place for everything. They do
not value interruptions. They like to concentrate on the job at hand and take time
commitments very seriously.

In addition, monochronic people tend to show a great deal of respect for private
property and are reluctant to be either a lender or a borrower. This is part of a general
tendency to follow rules of privacy and consideration as well as adhere religiously to plans.

Polychronic cultures like to do multiple things at the same time. A manager's office in
a polychronic culture typically has an open door, a ringing phone and a meeting all going on
at the same time. Though they can be easily distracted they also tend to manage interruptions
well with a willingness to change plans often and easily. People are their main concern
(particularly those closely related to them or their function) and they have a tendency to build
lifetime relationships. Issues such as promptness are firmly based on the relationship rather
than the task and objectives are more like desirable outcomes than must DOs.

Collectivism vs. individualism

In collectivism, it is some sort of group rather than an individual who is at the center
of all social, political, and economic concerns, and issues. Those who are proponents of this
ideology say that the interests and claims of groups (it may even be a state) supersede those
of individuals. Thus, a society being a group is considered to be superior to an individual. It
is treated as some sort of super-organism over and above individuals that make it.
Collectivism believes in the subjugation of the individual to a group, which may be family,
tribe, society, party or a state. Individual has to sacrifice for the collective good of the people.
The proponents of collectivism consider their stand to be superior to those of individualists as
they are morally superior thinking of the collective good of the group or the society.

In individualism, the focus of all thinking is the individual. When talking of political
ideologies, classical liberalism comes closest to this thinking as individual human being is
taken as the central unit of all analysis. It is not that an individual is any different from the
society. However, an individualist, even while remaining within the society thinks about his
own personal interests. This doctrine believes that society is there, but it is ultimately made
up of individuals who choose and act. The foundation of individualism lies in one‟s moral
right, to pursue one‟s own happiness. However, it is not in contradiction with collectivism as
it believes that it is necessary for individuals to preserve and defend institutions that have
been made to protect one‟s right to pursue happiness.

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 Choose the correct answer of the following statements.

1. Culture is defined as:

a. Food, clothing, music, art and literature that represents a specific group of people.
b. People‟s social interaction patterns, values, ideas and attitudes.
c. What people think, make and do.
d. All of the above

2. The author suggests that having acquaintance only with the grammar, syntax, phonetics
and some of the social conventions associated with English will give learners real insight
into the daily lives of English speakers.
a. True
b. False

3. An important first step in guiding our students' learning about other cultures is to first get
them to explore their own culture. The author suggests doing this in class by:
a. Watching videos about other cultures.
b. Having classroom discussions about their own culture.
c. Having the students research what culture means.
d. Asking students to write about their favorite aspect of their own culture.

4. Which of the 3Ps of culture is the easiest to identify?

a. Perspectives
b. Practices
c. Products

5. Students may be able to reduce the amount of time they spend in the culture shock stage
if they understand and anticipate the stages of acculturation.
a. True
b. False

6. Which of the following characteristics would be found in someone who is “interculturally

competent”?
a. Has traveled to multiple countries.
b. Can discuss and relate a cultural practice of his/her culture to others.
c. Not interested in learning about how to greet someone of another culture because it
does not apply to his/her life.
d. Speaks three languages fluently.

7. Cultural meanings are symbolic because…

a. they're not really real.
b. they aren't expressed through words.
c. they develop in literature.
d. their meaning comes through interpretation, not through observation.
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 TASK 5: Below are three steps for this
Evaluate activity. Please do all three steps. However, you only
need to write your answers to the questions in Part C.

A. Make a list of all of the different communities or micro-cultures that you move through in
the course of a normal day or week. Examples might be: home, your classroom, market,
school, bus, friend‟s house, temple, mosque, online activity (including this course) etc.

B. Think about these questions: What are the dynamics that are going on for you when you
go from one micro-culture to another? Is there one where you feel like you change
aspects of yourself to fit in? Is there one that feels different from the others? Is there one
where you feel particularly at home?

C. Choose one of the micro-cultures from your list and write about all of the following:
1. What are core elements (practices, products, people, perspectives) that make this
community a culture?
2. What do you need to know/do to belong in this culture?
3. Is it open to everyone?
4. What do you have to change about yourself when you are in this community?
5. What parts of yourself do you not share?

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 “Cultural differences should not separate us from each other, but rather cultural diversity
brings a collective strength that can benefit all of humanity. Also, intercultural dialogue is the
best guarantee of a more peaceful, just and sustainable world”.
- Robert Allan Arthur

References:

Frank, J. (2013). Raising cultural awareness in the English language classroom. English
Teaching Forum, 2-35.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Press.
Neuleip, J. W. (2015). Intercultural Communication, 6th Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
World Learning. (2018). Introduction to culture. In "Integrating Critical Thinking Skills into the
Exploration of Culture in an EFL Setting.

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TOPIC 3: Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language

World Englishes
Explore - Kingsley Bolton

The English language now plays an important role in the lives of a rapidly increasing
proportion of the world‟s population. From a global perspective, the sociolinguistically
complex sites of English-using African and Asian societies are no mere exotic sideshow, but
important sites of contact, negotiation, and linguistic and literary creativity.

The expression “world Englishes” is capable of a range of meanings and

interpretations. In the first sense, perhaps, the term functions as an umbrella label referring to
a wide range of differing approaches to the description and analysis of English(es)
worldwide. Some scholars, for example, favor a discussion of “world English” in the
singular, and also employ terms such as “global English” and “international English,” while
others adopt the same terms in their plural forms. Indeed, in recent years, a plethora of
terminology has come into use, including: English as an international (auxiliary) language,
global English(es), international English(es), localized varieties of English, new varieties of
English, non-native varieties of English, second language varieties of English, world
English(es), new Englishes, alongside such more traditional terms as ESL (English as a
Second Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language).

In a second narrower sense, the term is used to specifically refer to the “new
Englishes” found in the Caribbean and in West African and East African societies such as
Nigeria and Kenya, and to such Asian Englishes as Hong Kong English, Indian English,
Malaysian English, Singaporean English, and Philippine English. Typically studies of this
kind focus on the areal characteristics of national or regional Englishes, with an emphasis on
the linguistic description of autonomous varieties of Englishes.

In a third sense, world Englishes refers to the wide-ranging approach to the study of
the English language worldwide particularly associated with Braj B. Kachru and other
scholars working in a “world Englishes paradigm.” The Kachruvian approach has been
characterized by an underlying philosophy that has argued for the importance of inclusivity
and pluricentricity in approaches to the linguistics of English worldwide, and involves not
merely the description of national and regional varieties, but many other related topics as
well, including contact linguistics, creative writing, critical linguistics, discourse analysis,
corpus linguistics, lexicography, pedagogy, pidgin and creole studies, and the sociology of
language (Bolton, 2002a).

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 This „three circles‟ model is an alternative and influential classification that has been
put forward by Kachru in 1985. Note from the following quote that Kachru refers to the
ESL/EFL classification.
Countries in the Inner Circle include the USA and the UK. Countries in the Outer
Circle include Bangladesh, Ghana and the Philippines. Countries listed as being in the
Expanding Circle include China, Egypt and Korea.
The great advantages of this model over the ENL/ESL/EFL one are, first, that it
makes English plural so that one English becomes many Englishes. Second, the model does
not suggest that one variety is any better, linguistically speaking, than any other. The spread
of English has resulted in the development of many Englishes and not the transplanting of
one model to other countries: „. . . English now has multicultural identities‟ (Kachru, 1985).

Varieties of English
Explain

Accent is the way you say words when you speak. It‟s all about pronunciation and has
nothing to do with grammar or syntax. With accents, two people may say precisely the same
words, but make them sound completely different.

American English – often abbreviated to AmE – is a variant of the English language,

spoken mainly in the United States. About two-thirds of the world‟s native speakers of
English live in America and speak this variant.

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 English was introduced to North America by British settlers during the colonization
period (17th century). It was also influenced by the many different nationalities which settled
in the US since then and, to a certain extent, by the languages spoken by the Native
American population.

The most obvious differences between American English and British English (BrE)
are in pronunciation and vocabulary although there are also a few differences in grammar.

Unlike most British English accents, American English is generally rhotic, that is, the
letter r is pronounced in all positions of a word. As an example take the word butter. In
British English this is likely to be said as: /ˈbʌtə/. Whilst in American English it‟s likely to be
said as: /ˈbʌdr/. In American English a /d/ sound is often used where British English uses a /t/
sound: /ˈtuːdə/, /ˈtjuːtə/. This leads to situations where some American students will write
about their personal tudor instead of their personal tutor, for example.

Australian English (AuE) is a variant of the English language, spoken mainly in the
Australia. Australian English began to diverge from British English shortly after Australia
was settled in the late 18th century. It is similar to New Zealand English and bears some
resemblance to certain dialects of South East England. Generally speaking, Australian
English spelling corresponds to British English spelling. AuE makes a great deal of use of
diminutives (e.g. arvo for afternoon, footy for football).

Black English is a very broad term used to refer to British English and American
English as spoken by the black communities in the US and the UK. To a lesser extent it‟s
also used to refer to black communities in places like the Caribbean and Africa. Two of the
major sub-varieties of Black English are African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and
British Black English (BBE). To a lesser extent it‟s also used to refer to black communities
in places like the Caribbean and Africa.

African American Vernacular English or AAVE is a distinct dialect of English,

sometimes classed as a variety of English. It is also known as Ebonics though this is not a
term used by linguists and is sometimes used pejoratively. AAVE has its roots in the slave
trade where people captured in various parts of Africa, and from a variety of language
backgrounds, were forced to create a pidgin or creole (a common language composed of
fragments of their native languages) in order to communicate. Eventually this incorporated
elements of English so it could also be used to communicate with the slave owners.

AAVE has a language structure which has much in common with a number of
African languages. One interesting aspect of AAVE is the tenses used which appear to be
less rigid than in standard English. For example it distinguishes between the recent past and
the distant past.

I been done it. (distant past)

I done it. (recent past)
I did it. (very recent past)

British Black English (BBE) has some similar origins but is based on a Jamaican
creole spoken by Caribbean communities, mainly in London but also in large cities such as
Manchester, Bristol, Birmingham, Leeds and Nottingham.

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 There is a history of British sugar planters in Jamaica, which was a British colony
until 1948, after which in the 1950‟s there was significant immigration to London as England
welcomed workers in its post war expansion and rebuilding. Jamaican Creole is recognized
as an independent variety with its own grammar and vocabulary.

Increasingly, British Black English speakers are finding their own voice in literature
such as rap poetry and song, with Benjamin Zephaniah a respected name. There is no
standard form of orthography so much of the language is written semi-phonetically –
“yuhself” for “yourself” “dat” and “dem” for “that” and “them”, “nuff” for “enough”,
“respek” for “respect”.

British English (BrE) is a variant of the English language, spoken mainly in the
United Kingdom. Bear in mind, however, that there is, in fact, no single British English
variation of English. Instead there are a considerable number of variations mainly found in
different locations. Thus, for example, there is: Scottish English, Irish English, Welsh
English, Northumbrian, Norfolk, Cornish, The Queen‟s English, BBC English, RP or
Received Pronunciation. However, the differences between these variations are mainly ones
of accent and pronunciation with a few vocabulary variations rather than differences in
grammar.

Received Pronunciation (RP) is a form of pronunciation used in British English.

Most accents in the UK are regional, that is people from one area will speak with a particular
accent whilst people from another area speak with a different accent. If you listen to British
people it‟s often easy to tell where in the country they come from: a person from Liverpool
will often sound very different from a person from London, for example.

However, RP is slightly different in that it is non-regional. It is the type of

pronunciation that is considered regionally neutral standard. It is spoken by what used to be
called “the upper classes” in Britain and it‟s spoken by people who have attended expensive
fee-paying schools like Eton and Harrow and come from old aristocratic families. It suggests
a privileged social and educational background. RP gained prestige status as the accent of the
court (called the King‟s or the Queen‟s English), and thence of government, higher education
and broadcasting. Most educated people now speak a modified RP, incorporating regional
features. RP is considered irrelevant, elitist, or out of date. Nevertheless, in the absence of a
credible alternative, RP endures, and most UK-published ELT course books and dictionaries
as their standard.

Varieties of English Grammar

Present Perfect vs Past Simple

BrE sometimes uses the present perfect whilst AmE uses the past simple.

BrE: Have you eaten all those biscuits?

AmE: Did you eat all those…
BrE: Have you ever seen the film, Casablanca?
AmE: Did you ever see the movie, Casablanca?

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While vs. Have

BrE: Have you got new training shoes?

AmE: Do you have new sneakers?
BrE: I‟ve got some Wellington boots you can borrow.
AmE: I have some galoshes you can borrow.
BrE: I haven‟t got time for a holiday this year.
AmE: I don‟t have time for a vacation this year.

Irregular Verbs

BrE: dive – dived – dived Last night she dived into the pool.
AmE: dive – dove – dived Last night she dove into the pool.
BrE: get – got – got The baby has got a lot bigger.
AmE: get – got -gotten The baby has gotten a lot bigger.

to/till/until vs. through

BrE: The optician is open from eight till four.

AmE: The optometrist is open from eight through four.

Shall vs. Should

BrE can use shall for offers and suggestions while AmE uses should:

BrE: Shall I call a taxi?

AmE: Should I call cab?

Question Tags
BrE uses a lot of question tags. AmE does not; instead it uses words like right
and ok:

BrE: I‟ll park on the verge, shall I?

AmE: I‟ll park on the shoulder, right?

Collective Nouns
BrE can use a singular or plural verb for collective nouns while AmE uses
only a singular verb:

BrE: The team are playing badly.

AmE: The team is playing badly.

Adverbs
In informal speech, AmE sometimes uses adverbs without the -ly ending:

BrE: Autumn was really cold this year.

AmE: Fall was real cold this year.

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 Double Imperatives
With double imperatives beginning with go, AmE sometimes drops the
joining and:

BrE: Go and open the door.

AmE: Go open the door.

New Englishes in Southeast Asia

According to Leimgruber (2011), most adaptations in New Englishes in Southeast

Asia, concerns vocabulary, which shows substantial creativity among their users. Since
English arrived in the region, new cultures and new needs have led to the creation of a wide
range of new words that represent the required meanings more adequately. Local places,
things and objects for which terms are absent in English also have to be created. As a result,
large-scale borrowing has happened. Bautista and Gonzalez (2006) suggest that adaptation is
the most obviously apparent in loanwords, which can be seen in the following examples:

Singapore English Meaning

Abang elder brother; male cousin
Bodoh dull, unintelligent
Hanram prohibited
Mabok intoxicated, drunk

Brunei English Meaning

makan Food
kecil makan little food, thus a snack
adat traditional law
kampong traditional village
bomoh a traditional medicine man

Philippine English Meaning

amok crazy
barang luggage, bits and pieces
boondock mountain ridge
carabao a water buffalo
kundiman a love song

Loan translation, a form of borrowing from one language to another whereby the
semantic components of a given term are literally translated into their equivalents in the
borrowing language, is also a very common feature in Southeast Asian Englishes. For
example:

Malaysian English Loan Translation

red packet a sum of money folded inside red paper and given at the
Chinese New Year to unmarried younger relatives
spring roll dish consisting of a savoury mixture of vegetables and
meat rolled up in a thin pancake and fried

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 Philippine English Loan Translation
open the light/radio turn on the light/radio
since before yet for a long time
joke only I'm teasing you
you don't only know you just don't realize
making foolishness misbehaving
I am ashamed to you I am embarrassed because I‟ve been asking you so
many favors

The essential features of the varieties of language should be given attention by users
coming from different cultures. One has to be aware and sensitive to the linguistic diversity
in an intercultural community. Knowledge of the diversity avoids misunderstanding, lessens
communication breakdown, and allows interactive communication.

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 Elaborate

TASK 6: Fill the first column with the Philippine English equivalents of the words in the 2nd
and 3rd columns.

Philippine English American English British English

refrigerator/ice box fridge

toaster toaster oven
cell mobile/mobile phone/phone
trash/garbage rubbish
gasoline petrol
bathroom/restroom toilet/loo/john/bog
closet wardrobe
get on catch
blackout power cut
replica/fake fake/counterfeit/knock-off
sneakers trainers/runners
carry-on hand luggage
baggage/carry-on
luggage
take-out/to go takeaway
co-worker workmate/colleague
carousel roundabout
refillable unlimited refills
corporate head office/headquarters
headquarters/main
office/head office
switch on/switch off turn on/turn off
the next two weeks/ the week after next
the week after next
air conditioner air conditioner/AC
extraordinary marvellous
wading pool paddling pool
dude/man mate
funds/credit credit
garbage can dustbin
flextime flexitime
bachelorette party hen night
model home show house/home
bachelor party stag night
Just a minute. Just a second.
Please stay on the line. Please hold.
Hold on. Hang in there.
Connecting your I‟m putting you through…

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 call…
May I ask who‟s Who‟s calling please?
calling? May I ask who‟s calling?
Could I have your name, please?
How are you? How do you do?
I‟m good/pretty good. Formal: I‟m fine, thank you and you?
Informal: Fine thanks. You?
I beg your pardon? Sorry?
Pardon? Excuse me?
Where are you from? Where do you come from?

Language Registers
Language register is the level and style of your writing. It should be appropriate for
the situation you are in. The language register determines the vocabulary, structure, and some
grammar in your writing. The three most common language registers in writing are: Formal,
Informal, and Neutral.

The formal register is more appropriate for professional writing and letters to a boss
or a stranger. The informal register (also called casual or intimate) is conversational and
appropriate when writing to friends and people you know very well. The neutral register is
non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is most appropriate for technical writings.

Formal Language Register

Formal writing is impersonal, meaning it is not written for a specific person and is
written without emotion.

Formal writing includes:

• Business Letters • Letters of complaint
• Some essays • Reports
• Official speeches • Announcements
• Professional emails

Rules of the formal language register:

1. Avoid contractions

Contractions are not usually used in formal writing, even though they are very
common in spoken English. In formal writing, you should spell out contractions.

In formal writing, you should use:

• cannot instead of can‟t • have not instead of haven‟t
• will not instead of won‟t • could not instead of couldn‟t
• is not instead of isn‟t

Contractions CAN be used if you are quoting someone‟s exact words in your
writing.

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 Example: “Two-thirds of my eighth grade students can‟t read at grade level,”
the professor stated.

2. Write in third person point of view

In formal writing, we usually do not use first person or second person unless it
is a quote. Avoid using: I, You, We, Us…

Examples:
X You can purchase a car for under P500, 000.
√ One can purchase a car for under P500, 000. (or)
√ A car can be purchased for under $10,000.

3. Avoid using too much passive voice

In formal writing it is better to use an active voice.

Passive sentences:
The article was analyzed by the staff.
The research was completed by the students in 2009.

Active sentences:
The dog ate the bone.
The students completed the research in 2009. (or)
In 2009, the students completed the research.

4. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés

Slang is common in informal writing and spoken English. Slang is particular

to a certain region or area.

Examples of slang:
• awesome/ cool • okay/ok
• check it out • in a nutshell

A cliché is a phrase that is overused (said too often).

Common clichés:
• Too much of a good thing. • Moment of truth.
• Time is money. • Don‟t push your luck.
• Beauty is only skin deep.

5. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms

For abbreviations, write the complete word the first time, then use the
abbreviation. When using acronyms, write the entire name out the first time it
appears, followed by the acronym. From then on, you can use the acronym by itself.

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 Examples:
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
• Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)

Do not use slang abbreviations or symbols that you would use in friendly
emails and texts.

Examples:
• LOL (laugh out loud) • ttyl (talk to you later)
• & (and) • b/c (because)
• w/o (without) • w/ (with)

6. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also

Here are some good transition words and phrases to use in formal writing:
• Nevertheless • Additionally
• However • In addition
• As a result of • Although

7. Always write in complete sentences.

8. Write longer, more complex sentences.

Informal Language Register

Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. We use
informal writing when we are writing to someone we know very well.

Informal writing includes:

• Personal e-mails • Phone texts
• Short notes • Friendly letters
• Most blogs • Diaries and journals

There are no major rules to informal writing. With informal writing, you can include
things such as:

• Slang and clichés • Figurative language

• Symbols and abbreviations • Acronyms
• Incomplete sentences • Short sentences
• Paragraphs or no paragraphs • Jokes
• Personal opinions • Extra punctuation (Hi Bob!!!!!!!)
• Passive and active voice
• First person, second person, and third person

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 SUMMARY

 Globalization affects the economy as it involves the movement of people and

products.
 Because people move, globalization affects communication.
 The diversity of people affects communication.
 Awareness and sensitivity to multi cultures determine success of communication

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