Internship Report

Modeling and Simulation of Direction

Finding Algorithm for Electronic
Warfare

PRAVEEN KUMAR N
1PE15EC106
 ABSTRACT

In Electronic Warfare (EW) Systems,Estimation of Angle of Arrival

(AoA) of threat radar signal is an important operational functional-
ity.In a dense radar threat scenario, Multiple radar signals of various
types, which are operating over multiple frequency range and imping-
ing from all over the sphere pose threat for survivability of host Air-
craft.The scenario poses challenges in all the three domains,Viz.Time,
frequency and spatial.In this Internship project Amplitude compari-
sion method for AoA estimation is Explored.various practical consider-
ations,implementation aspects and simulation studies has been under-
taken from a practical perspective.

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Department of Electronics and Communication,PESIT BSC.
Contents

1 About the Oraganization 7

1.1 History and Background of DRDO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 DARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 History and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 Areas of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Vision and Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Introduction to Radar systems 11

2.1 Radar basic Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Radar System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Standard Radar frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.3 Radar Transmitter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.4 Radar Receiver Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Radar Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 Target Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Maximum Unambiguous Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Doppler frequency and Radial velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.4 Basic Radar Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Information Available from Radar Echo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Target Discriminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Advantages and Drawbacks of Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.1 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.2 Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

2.6 Radar applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Modeling and Simulation of DF Algorithm 25

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Modeling of DF Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Working and Simulation of DF algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Simulation Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Appendix 36
4.1 Matlab Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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List of Figures

1.1 DRDO Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 DARE Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.1 Basic Principle of Radar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Simple block diagram of a radar employing a power amplifier trans-
mitter and a superheterodyne receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Zero Doppler Effect : Stationary Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Doppler Effect : Closing Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Doppler Effect : Opening Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Radar Frequency Band Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Typical Radar Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.8 Peak Power and Average Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.9 Radar Receiver Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.10 Radar Target Discriminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.11 Angle Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.12 Velocity Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.1 Different regions with Their Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.2 Antenna boresights relative aircraft north . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Gain pattern of Antenna assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Received Radar Signal in presence of AWG noise . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 Received Radar Signal in presence of AWG noise . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 FFT of Received Radar Signal in presence of AWG noise . . . . . . 29
3.7 Antenna patterns in a Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.8 Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error . 30

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

3.9 Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error . 31
3.10 Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error . 31
3.11 Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error . 32
3.12 Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error . 32
3.13 Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error . 33
3.14 Maximum positive and negative Deviation in Estimated AoA vs SNR 33
3.15 Mean Absolute Error vs SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.16 Mean Error and Standard Deviation vs SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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Matlab Codes

4.1 Main program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.2 Received signal Generation function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 AoA Estimation function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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Chapter 1

About the Oraganization

1.1 History and Background of DRDO

Figure 1.1: DRDO Logo

• DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organization) was formed in

1958 from the amalgamation of the then already functioning Technical De-
velopment Establishment (TDEs) of the Indian Army and the Directorate of
Technical Development and Production (DTDP) with the Defence Science

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Organisation (DSO). DRDO was then a small organisation with 10 estab-

lishments or laboratories. Over the years, it has grown multi-directionally in
terms of the variety of subject disciplines, number of laboratories, achieve-
ments and stature.

• Today, DRDO is a network of more than 50 laboratories which are deeply

engaged in developing defence technologies covering various disciplines, like
aeronautics, armaments, electronics, combat vehicles, engineering systems,
instrumentation, missiles, advanced computing and simulation, special ma-
terials, naval systems, life sciences, training, information systems and agri-
culture.

• Presently, the Organisation is backed by over 5000 scientists and about

25,000 other scientific, technical and supporting personnel. Several major
projects for the development of missiles, armaments, light combat aircrafts,
radars, electronic warfare systems etc are on hand and significant achieve-
ments have already been made in several such technologies.

1.2 DARE

Figure 1.2: DARE Logo

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

1.2.1 History and Background

• Defence Avionics Research Establishment (DARE) initially started as a Project

Laboratory - Advanced Systems Integration and Evaluation Organisation
(ASIEO), which was established in 1986 at Bangalore to pursue the goal of
enhancing the operational capabilities of Indian Air Force through modern
technologies.

• The erstwhile ASIEO was headed by Dr KG Narayanan, Distinguished Scien-

tist since its inception. It became a full fledged self accounting organisation
wef 01st June 2001 and was renamed as DARE ( Defence Avionics Research
Establishment ). DARE and was formally taken over by Sri RP Ramalingam,
Distinguished Scientist wef 18th January 2002.

• Over the last decade, DARE has made rapid progress in the areas of Air-
borne Electronic Warfare, Airborne Processors and Testing & Evaluation of
Electronic Warfare (EW) systems. It has implemented concepts in concur-
rent engineering in partnership with the Industry in order to achieve shorter
design to induction time frames and seamless transfer of technology.

1.2.2 Areas of Work

• DARE has two major wings the Electronic Warfare (EW) wing and the
Mission Avionics Wing (MAW).

1. The EW wing concentrates on design and development of Radar Warn-

ers, and EW suites for various aircrafts to enhance their survivability
and mission accomplishment. These systems are under manufacture at
Bharat Electronics.
2. The MAW has pioneered indigenous development in the area of Mission
Avionics. The mission computer for fighter aircraft have been developed
and delivered in quantities.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

1.2.3 Vision and Mission

• Vision : Spearhead Research and Development in the field of Airborne

Electronic Warfare and Mission Avionics to achieve self-reliance in these
critical technology areas.

• Mission : To conduct Research and Development in avionics technologies

in order to equip Indian Armed Forces with Mission-effective aeronautical
systems enhanced by

1. Current and Futuristic airborne EW systems

2. State of art Mission Avionics

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Chapter 2

Introduction to Radar systems

2.1 Radar basic Principle of Operation

The word “RADAR” is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging.Radar is an
electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as
aircraft,ships,spacecraft,vehicles,people,and the natural environment.Its operation
can be summarized as follows:

• The radar radiates electromagnetic energy from an antenna to propogate in

space.

• Some of the radiated energy is intercepted by a reflecting object,usually

called target located at distance from the radar.

• The energy intercepted by target is reradiated in many directions.

• Some of the reradiated (echo) energy is returned to and received by the radar
antenna.

• After amplification by a receiver and with the aid of proper signal processing,
a decision is made at the output of the receiver as to whether or not a target
echo signal is present.At the time,the target location and possibly other
information about the target is acquired.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Figure 2.1: Basic Principle of Radar.

Figure 2.2: Simple block diagram of a radar employing a power amplifier trans-
mitter and a superheterodyne receiver

2.2 Radar System Characteristics

In order for a radar system to determine range, azimuth, elevation, or velocity
data, it must transmit and receive electromagnetic radiation. This electromag-
netic radiation is referred to as radio frequency (RF) radiation. RF transmissions
have specific characteristics that determine the capabilities and limitations of a
radar system to provide these target discriminants, based on an analysis of the
characteristics of the target return.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

2.2.1 Doppler effect

The “Doppler effect” takes advantage of the fact that the frequency of RF waves
will be changed or shifted when reflected from a target moving relative to the
radar. The shifted frequency of the returning RF wave depends on the movement
of the aircraft in relation to the radar. Let fo be the transmitted frequency of the
radar, and ft be the frequency of the reflected RF wave from the target.

• For a stationary target, the frequency of the reflected signal will equal the
frequency of the transmitted signal.

Figure 2.3: Zero Doppler Effect : Stationary Target

• For a target moving toward the radar, the frequency of the reflected signal
will be higher than the transmitted signal.

Figure 2.4: Doppler Effect : Closing Target

• The reflected frequency for a target moving away from the radar will be lower
than the transmitted frequency.

Figure 2.5: Doppler Effect : Opening Target

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

2.2.2 Standard Radar frequencies

• There are no fundamental bounds on radar frequency. Any device that de-
tects and locates a target by radiating electromagnetic energy and utilizes
the echo scattered from a target can be classed as a radar, no matter what
its frequency.

• Radars have been operated at frequencies from a few megahertz to the ul-
traviolet region of the spectrum. The basic principles are the same at any
frequency, but the practical implementation is widely different. In practice,
most radars operate at microwave frequencies, but there are notable excep-
tions.

Figure 2.6: Radar Frequency Band Designations

2.2.3 Radar Transmitter Characteristics

Every radar produces a radio frequency (RF) signal with specific characteristics
that differentiate it from all other signals and define its capabilities and limita-
tions. Pulse width (pulse duration), pulse recurrence time (pulse repetition in-
terval), pulse repetition frequency, and power are all radar signal characteristics
determined by the radar transmitter. Listening time, rest time, and recovery time

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

are radar receiver characteristics. An understanding of the terms used to describe

these characteristics is critical to understanding radar operation.

Pulse Width and Pulse Recurrence Time

• Pulse Width: sometimes called pulse duration (PD), is the time that the
transmitter is sending out RF energy. PW is measured in microseconds.

• Pulse recurrence time:is also known as pulse repetition time. PRT is the
time required for a complete transmission cycle. This is the time from the
beginning of one pulse of RF energy to the beginning of the next. PRT is
measured in microseconds.

Figure 2.7: Typical Radar Pulse

Peak and Average Power

• The power output of a radar is normally expressed in terms of peak power

or average power . Peak power is the amplitude, or power, of an individual
radar pulse. It is simply the power, measured in watts or megawatts, that is
radiated when the transmitter is on.

• The power a radar transmits is normally used to determine the maximum

detection range of that radar. However, it is the energy in a radar pulse that
determines maximum radar detection range.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Figure 2.8: Peak Power and Average Power

2.2.4 Radar Receiver Characteristics

Figure 2.9: Radar Receiver Characteristics

• Rest time: is the time between the end of one transmitted pulse and the
beginning of the next. It represents the total time that the radar is not
transmitting.

• Recovery time (RT): is the time immediately following transmission time

during which the receiver is unable to process returning radar energy. RT is
determined by the amount of isolation between the transmitter and receiver
and the efficiency of the duplexer.

• Listening time (LT): is the time the receiver can process target returns.
Listening time is measured from the end of the recovery time to the beginning
of the next pulse, or PRT minus (PW + RT).

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

2.3 Radar Equations

2.3.1 Target Range

– A basic pulse radar system consists of four fundamental elements: the
transmitter, the receiver, the antenna, and the synchronizer, or master
timer.
– The transmitter, through the antenna, sends out a pulse of RF energy
at a designated frequency. The presence of a target is revealed when
the RF energy bounces off the target, returns to the radar antenna, and
goes into the receiver. The master timer measures the time between the
transmission of a pulse and the arrival of a target echo.
– RF energy travels at the speed of light (c) which is 3 x 108 meters per
second.Thus the time for the signal to Travel to a target at Range R
and return back is 2R
c
.The Range to a target is then

cTR
R=
2

2.3.2 Maximum Unambiguous Range

– A limitation on radar detection range is the concept of a second time
around echo. A second time around echo occurs when a target echo
associated with a particular radar pulse arrives at the antenna after an-
other radar pulse has been transmitted. The radar master timer always
assumes the target echo is associated with the last pulse transmitted.
– Such an echo would appear to be at a closer range than actual and its
range measurement could be misleading if it were not known to be a
second time around echo.
– The range beyond which targets appear as second tie around echoes is
the maximum unambiguous range,Run .

cTp c
Run = =
2 2fp

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

where,Tp =pulse repetition period and fp =pulse repetition frequency.

2.3.3 Doppler frequency and Radial velocity

– The radial velocity of the radar target can be measured by the Doppler
effect, which means that the wavelength, or equivalently the frequency,
of the returned wave is changed when reflected at a target moving ra-
dially relative the radar.
– For example, the wavelength will become shorter, and the frequency
higher, when the target is approaching the radar. The relation between
the Doppler frequency fd , which is the frequency deviation for the re-
ceived wave from the transmitted wave, and the radial velocity is

2vr
fd =
λ

where vr is the relative radial velocity between radar and target, with
positive sign when they are approaching each other, and λ is the radar
wavelength.

2.3.4 Basic Radar Equation

– The basic radar equation relates the range of a radar system to the
characteristics of the transmitter, receiver, antenna, and the target.
– Power density is the power of a radio wave per unit of area normal to the
direction of propagation. The power density generated by a practical
antenna can be expressed as

PT G
P ower Density f rom Antenna = (2.1)
4πr2

– As the radar beam propagates through space, it arrives at a target at

some range (R) from the antenna. As the radar beam travels through
space, the wavefront of the beam expands to a very large cross-sectional

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

area, especially in relation to the target dimensions. The power density

of the radar beam, across this wide area, at the target,is

PT G
P ower Density at T arget =
4πR2

– Since the cross-sectional area of the radar beam is so large, only a small
portion of the total power in the beam can be reflected toward the
antenna. The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by
the target and reradiated back in the direction of the antenna depends
on the radar cross section (RCS) of the target.

PT G σ
P ower Density at Antenna = 2
∗
4πR 4πR2

– As the target echo reaches the antenna, part of the echo is captured
by the antenna based on the effective aperture (Ae).This is the actual
signal power received by the radar system.

PT GσAe
Signal P ower Density =
(4π)2 R4

This is one form of the basic radar equation and is the signal strength
of a radar return from a specific target at range (R) from the radar.
Here PT = transmitted power, G= antenna gain, Ae =antenna aperture
area, σ= RCS, R= Range of target.
– The maximum radar range (RMAX) occurs when the signal power den-
sity received just equals the minimum detectable signal (SMIN) for the
receiver.

2.4 Information Available from Radar Echo

The usual radar provides the location of a target in range and angle. The
rate of change of target location can also be measured from the change in
range and angle with time, from which the track can be established. In many

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

radar applications a detection is not said to occur until its track has been
established.

– Range:
The ability to determine range by measuring the time for the radar
signal to propagate to the target and back is probably the distinguish-
ing and most important characteristic of conventional radar. No other
sensor can measure range to the accuracy possible with radar, at such
long ranges, and under adverse weather conditions.
– Radial Velocity:
From successive measurements of range the rate of change of range, or
radial velocity, can be obtained. The doppler frequency shift of the echo
signal from a moving target also provides a measure of radial velocity.
However, the doppler frequency measurement in many pulse radars is
highly ambiguous, thus reducing its utility as a direct measurement of
radial velocity.
Any measurement of velocity, whether by the rate of change of range
or by the doppler frequency shift, requires time. The longer the time of
observation, the more accurate can be the measurement of velocity.
– Angular Direction:
The direction of a target is determined by sensing the angle at which the
returning wavefront arrives at the radar. This is usually accomplished
with a directive antenna, i.e., one with a narrow radiation pattern. The
direction in which the antenna points when the received signal is a
maximum indicates the direction of the target.
– Size and Shape :
If the radar has sufficient resolution, it can provide a measurement of the
target’s extent, or size. Since many targets of interest have dimensions
of several tens of meters, resolution must be several meters or less. The
size of a target is seldom of interest in itself, but its shape and its size
are important for recognizing one type of target from another.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

2.4.1 Target Discriminants

Figure 2.10: Radar Target Discriminants

Radar systems must use target discriminants to isolate the desired target
return from the clutter. These target discriminants include range, velocity,
and angle.

– Range is the first target discriminant. The time an RF wave takes to

go to, and return from, a target allows measurement of the range to
that target. We know that RF energy travels at the speed of light, or
“c”. Target range can be determined by using the basic radar range
equation.
– Target angle discrimination is another critical capability of radar
systems. In order for a radar system to detect a target, the antenna
must be pointed at the target during the transmission and reception of
RF energy. The ability of a radar system to accurately determine angle
is a function of the horizontal beamwidth of the antenna. If the radar
sweep is referenced to true North, the angle of a radar return can be
measured relative to true North.

Figure 2.11: Angle Discrimination

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

– Velocity discrimination is a specific capability of CW and pulse

Doppler radar systems. The transmitters of CW radars send out con-
tinuous RF at a specific frequency .The reflected signal frequency is
changed, or shifted, by a specific amount by a moving target. This fre-
quency shift, called the Doppler effect, allows the measurement of the
velocity of that target relative to the radar. The receiver measures this
frequency difference which equates to a specific radial velocity. Pulse
Doppler radars can measure the Doppler effect while still obtaining the
range.

Figure 2.12: Velocity Discrimination

2.5 Advantages and Drawbacks of Radar

2.5.1 Advantages

The widespread military and civilian application of radar is based on its

inherent advantages over the human eye.

• Radar can “see” farther than the human eye and more accurately assess the
range or distance of an object.

• Radar works well in all-weather conditions and is relatively immune to smoke,

haze, and clouds.

• What’s more, radar works 24 hours a day because it can transmit its own
energy and does not have to rely on sunshine or ambient radiation.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Radar sensors have several advantages compared to electro-optical (EO) sen-

sors, such as video and IR(infra-red)cameras. Here some advantages are
listed. Radar:

• Can operate at day and night and in all weather. A radar can be much less
affected by the weather than EO sensors.

• Can operate in dusty, dirty, hot, foggy and wet environments

• Can measure radial velocity very accurately.

• Can measure distance (range) directly. Can measure short distances (down
to millimeters for industrial measurement radar ) or long distances (up to
4000 km for skywave OTH [Over-The-Horizon] radar or even longer for space
radar).

• Is less vulnerable to combating in military and security applications, thanks

to the long-range capability.

• Can be installed concealed behind a covering surface and Is less affected by

human clothing choices and is human privacy preserving in security applica-
tions.

2.5.2 Drawbacks
Radar systems also have some drawbacks.

• Radar can be interfered by several objects and mediums in the air.

• Large objects that are close to the Transmitter can saturate the Receiver.

• radio signals can be combined with other radio signals from other frequency.if
not properly directed,the signals can be interrupted by other signals and alter
the information being transmitted.

• Delivers output which looks different than what the human eye is accustomed
to. This can be an impediment to humans.

There are some disadvantages of radar when compared to the human eye.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

• First, radar does not have the resolution that the human eye has. While
radar can detect the presence of an airplane, the human eye can discern, in
great detail, the shape, size, color, and even markings. This can be a serious
limitation if positive identification is required prior to engagement.

• Second, the human eye is not bothered by undesirable reflections, called

clutter, the way radar sometimes is. Although metal is the best reflector of
radio frequency (RF) energy, nearly any material will reflect some RF energy.
Mountains, trees, buildings, rain, birds, and chaff all reflect RF energy.

2.6 Radar applications

Radar has very diverse utility with many applications within civil, scientific, secu-
rity and military areas. Some examples are:
• Surveillance of air, sea and ground traffic.

• Anti-collision warning for aircraft and ships

• Navigation of ships.

• Automobile radar: driving aid and collision prevention and mitigation.

• Speed limit enforcement in road traffic.

• Weather radar.

• Distance (range) measurements, e.g. levels in tanks, altitude of aircraft, and

industrial length measurements .

• Security surveillance within short distances.

• Remote sensing from aircraft or satellite from long distances to collect in-
formation about the earth surface for agriculture, forestry, environmental
protection, humanitarian, scientific, military and other uses. Also remote
sensing of other planets or moons like the Magellan mission to Venus .

• Military uses fighter aircraft radars, missile radar seekers, fire control radars,
etc.

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Chapter 3

Modeling and Simulation of DF

Algorithm

3.1 Introduction
• With the development of radar technology and the complication of target
background, more and more information which is not range but also angle
need be known to target in order to track and orientate accurately.

• radio direction finders (DF) are used for finding the angle of arrival of the
received signal over the whole (360o ) direction. This facility makes these
systems important in military and civilian applications.

• To simplify the amplitude comparison analysis, signal levels which are fed
from receiving antennas are compared with the expected signal levels in a
specific Direction.

• This method makes the system simple in analysis and implementation and
gives a good accuracy and resolution over a wide range of frequencies.The
proposed system operates over a wide band of frequencies and covers the
whole (360o ).

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

3.2 Modeling of DF Algorithm

• Here entire 360o is divided into four regions, each covering 90o .Angle of Ar-
rival estimation in each region require signal levels from two antennas present
in that region.Different regions with Antennas present in it and Range cov-
ered by that region is given below(Figure 3.1).

• Total of Four Antennas are present in the Antenna Assembly, Each antenna
has 180o coverage.Thier Boresight positions relative to aircraft north is spec-
ified below(Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.1: Different regions with Their Ranges

Figure 3.2: Antenna boresights relative aircraft north

• Here Antenna gain pattern is Assumed to be gaussian and All four Antennas
are assumed to be identical.Gain pattern of Antenna Assembly system is
given by:

• Here DF system consists of lookup tables including the Known values of the
gain for each antenna at their associated angles over 360o direction.

• There is an received radar signal simulator which generates the radar signal
received by an Antenna in given direction(AoA) with specified characteristics

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Figure 3.3: Gain pattern of Antenna assembly

derived from received radar signal(like frequency,pulse width(PW),pulse rep-

etition frequency(PRF) etc), Amplitude corresponding to gain of Receiving
Antenna for given AoA and add noise According to Channel characteris-
tics(Signal to Noise ratio) and

signal received at 1st Antenna in region 1 with SNR=-3 db

0.3

0.2
amplitude

0.1

-0.1

-0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time in seconds

signal received at 2nd Antenna in region 1 with SNR=-3 db

4

1
amplitude

-1

-2

-3

-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time in seconds

Figure 3.4: Received Radar Signal in presence of AWG noise

• AWGN channel with different SNR is simulated in matlab using awgn func-
tion.

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

3.3 Working and Simulation of DF algorithm

• For Simulating the DF Algorithm two functions were created

1. one which simulates Radar signals received by different Antennas in

given direction(AoA), with specified signal and add noise to this signal
According to given channel characteristics.

Si = Gi (θi )sin(2πfc t) + ni

Signal received at Antenna i in the direction(AoA)=θi along with AWG

noise(ni ) such that signal to noise Ratio= SNR given.Here Gi (θi ) is the
gain of Antenna i corresponding to angle=θi .
2. another one which takes signals Received by two Antennas in a re-
gion,extract Amplitude information from them and compares the ex-
tracted amplitudes with the ones in the lookup table.Finally it finds
Angle corresponding to which Error in Extracted and actual Ampli-
tudes is small for both the Antennas in that region.

• Finally one Main function was created to call this functions which requires
parameters like frequency(fc ) of radar signal, PW, PRF, SNR, sampling
frequency(fs ).It also scatters Estimated AoA and Actual AoA for each iter-
ation.

3.4 Simulation Results and Analysis

• DF algorithm was coded in Matlab and To check the performance of the
Algorithm in the presence of AWG noise,Radar signals with different SNR
values and with different AoA were generated and were fed to the Algorithm.

• For every SNR value,the Algorithm was iterated 1000 times. In each iter-
ation,The difference between Actual AoA and Estimated AoA (Error) was
calculated.

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• For statistical Analysis of the result obtained Mean absolute error,Mean Er-
ror and Standard Deviation of the Error was calculated for every SNR value.

• similarly For every SNR value (i.e, for Every 1000 iterations) Maximum +ve
& -ve Deviation was computed and plotted against SNR values.

signal received at 1st Antenna in region 1 with SNR=-3 db

0.3

0.2
amplitude

0.1

-0.1

-0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time in seconds

signal received at 2nd Antenna in region 1 with SNR=-3 db

4

1
amplitude

-1

-2

-3

-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time in seconds

Figure 3.5: Received Radar Signal in presence of AWG noise

FFT of signal received at 1st Antenna in region 1 with SNR=-3 db

0.5

0.4

0.3
mag

0.2

0.1

0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
frequency in Mhz

FFT of signal received at 1st Antenna in region 1 with SNR=-3 db

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04
mag

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
frequency in Mhz

Figure 3.6: FFT of Received Radar Signal in presence of AWG noise

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Figure 3.7: Antenna patterns in a Region

• Algorithm was tested for different values of SNR (i.e, -15 db to 15 db in steps
of 3db).Scatter plots of Estimated AoA & Actual AoA and plots of Error for
different SNR values is Shown in the figures Below

Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=-15 db

400
Actual AoA
350 Estimated AoA

300
AoA (in degrees)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=-15 db

30
Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

20

10

-10

-20

-30
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Figure 3.8: Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=-9 db

400
Actual AoA
350 Estimated AoA

300
AoA (in degrees)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=-9 db

15
Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

10

-5

-10

-15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Figure 3.9: Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error

Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=-3 db

400
Actual AoA
350 Estimated AoA

300
AoA (in degrees)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=-3 db

10
Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

-5

-10

-15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Figure 3.10: Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=3 db

400
Actual AoA
350 Estimated AoA

300
AoA (in degrees)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=3 db

6
Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

-2

-4

-6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Figure 3.11: Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error

Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=9 db

400
Actual AoA
350 Estimated AoA

300
AoA (in degrees)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=9 db

6
Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

-2

-4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Figure 3.12: Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=15 db

400
Actual AoA
350 Estimated AoA

300
AoA (in degrees)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=15 db

1.5
Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
iteration number

Figure 3.13: Scatter plot of Estimated & Actual AoA and corresponding Error

• Statistical Analysis of the Result obtained is carrried out.Below are the plots
of various Statistical paramaters(i.e, Mean Absolute Error,Max +ve & -ve
Deviation,Mean Error and Standard Deviation)for different values of SNR.

Maximum positive Deviation vs SNR Plot

30
Maximum positive Deviation (in degrees)

25

20

15

10

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
SNR (in db)

Maximum negative Deviation vs SNR Plot

Maximum negative Deviation (in degrees)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
SNR (in db)

Figure 3.14: Maximum positive and negative Deviation in Estimated AoA vs SNR

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Mean Absolute Error vs SNR Plot

5

4.5

4
Mean Absolute Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
SNR (in db)

Figure 3.15: Mean Absolute Error vs SNR

Mean Error vs SNR Plot

Mean Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)

0.1

0.05

-0.05

-0.1
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
SNR (in db)

Standard Deviation of Error vs SNR Plot

7
Standard Deviation of Error(in degrees)

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
SNR (in db)

Figure 3.16: Mean Error and Standard Deviation vs SNR

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

3.5 Conclusion
• The purpose of this project is to better understand the process of AOA
calculation and to estimate the Error in AoA estimation due to external
AWG noise.

• The amplitude comparison system consists of a circular array of four equally

spaced antennas with reference direction taken as due north.

• The antenna that receives the maximum pulse amplitude is determined; then
the pulse amplitude received from the antenna, which is adjacent to this
antenna, is determined. These two pulse amplitudes are taken into consid-
eration and used in the DF algorithm.

• AWG noise has been introduced to the system to simulate external noises
and performance of the Algorithm was recorded. from the observed plot
we can see that Mean Absolute error and standard Deviation of the Error
decreases as we increase SNR.

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Chapter 4

Appendix

4.1 Matlab Codes

Matlab Codes 4.1: Main program

%------------- program to Test AoA Estimation function --------------------

clear all;
clc;
close all;
%--------------------------- Inputs --------------------------------------
global Niter i k snr res T;
Niter=1000; % number of iterations
res=0.1; % resolution of antennas (in degrees)
AoAa=randi([0,359],1,Niter)+randi([0 9/(10*res)],1,Niter)*res;
% known Angle of Arrival of received signal
% received signal characteristics in presence of awgn noise
fc=100; % carier frequency of radar signal (Mhz)
fs=1350; % sampling rate at which signal is sampled(Msps)
T=1; % time for which signal is received
snr=-15:3:15; % signal to noise ratio
ME=zeros(1,length(snr)); % Mean error of estimated AoA
MAE=zeros(1,length(snr)); % Mean Absolute error of estimated AoA

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 Direction Finding Algorithm for Electronic Warfare

MaxE=zeros(1,length(snr)); % Maximum Absolute error of estimated AoA

MinE=zeros(1,length(snr)); % Minimum Absolute error of estimated AoA
Stdv=zeros(1,length(snr)); % Standard Deviation of the error
for k=1:length(snr)
AoAe=zeros(1,Niter);
Error=zeros(1,Niter);
for i=1:Niter
%------- detecting region in which radar signal is received ----------
regm=[((AoAa(i)≥315 && AoAa(i)<360) | | ( AoAa(i)≥0 && AoAa(i)<45))...
,(AoAa(i)≥45 && AoAa(i)<135),(AoAa(i)≥135 && AoAa(i)<225)...
,(AoAa(i)≥225 && AoAa(i)<315)];
reg=find(regm==1);

%-------- function to generate signals received by two antennas-----

%--- with given signal and channel characteristics and known AoA ---
[SRl,SRr]=radar doAgen(fc,fs,AoAa(i),snr(k),reg);

%-------- function to calculate AoA given received signal ----------

%--------- by the Antennas in the presence of Awgn noise ----------
AoAe(i) =radar doA(reg,SRl,SRr); % Estimated AoA

%------------- calculation of Error in Estimated AoA ---------------

Error(i)=(AoAe(i)-AoAa(i));
% Error in Estimated AoA with respect to Actual AoA

if (AoAa(i)≥0 && AoAa(i)<45 && AoAe(i)<360 && AoAe(i)≥315)

Error(i)=Error(i)-360;
elseif (AoAa(i)<360 && AoAa(i)≥315 && AoAe(i)≥0 && AoAe(i)<45)
Error(i)=mod(Error(i)+360,360);
end
end

%------------------ Intermediate Results and Plots -----------------------

figure('Name',...
sprintf('Analysis of AoA Estimation function for SNR=%d db',snr(k)));

subplot(211);

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scatter((1:Niter),AoAa,40,'filled','MarkerFaceColor','b');hold on;
scatter((1:Niter),AoAe,34,'*','red');
title(sprintf('Plot of Actual and Estimated AoA for SNR=%d db',snr(k)));
ylabel('AoA (in degrees)');xlabel('iteration number');
legend('Actual AoA','Estimated AoA');

subplot(212);
plot(Error,'m');
title(sprintf('Plot of Error in Estimated AoA for SNR=%d db',snr(k)));
ylabel('Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)');xlabel('iteration number');

%-------------- Statistical Analysis of the Result ----------------------

ME(k)=sum(Error)/Niter;
MAE(k)=sum(abs(Error))/Niter;
MaxE(k)=max(Error);
MinE(k)=min(Error);
Stdv(k)=std(Error,1);
end

%---------------------- Results and Plots --------------------------------

figure('Name','Analysis of AoA Estimation function');

plot(snr,MAE,'LineWidth',2);
hold on; stem(snr,MAE,'filled','--','MarkerFacecolor','red',...
'MarkerEdgecolor','green');
title('Mean Absolute Error vs SNR Plot');
xlabel('SNR (in db)');xlim([snr(1)-1 snr(end)+1]);
ylabel('Mean Absolute Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)');

figure('Name','Analysis of AoA Estimation function');

subplot(211);
plot(snr,MaxE,'LineWidth',2);hold on;
stem(snr,MaxE,'filled','--','MarkerFacecolor','red',...
'MarkerEdgecolor','green');
title('Maximum positive Deviation vs SNR Plot');
xlabel('SNR (in db)');xlim([snr(1)-1 snr(end)+1]);
ylabel('Maximum positive Deviation (in degrees)');

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subplot(212);
plot(snr,MinE,'LineWidth',2);hold on;
stem(snr,MinE,'filled','--','MarkerFacecolor','red',...
'MarkerEdgecolor','green');
title('Maximum negative Deviation vs SNR Plot');
xlabel('SNR (in db)');xlim([snr(1)-1 snr(end)+1]);
ylabel('Maximum negative Deviation (in degrees)');

figure('Name','Analysis of AoA Estimation function');

subplot(211)
plot(snr,ME,'LineWidth',2);hold on;
stem(snr,ME,'filled','--','MarkerFacecolor','red',...
'MarkerEdgecolor','green');
title('Mean Error vs SNR Plot');
xlabel('SNR (in db)');xlim([snr(1)-1 snr(end)+1]);
ylabel('Mean Error in Estimated AoA (in degrees)');
subplot(212)
plot(snr,Stdv,'LineWidth',2);hold on;
stem(snr,Stdv,'filled','--','MarkerFacecolor','red',...
'MarkerEdgecolor','green');
title('Standard Deviation of Error vs SNR Plot');
xlabel('SNR (in db)');xlim([snr(1)-1 snr(end)+1]);
ylabel('Standard Deviation of Error(in degrees)');

Matlab Codes 4.2: Received signal Generation function

%------ detection(generation) of received signal in presence of AWGN ------

function [SRl,SRr]=radar doAgen(fc,fs,aoaA,SNR,reg)

global Niter XSRl XSRr i k snr res T;

N=180/res; % number of samples in gaussian window

%(each antenna has resolution of 0.1 degree)
w1=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 1 placed at 45 degree

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%----> Range(315 to 135 degree)

w2=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 2 placed at 135 degree
%----> Range(45 to 225 degree)
w3=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 3 placed at 225 degree
%----> Range(135 to 315 degree)
w4=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 4 placed at 315 degree
%----> Range(225 to 45 degree)

% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 1

%( using signal received by antennas A4 and A1)
i41=[315:res:360-res,0:res:45-res]';
w41=[i41,w4((N/2)+1:N),w1(1:N/2)];
% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 2
%( using signal received by antennas A1 and A2)
i12=(45:res:135-res)'; % index vector for Region 2
w12=[i12,w1((N/2)+1:N),w2(1:N/2)];
% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 3
%( using signal received by antennas A2 and A3)
i23=(135:res:225-res)';
w23=[i23,w2((N/2)+1:N),w3(1:N/2)];
% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 4
%( using signal received by antennas A3 and A4)
i34=(225:res:315-res)';
w34=[i34,w3((N/2)+1:N),w4(1:N/2)];
w={w41,w12,w23,w34};
ind=find(abs(aoaA-w{reg}(:,1))<0.000000001);
ALa=w{reg}(ind,2);
ARa=w{reg}(ind,3);
t=0:1/fs:T-1/fs;
%signal generated(received) for T seconds
SRl=awgn(ALa*cos(2*pi*fc*t),SNR,'measured');
% signal received at 1st Antenna
SRr=awgn(ARa*cos(2*pi*fc*t),SNR,'measured');
% signal received at 2nd Antenna
%Adding wgn with specified noise power and load impedance
%SRl=ALa*cos(2*pi*fc*t)+wgn(1,length(t),noise power,50);
%SRr=ARa*cos(2*pi*fc*t)+wgn(1,length(t),noise power,50);
if(k==length(snr) && i==Niter)
%------- plotting of signals received at 1st and 2nd Antennas ---------

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figure('Name','Received Signals','NumberTitle','off');

subplot(211);
plot(t,SRl);xlabel('time in seconds');ylabel('amplitude');
title(sprintf(...
'signal received at 1st Antenna in region %d with SNR=%d db',reg,SNR));

subplot(212);
plot(t,SRr,'r');xlabel('time in seconds');ylabel('amplitude');
title(sprintf(...
'signal received at 2nd Antenna in region %d with SNR=%d db',reg,SNR));

%----- plotting FFTs of signals received at 1st and 2nd Antennas ------

tf=-(1-1/length(XSRl))/2:1/length(XSRl):(1-1/length(XSRl))/2;
figure('Name','FFT of Received Signals','NumberTitle','off');

subplot(211);
plot(tf*fs,XSRl);xlabel('frequency in Mhz');ylabel('mag');
title(sprintf(...
'FFT of signal received at 1st Antenna in region %d with SNR=%d db',...
reg,SNR));

subplot(212);
plot(tf*fs,XSRr,'r');xlabel('frequency in Mhz');ylabel('mag');
title(sprintf(...
'FFT of signal received at 1st Antenna in region %d with SNR=%d db',...
reg,SNR));
end
end

Matlab Codes 4.3: AoA Estimation function

%-- Function for detection of Direction of Arrival (DOA)of Radar signal ---
% Here entire 360 degrees is divided into 4 Regions (each of 90 degrees)
% all regions share two Antennas
% Region 1 ---> Antennas 4 and 1 (315-0-45 degree)

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% Region 2 ---> Antennas 1 and 2 (45-90-135 degree)

% Region 3 ---> Antennas 2 and 3 (135-180-225 degree)
% Region 4 ---> Antennas 3 and 4 (225-270-315 degree)

function [DoA] =radar doA(reg,SRl,SRr)

global Niter XSRl XSRr i k snr res ;

N=180/res; % number of samples in gaussian window

%(each antenna has resolution of 0.1 degree)
w1=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 1 placed at 45 degree
%----> Range(315 to 135 degree)
w2=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 2 placed at 135 degree
% ----> Range(45 to 225 degree)
w3=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 3 placed at 225 degree
%----> Range(135 to 315 degree)
w4=gausswin(N); % plot of antenna 4 placed at 315 degree
%----> Range(225 to 45 degree)

% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 1

%( using signal received by antennas A4 and A1)
i41=[315:res:360-res,0:res:45-res]';
w41=[i41,w4((N/2)+1:N),w1(1:N/2)];
% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 2
%( using signal received by antennas A1 and A2)
i12=(45:res:135-res)'; % index vector for Region 2
w12=[i12,w1((N/2)+1:N),w2(1:N/2)];
% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 3
%( using signal received by antennas A2 and A3)
i23=(135:res:225-res)';
w23=[i23,w2((N/2)+1:N),w3(1:N/2)];
% for detection of doA(in degrees) in Region 4
%( using signal received by antennas A3 and A4)
i34=(225:res:315-res)';
w34=[i34,w3((N/2)+1:N),w4(1:N/2)];
w={w41,w12,w23,w34};

%---------- Extraction of Amplitude info from received signals ------------

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XSRl=abs(fftshift(fft(SRl,length(SRl))))/length(SRl);
% Two sided spectrum(FFT) of signal received by 1st Antenna
XSRr=abs(fftshift(fft(SRr,length(SRr))))/length(SRr);
% Two sided spectrum(FFT) of signal received by 1st Antenna
ALn=2*max(XSRl);
% amplitude of received signal in presence of awgn noise at 1st antenna
ARn=2*max(XSRr);
% amplitude of received signal in presence of awgn noise at 2nd antenna

%----------------------- Error calculation --------------------------------

Er=zeros(1,N/2);
for j=1:N/2
Er(j)=sqrt((ALn-w{reg}(j,2))ˆ2 + (ARn-w{reg}(j,3))ˆ2);
% caculating eucleidean distance
end
[¬,j]=min(Er); % selecting the index with least eucleidean distance
DoA=w{reg}(j,1);% direction of Arrival of radar signal (in degrees)
if reg6=1
ind=w{reg}(:,1);
AoA=DoA;
else
ind=[i41(1:N/4)-360;i41(N/4+1:N/2)];
AoA=DoA-(DoA<360 && DoA>180)*360;
end

%------------ Plotting Antenna patterns in different Regions -------------

if(k==length(snr) && i==Niter)
figure('Name','Antenna patterns','NumberTitle','off');

subplot(211);

wl=w{reg}(:,2);
wr=w{reg}(:,3);
plot(ind,wl,'r');hold on;plot(ind,wr);hold on;
scatter(AoA,w{reg}(j,2),'filled','blue');
scatter(AoA,w{reg}(j,3),'filled','red');
scatter(AoA,ALn,32,'*','red');
scatter(AoA,ARn,32,'*','blue');

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xlabel('Direction of Arrival with respect to NORTH(0 degree) in degrees');

xlim([ind(1) ind(end)]);
ylabel('Normalized power received');
title(sprintf('Antenna Pattern in Region %d',reg)); ylim([0 1.2]);
lgd=legend('Pattern of 1st Antenna','Pattern of 2nd Antenna',...
'received point 1','received point 2','Actual point 1','Actual point 2');
lgd.NumColumns=3;

subplot(212);

p=zeros(1,6);
p(1)=plot((-45:res:135-res),w1(1:N),'b',...
'LineWidth',2,'DisplayName','Pattern of Antenna 1'); hold on;
p(2)=plot((-180:res:-135),w2((N-N/4):N),'g',...
'LineWidth',2,'DisplayName','Pattern of Antenna 2');hold on;
p(3)=plot((-180:res:-45),w3(N/4:N),'k',...
'LineWidth',2,'DisplayName','Pattern of Antenna 3');hold on;
p(4)=plot((-135:res:45-res),w4(1:N),'r',...
'LineWidth',2,'DisplayName','Pattern of Antenna 4'); hold on;
p(5)=plot((45:res:180-res),w2(1:N-N/4),'g',...
'LineWidth',2);hold on;
p(6)=plot((135:res:180-res),w3(1:N/4),'k','LineWidth',2);
xlabel('Direction of Arrival with respect to NORTH(0 degree) in degrees');
xlim([-180 180]);ylabel('Normalized power received');
title('Antenna Patterns across all regions');ylim([0 1.2]);
legend(p(1:4));
end
end

Defence Avionics Research Establishment,DRDO. 44

Department of Electronics and Communication,PESIT BSC.
References

[1] Introduction to Radar Systems. Tata McGraw Hill, 2001.

[2] D. Adamy. EW 101: A First Course in Electronic Warfare. Artech House

radar library. Artech House, 2001.

[3] Merrill Ivan Skolnik. Radar Handbook. Electronic engineering series. McGraw-
Hill, 1990.

Defence Avionics Research Establishment,DRDO. 45

Department of Electronics and Communication,PESIT BSC.