MA 553: Homework 1

∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Composition series
1.1 First part of Jordan Holder Theorem
Theorem 1.1 (Jordan Holder Theorem: Part One). Every finite group has a composition
series.
Proof. Let G1 be a maximal normal subgroup of G; then G/G1 is simple. Let G2 be a
maximal normal subgroup of Gl , and so on. Since G is finite, this process must end with
Gn = 1. Thus G > G1 > · · · > Gn = 1 is a composition series.

1.2 Composition series

Proposition 1.1. If G is a finite group and H ⊳ G. Then there is a composition series of
G, one of whose term is H.
Proof. On one hand, since H is also a finite group, then by Theorem 1.1, H has a composition
series H > H1 > · · · > Hn = 1.
On the other hand, consider the quotient group G/H. If G/H is not simple, then it
has a nontrivial normal subgroup, which gives a group K1 between G and H extending the
normal series H ⊳ K1 ⊳ G. Similarly we can consider G/K1 . It indicates that we can find
a normal series H = K0 ⊳ K1 ⊳ · · · ⊳ Km = G such that for each j ∈ [0, m], the quotient
group Hj+1/Hj is simple.
Now we find a composition series as
1 = Hn < · · · < H1 < H < K1 · · · < Km−1 < G.

∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2 Normal subgroup
Proposition 2.1. Let A, B, C be subgroups of a group G with A ⊳ B and C ⊳ G. Then

CA ⊳ CB.

Proof. ∀ c1 a ∈ CA, c2 b ∈ CB, where c1 , c2 ∈ C and a ∈ A, b ∈ B, then

(c2 b)(c1 a)(c2 b)−1 = c2 bc1 ab−1 c−1 2

= c2 (bc1 b )(bab−1 )c−1
−1
2
= c2 c˜1 ãc−1
2 , where c˜1 = bc1 b−1 ∈ C, ã = bab−1 ∈ A,
= c2 c˜1 (ãc−1 −1
2 ã )ã
= c2 c˜1 c˜2 ã, where c˜2 = ãc−1
2 ã
−1
∈ C,
= c̃ã ∈ CA, where c̃ = c2 c˜1 c˜2 ∈ C.

It implies that CA ⊳ CB.

3 Application of Isomorphism Theorem

Proposition 3.1. Let G be a finite group with G 6= 1. Suppose G has two composition
series

1 = N0 < N1 < · · · < Nr = G,

1 = M0 < M1 < · · · < Ms = G.

(I) Show for i, j > 0 that Ni−1 (Mj−1 ∩ Ni ) ⊳ Ni−1 (Mj ∩ Ni ).

(II) Use the Second Isomorphism Theorem to establish isomorphisms

Ni−1 (Mj ∩ Ni ) ∼ Mj ∩ Ni ∼ (Mj ∩ Ni )Mj−1

= = . (3.1)
Ni−1 (Mj−1 ∩ Ni ) (Mj−1 ∩ Ni )(Mj ∩ Ni−1 ) (Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1

Proof. (I) For each i, j, we know that Mj < G and Ni < G. Thus it is obvious that

Mj−1 ∩ Ni < Ni , Mj ∩ Ni < Ni .

Besides, since Mj−1 ⊳ Mj , then

Mj−1 ∩ Ni ⊳ Mj ∩ Ni .

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Furthermore, we also know that Ni−1 ⊳ Ni . By the Proposition 2.1, we can conclude
that
Ni−1 (Mj−1 ∩ Ni ) ⊳ Ni−1 (Mj ∩ Ni ).
(II)
Define the map
(Mj ∩ Ni )Mj−1
φ : Mj ∩ Ni → ,
(Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1
by
φ(y) = y(Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1 .
It is easily seen to be a group homomorphism since Mj−1 ⊳Mj and Nj−1 ⊳Nj . Moreover,
(Mj ∩Ni )Mj−1
since Mj ∩ Ni−1 6 Mj ∩ Ni , it is easy to see that the image of φ is (Mj ∩N i−1 )Mj−1
.
Now we need to prove that ker φ = (Mj−1 ∩ Ni )(Mj ∩ Ni−1 ).
On the one hand, if y ∈ Mj ∩ Ni−1 , then φy is the identity coset (Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1 ;
similarly, if y ∈ Mj−1 ∩ Ni , then φy = y(Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1 ⊆ Mj−1 (Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1 ⊆
(Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1 since Mj−1 ⊳ Mj . Therefore, (Mj−1 ∩ Ni )(Mj ∩ Ni−1 ) ⊆ ker φ.
On the other hand, if y ∈ ker φ then y ∈ (Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1 , so we can write y = ax
with a ∈ Mj ∩ Ni−1 and x ∈ Mj−1 . Now y ∈ Ni , x ∈ Ni , so x ∈ Ni and therefore
y ∈ (Mj−1 ∩ Ni )(Mj ∩ Ni−1 ), which indicates that ker φ ⊆ (Mj−1 ∩ Ni )(Mj ∩ Ni−1 ).
Then by the first isomorphism theorem, we can know that
Mj ∩ Ni ∼ (Mj ∩ Ni )Mj−1
= .
(Mj−1 ∩ Ni )(Mj ∩ Ni−1 ) (Mj ∩ Ni−1 )Mj−1
In the same way we can prove another part of Eq.(3.1).

4 Second part of Jordan-Holder Theorem

Theorem 4.1 (Jordan Holder Theorem: Part Two). Let G be a finite group with G 6= 1.
Then the composition factors in a composition series are unique, namely, if

1 = N0 < N1 < · · · < Nr = G,

1 = M0 < M1 < · · · < Ms = G.

are two composition series for G, then r = s and there is some permutation π of {1, 2, · · · , r}
such that
Mπ(i) /Mπi−1 ∼
= Ni /Ni−1 . (4.1)

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Proof. We refine the first series by inserting between each of the r pairs Ni−1 < Ni the
following:

Ni−1 = Ni−1 (Ni ∩ M0 ) ⊳ Ni−1 (Ni ∩ M1 ) ⊳ · · · ⊳ Ni−1 (Ni ∩ Ms ) ⊳ Ni .

Note that the subquotient Ni /Ni−1 is replaced by the s subquotients

Ni−1 (Ni ∩ Mj )
. (4.2)
Ni−1 (Ni ∩ Mj−1 )

Similarly, the second series can be refined to replace each of the s subquotient Mj /Mj−1
by the n subquotients
(Ni ∩ Mj )Mj−1
. (4.3)
(Ni−1 ∩ Mj )Mj−1
By Eq.(3.1), we know that (4.2) is isomorphic to (4.3). So if we delete any repetition
in the refinements, we know that the sequences of subquotient are isomorphic after some
permutation.

5 Unique factorization
Theorem 5.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). Let n > 1 be a positive integer. Then
there exist unique primes p1 > p2 < · · · < pk and unique positive integers r1 , r2 · · · , rk such
that n = p1r1 · · · prkk .

Proof. Let G = Z/nZ, then G is a cyclic group of order n. Let d be the largest proper
divisor of n and let G1 be the normal subgroup of G of size d. Then G/G1 is simple and
cyclic, hence of prime order. Repeating this construction, we obtain a composition series of
G,
G = G0 ⊲ G1 ⊲ · · · ⊲ Gm = 1,
where for each i, Gi /Gi+1 is of prime order pi . Thus

n = |G| = |G/G1 ||G1 /G2 | · · · |Gm−1 /Gm ||Gm | = p1 p2 · · · pm−1 (1).

By Jordan-Holder theorem (Thm 4.1), we can get the uniqueness of the prime decom-
position of n.

4
 MA 553: Homework 2
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 About S4 and D8
Question: Exhibit explicitly a Sylow 2-subgroup of the symmetric group S4 , and show that
it is (up to isomorphism) the dihedral group D8 .
Solution: Let H be a Sylow 2-subgroup of the symmetric group S4 , then we can choose
H as follows

H = {(1), (1234), (13)(24), (1432), (24), (13), (12)(34), (14)(23)}.

Let D8 be the dihedral group of order 8, then

D8 = {e, r, r 2, r 3 , s, sr, sr 2, sr 3 }.

Define the isomorphism π : D8 → H by

π(e) = (1), π(r) = (1234), π(r 2) = (13)(24), π(r 3) = (1432),

π(s) = (24), π(sr) = (14)(23), π(sr 2) = (13), π(sr 3) = (12)(43).

Then it is obvious that D8 ∼

= H.

2 Non-abelian group of order 8

Let G be a non-abelian group of order 8.
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2.1 (a)
Question: Show that the center of G has order 2. Denote its generator by c.
Solution: Let C be the center of G, then C ⊳ G and C is abelian. Since |G| = 23 , by
Theorem 8 (on DF, p.125), C is nontrivial. Besides, G is non-abelian. Then we know that
the only possibility for |C| is
|C| = 2, 22 .
If |C| = 22 , then G/C = 2. Hence G/C is cyclic. Let G/C =< aC >, then ∀x, y ∈ G,
∃m, n ∈ N such that x = am c1 , y = an c2 . Then

xy = am c1 an c2 = am+n c1 c2 = an c2 am c1 = yx.

It implies that G is abelian, which is a contradiction.

So |C| = 2. Denote C = {1, c}.

2.2 (b)
Question: If G contains an element z 6= c of order 2, then G is isomorphic to a subgroup of
S4 . Thus by Section 2.1, we know that G = D8 .
Solution: Let H = {1, z}, S = {all of the left cosets of H}. Then |H| = 2, |S| = 4.
Consider the action of G on S:

G × S → S,
g × xH → gxH ∈ S.

Then we find a group homomorphism σ : G → Permutation on S defined by

[σ(g)](xH) = gxH.

It indicates that G is a subgroup of S4 . Since |G| = 8, we know that G ∼

= D8 .

2.3 (c)
Question: If c is the only order 2 element in G, then G is generated by two elements j and
k of order 4 such that j 2 = k 2 and jk = kj −1 . Hence G is isomorphic to the quaternion
group, i.e. the multiplicative group of complex matrices generated by
   
0 1 0 i
& ,
−1 0 −i 0

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

where i2 = −1.
Solution: For ∀g ∈ G, g 6= c, the possible order for g is 2, 4, 8. But in this case c is the
only order 2 element, and G is non-abelian, so we can conclude that the possible order for
g is 4.
Let j be one element of order 4, then j 2 is order 2, so j 2 = c. It is obvious that j is not
the only element of order 4 since |G| = 8. Let k 6= j be another element of order 4, then
k 2 = c.
Let H =< j >= {j, j 2 = c, j 3 = j −1 , j 4 = 1}. It is obvious that k 6= H. So we have
kH = {kj, kj 2 , kj 3 , k}. Then

(kj)−1 = kj 3 = kj −1 ⇒ kjkj −1 = 1 ⇒ kj = jk −1 .

Now we can conclude that G = {k, j|k 4 = j 4 = 1, kj = jk −1 }.

Let    
0 1 0 i
k= & j= ,
−1 0 −i 0
then Q8 ∼
= G.

2.4 (d)
Question: Is the (order 8) group of matrices of the form
 
1 a b
0 1 c  , (a, b, c ∈ Z/2Z)
0 0 1
“diheedral ”(i.e. as in (b)) or “quaternionic ”(i.e. as in (c))?
Solution: Let    
1 1 0 1 0 0
A= 0 1 1 , B= 0
   1 1 ,
0 0 1 0 0 1
and  
1 0 0
I = 0 1 0 ,
0 0 1
then it is easy to check that

A4 = B 2 = I, AB = BA−1 .

It implies that here G ∼

= D8 .

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3 Non-abelian group of order p3

Let G be a non-abelian group of order p3 (p an odd prime) and let C be its center.

3.1 (a)
Question: Show that the center of G/C is isomorphic to Zp × Zp where Zp is a group of
order p.
Solution: Similarly as Section 2.1, we know that the only possibility for |C| is
|C| = p, p2 .
If |C| = p2 , then G/C = p. Hence G/C is cyclic. Let G/C =< aC >, then ∀x, y ∈ G,
∃m, n ∈ N such that x = am c1 , y = an c2 . Then
xy = am c1 an c2 = am+n c1 c2 = an c2 am c1 = yx.
It implies that G is abelian, which is a contradiction.
So |C| = p and |G/C| = p2 . By Corollary 9 (on DF. p. 125), G/C is isomorphic to
either Zp2 or Zp × Zp . However, if G/C ∼ = Zp2 , then G/C is cyclic. Similarly as above, it
is easy to know that G is abelian, which is impossible. In conclusion, G/C is isomorphic to
Zp × Zp .

3.2 (b)
Question: Prove that the map f : G → G defined by f (x) = xp is a group homomorphism.
Proof: First, we claim that ∀x, y ∈ G, there is a z ∈ C such that yx = xyz. Since
yx = xy(xy)−1yx = xy[y −1x−1 yx],
we just need to show that z = y −1x−1 yx ∈ C.
Let π : G/C → Zp × Zp . Suppose
π(xC) = (m1 , n1 ),
π(yC) = (m2 , n2 ),
then
π(y −1x−1 yxC)
= π(y −1Cx−1 CyCxC)
= π(y −1C) + π(x−1 C) + π(yC) + π(xC)
= (−m2 , −n2 ) + (−m1 , −n1 ) + (m2 , n2 ) + (m1 , n1 )
= 0,

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

which indicates that y −1x−1 yx ∈ C.

Second, claim that the map f : G → G defined by f (x) = xp is a group homomorphism.
∀x, y ∈ G, there exists a z ∈ C, such that yx = xyz. Then we have

f (xy) = (xy)p
= (xy)(xy) · · · (xy),
= x(yx)(yx) · · · (yx)y,
= x(xyz)(xyz) · · · (xyz)y,
= x2 (yx) · · · (yx)y 2z p−1
= ···
= xp y p z p(p−1)/2
= xp y p
= f (x)f (y).

3.3 (c)
Question: Prove that f (G) ⊂ C, and deduce that G has at least p2 − 1 elements of order p.
Proof: First, we claim that ∀x ∈ G, xp ∈ C.
Since
yxp = xp yy −1x−p yxp = xp y[y −1x−p yxp ],
we just need to show that y −1x−p yxp = 1.
We know that ∀x, y ∈ G, there exists a z ∈ C, such that yx = xyz. So

y −1x−p yxp = y −1 x−p (yx)xp−1 ,

= y −1 x−p (xyz)xp−1 ,
= y −1 x−p+1 yxp−1z,
= y −1 x−p+2 yxp−2z 2 ,
= ··· ,
= y −1 x−p+p yxp−p z p ,
= y −1 yz p ,
= z p = 1.

Second, claim that G has at least p2 − 1 elements of order p.

Since f : G → G is a group homomorphism, we know that

G/ ker f ∼
= f (G).

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Further, f (G) ⊂ C and |C| = p, so we know that |f (G)| ≤ p. It follows that | ker f | ≥ p2 .
Besides, ∀x ∈ ker f, x 6= 1, we know that the order of x is p. So G has at least p2 −1 elements
of order p.

3.4 (c)
Question: Prove that G has subgroups H and K of orders p2 and p respectively, with
H ∩ K = e.
Proof: Choose K = C and let H ′ = G/C. It is easy to know that H ′ ∼
= H, where H is
a subgroup of G and H ∩ C = e.

4 Subgroup of index 2
4.1 (a)
Lemma 4.1. Let G be a finite group and let π : G → SG be the left regular representation.
Prove that if x is an element of G of order n and |G| = mn, then π(x) is a product of m
n-cycles. Deduce that π is an odd permutation if and only if |x| is even and |G|
|x|
is odd.
Proof. If x is an element of order n, then

[π(x)](1) = x, [π(x)](x) = x2 , · · · , [π(x)](xn−1 ) = xn = 1.

In other words, π(x) should include this n-cycle.

(1, x, x2 , · · · , xn−1 ).

Similarly, for g ∈ G, g ∈<

/ x >, we know that

[π(x)](g) = xg, [π(x)](xg) = x2 g, · · · , [π(x)](xn−1 g) = xn g = g,

which implies that π(x) should include this n-cycle

(g, xg, x2 g, · · · , xn−1 g).

Since |G| = mn, we can conclude that π(x) is a product of m n-cycles.

The Proposition 25 on Page 110, DF, says that “The permutation σ is odd if and only if
the number of cycles of even length in its cycle decomposition is odd. ”By this proposition
and the conclusion above, we can directly know that π is an odd permutation if and only if
|x| is even and |G|
|x|
is odd.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

4.2 (b)
Lemma 4.2. Let G and π be the same as in the preceding Lemma. Prove that if π(G)
contains an odd permutation then G has a subgroup of index 2.

Proof. First, claim that for any subgroup of Sn , either all of its elements are even permuta-
tions or the number of even permutations is the same as the number of odd permutations.
If σ is an even permutation, then all of {σ, σ 2 , · · · , } are even permutations. It implies
that it is possible that a subgroup of Sn only contains even permutations.
However, if σ is an odd permutation, then σ 2 is even, and further, σ 3 is odd. It means
that if a subgroup of Sn contains some odd permutations, then it has to contain the same
number of even permutations.
Second, since π : G → SG , we know that π(G) is a subgroup of Sn where n = |G|.
So if π(G) contains an odd permutation, then it has the same number of odd and even
permutation. Since A′ = An ∩ π(G) is a subgroup of π(G) of index 2, we can take π −1 (A′ )
as the subgroup of G of index 2.

4.3 (c)
Lemma 4.3. Prove that if |G| = 2k where k is odd then G has a subgroup of index 2.

Proof. Recall the Cauchy’s Theorem:

Theorem 4.1 (Cauchy). Let G be a finite group and p be a prime. If p divides |G|, then
G has an element of order p.
Here, 2 is a prime and 2 divides |G| = 2k, so G has an element of order 2, called x. By
Lemma 4.1, we know that π(x) is an odd permutation. And by Lemma 4.2, G has subgroup
of index 2.

7
 MA 553: Homework 3
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Note: in this paper, let p > 0 be a prime number.

1 Sylow p-subgroups
Question: For any finite group H, PH denotes the set of all Sylow p-subgroups of H. Let
N be a normal subgroup of the finite group G. Prove that

PH = {P ∩ N|P ∈ PG }, (1.1)
PG/N = {P N/N|P ∈ PG }. (1.2)

Proof. First, let us prove Eq.(1.1).

Choose P ∈ PG , and P1 = P ∩ N. It is obvious that P1 is a p-subgroup of N. Now,
consider the index of P1 in N.

[N : P1 ] = [N : (P ∩ N)] = [P N : P ], (1.3)
[G : P ] = [G : P N][P N : P ]. (1.4)

Since P ∈ PG , we know that [G : P ] has no factor p. By (1.4), [P N : P ] has not factor

p; and by (1.3), [N : P1 ] has not factor p. It follows that P1 is the Sylow p-subgroups of N.
Second, let us prove Eq.(1.2).
Suppose |N| = pm t, |G| = pn ts, (p, st) = 1, then |G/N| = pn−m s. Choose P ∈ PG , then
|P | = pn , |P ∩ N| = pr , r ≤ m.
On one hand, by isomorphism theorem,

P N/N ∼
= P/(P ∩ N),
⇒ |P N/N| = |P/(P ∩ N)| = pn−r , where n − r ≥ m − n. (1.5)
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

On the other hand, it is easy to know that

|G/N| = pn−m t, (1.6)
|P N/N| | |G/N|. (1.7)
By Eq.(1.5)-(1.7), we know that
|P N/N| = pn−m .
It implies that P N/N ∈ PG/N .

2 Normal p subgroup of G
Question: Let G be a finite group and H a normal p subgroup of G. Prove the following
assertions

2.1 (a)
H is contained in each Sylow p-subgroup of G.
Proof. Let P be any Sylow p-subgroup of G. By Sylow theorem, ∃g ∈ G such that
H ⊂ gP g −1,
⇒ g −1Hg ⊂ P.
Since H ⊳ G, we know that
g −1Hg = H ⊂ P.

2.2 (b)
If K is any normal p subgroup of G, then HK is a normal p subgroup of G.
Proof. Suppose |G| = pn t, (p, t) = 1 and |H| = pr , |K| = ps , |HK| = px , where r, s, x < n.
By Sylow theorem, HK < G.
Furthermore, ∀g ∈ G,
g −1 HKg = g −1 Hgg −1Kg = HK,
⇒ HK ⊳ G.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2.3 (c)
The subgroup Op (G) generated by all normal p subgroup of G is equal to the intersection
of all the Sylow p-subgroup of G.
Proof. Let
Op (G) =< ∪Hi >, Hi be the normal p subgroup of G,
S = ∩Pj , Pj be the Sylow p subgroup of G.
On one hand, by Section 2.1, we know that Hi ∈ ∩Pj , for each i. So
Op (G) ⊂ S.
On the other hand, ∀g ∈ S, < g > ⊳G, which means ∃Hi such that g ∈ Hi . Then
S ⊂ Op (G).
Now we can conclude that S = Op (G).

2.4 (d)
Op (G) is the unique largest normal p-subgroup of G.
Proof. Section 2.3 tells us that every normal p-subgroup of G is contained in Op (G), which
means Op (G) is the largest normal p-subgroup of G.
Besides, if H̃ is another “largest ”normal p-subgroup of G, then |H̃| ≥ |Op (G)|. But
H̃ ⊂ Op (G), so H̃ = Op (G). It means that Op (G) is the unique largest normal p-subgroup
of G.

2.5 (e)
Op (Ḡ) = {1}, where Ḡ = G/Op (G).
Proof. Suppose Op (Ḡ) = J 6= {1}, then there exists a J ′ such that J ′ ⊳G and J = J ′ /Op (G).
Besides,
|J| = pk1 ,
|J ′ | = |Op (G)||J| = pk2 .

It follows that J ′ is also a normal p-subgroup of G and |J ′ | > |Op (G)|, which contradicts
with Section 2.4.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3 Groups of order 20
3.1 (a)
Show that the center of the group of transformations
x 7→ ax + b, (a, b ∈ Z5 , a 6= 0) (3.1)
is trivial.
Proof. Denote G as all of the transformations in the form (3.1). Let C(G) be the center of
G. Then ∀g ∈ G, g(x) = ax + b; ∀c ∈ C(G), c(x) = ac x + bc . We have
gc = cg,
⇒ gc(x) = cg(x), ∀x,
⇒ g(ac x + bc ) = c(ax + b), ∀x,
⇒ aac x + abc + b = aac x + ac b + bc , ∀x,
⇒ abc + b = ac b + bc ,
⇒ (a − 1)bc = b(ac − 1), ∀a, b ∈ Z5 , a 6= 0,
⇒ ac = 1, bc = 0,
⇒ c = identity.
Besides, let r ∈ G such that r(x) = x + 1 and s ∈ G such that s(x) = 2x. Then it is
easy to check that r 5 = 1, s4 = 1, and srs−1 = r 2 . So in this case, G ∼
= F20 .

3.2 (b)
Let ζ = e2πi/5 , a fifth root of unity. Is the group generated by the complex matrices
   
0 i ζ 0
and
i 0 0 ζ −1
isomorphic to the group in (a)?
Proof. No.
Let    
0 i ζ 0
A= , and B = .
i 0 0 ζ −1
It is easy to check that
A4 = I, B 5 = I, A−1 BA−1 = B −1 .
It follows that this group ∼
= Z5 ⋊ Z4 .

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3.3 (c)
Show that the Sylow 5-subgroup of a group of order 20 is normal.
Proof. Let G be a group and |G| = 20 = 4 ∗ 5. Suppose the number of Sylow 5-subgroup of
G is k, then by Lagrange theorem and Sylow theorem, we know that k | 4 ∗ 5 and k = 5s + 1.
Since (5s + 1, 5) = 1, it follows that 5s + 1 | 4 ⇒ s = 0 ⇒ k = 1.
Now we know that there are only one Sylow 5-subgroup in G. By Corollary 20 on Page
142,DF, we can conclude that this Sylow 5-subgroup is normal.

3.4 (d)
Show that there are exactly five distinct groups of order 20.
Proof. By the theorem 3 on page 158 DF, there are 2 abelian group of order 20: Z2 ×Z2 ×Z5
and Z20 . But for the non-abelian groups, we have to use the “semidirect products”to find
them.
Let |G| = 20 = 22 ∗ 5, H be the Sylow 2-subgroup of G, and K be the Sylow 5-subgroup
of G. Besides, we know that K ⊳ G.
Case I: H ∼= Z4 and K ∼ = Z5 . G should be in this form Z5 ⋊ Z4 .
Consider
ϕ : Z4 → Aut (K) = Z5∗ = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
If ϕ1 is trivial, then Z5 ⋊ Z4 = Z5 × Z4 = Z20 .
Suppose ϕ2 (1) = 2. Let x = (0, 1), y = (1, 0), then x4 = y 5 = 1. Besides,

xy = (0, 1)(1, 0)
= (0 + ϕ2 (1)(1), 1 + 0)
= (2, 1),
y2x = (1, 0)(1, 0)(0, 1)
= (1 + ϕ2 (0)(1), 0 + 0)(0, 1),
= (2, 0)(0, 1),
= (2 + ϕ2 (0)(0), 0 + 1),
= (2, 1),

which means that xy = y 2 x ⇒ xyx−1 = y 2. So in this case, G ∼= F20 .

Suppose ϕ3 (1) = 3. Then it is easy to check that in this case, G ∼
= F20 .

5
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Suppose ϕ4 (1) = 4. Let x = (0, 1), y = (1, 0), then x4 = y 5 = 1. Besides,

xy = (0, 1)(1, 0)
= (0 + ϕ4 (1)(1), 1 + 0)
= (4, 1),
yxy = (1, 0)(4, 1)
= (1 + ϕ4 (0)(4), 0 + 1),
= (1 + 4, 1),
= (0, 1),

which means yxy = x ⇒ x−1 yx = y −1. So in this case G ∼

= Z5 ⋊ Z4 .
∼ ∼
Case II: H = Z2 × Z2 and K = Z5 . G should be in this form Z5 ⋊ (Z2 × Z2 ).
Consider
ϕ : Z2 × Z2 → Aut (K) = Z5∗ = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
If ϕ1 is trivial, then Z5 ⋊ (Z2 × Z2 ) = Z5 × (Z2 × Z2 ) = Z10 × Z2 .
Let a = (1, 0), b = (0, 1), then H = Z2 × Z2 =< a, b >. Suppose ϕ2 (a) = 2, ϕ2(b) = 3.
Choose r = (1, 1, 0), s = (0, 1, 0), then it is easy to know that r 10 = 1 and s2 = 1. Besides,

sr = (0, 0, 1)(1, 1, 0)
= (0 + ϕ2 (1, 0)(1), 1 + 1, 0 + 0)
= (2, 0, 0),
rsr = (1, 1, 0)(2, 0, 0)
= (1 + ϕ2 (1, 0)(2), 1 + 0, 0 + 0),
= (1 + 4, 1, 0),
= (0, 1, 0),

which means rsr = s ⇒ rs = sr −1 . So in this case G ∼= D12 .

It is easy to know that for any other ϕ, no new kinds of group appear.
In summary, the distinct groups of order 20 are as follows. Let Z5 =< y >, Z4 =< x >
, Z2 × Z2 =< a > × < b >. Then
1. Z20 ;
2. Z10 × Z2 ;
3. Z5 ⋊ϕ1 Z4 where ϕ1 (x)(y) = y −1 ;
4. F20 ∼
= Z5 ⋊ϕ2 Z4 where ϕ2 (x)(y) = y 2;

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

5. D20 ∼
= Z5 ⋊ψ (Z2 × Z2 ) where ψ(a)(y) = y −1 and ψ(b)(y) = y.

4 Groups of order 30
Show that the four different groups of order 30 have 1, 3, 5, 15 elements of order 2, respec-
tively.
Proof. By the structure theorem, there is only one abelian group of order 30. Now G has 1
or 10 Sylow 3-subgroups and 1 or 6 Sylow 5-subgroups. If it has 10 Sylow 3-subgroups and
6 Sylow 5-subgroups, it has 45 elements, so it must have a unique Sylow 3- or 5-subgroup.
If there is a unique Sylow 3-subgroup, let c be an element of order 3 so |C(c)| = 15 or
30. If |C(c)| = 15, then C(c)is generated by an element of order 15. Otherwise we have an
element of order 5 commuting with an element of order 3 to get our element of order 15.
If there is a unique Sylow 5-subgroup, then |C(c)| = 10, 15, or 30. This similarly gives
us an element of order 15. Now we get three possible groups:
< a, b | a15 = b2 = 1, ba = a4 b >,
< a, b | a15 = b2 = 1, ba = a11 b >,
< a, b | a15 = b2 = 1, ba = a−1 b > .

5 Groups of order 12
There are 5 distinct groups of order 12, namely Z12 , Z2 × Z2 × Z3 , A4 , D12 and Z3 ⋊ Z4 .
Similarly as 2(d), Let Z3 =< y >, Z4 =< x >, Z2 × Z2 =< a > × < b >. Then
1. Z12 ;
2. Z6 × Z2 ;
3. A4 ∼
= (Z2 × Z2 ) ⋊φ Z3 where φ(y)(a) = b and φ(y)(b) = a;
4. Z3 ⋊ϕ Z4 where ϕ(x)(y) = y −1 ;
5. D12 ∼
= Z3 ⋊ψ (Z2 × Z2 ) where ψ(a)(y) = y −1 and ψ(b)(y) = y.
For each of the following groups, determine which of the groups in that example it is
isomorphic to.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

5.1 (a)
The multiplicative group of matrices of the form
 
a b
(a, b, c ∈ Z3 , ac 6= 0).
0 c
Proof. Let    
2 2 1 0
r= , and s = .
0 2 0 2
Then it is easy to check that
r 6 = s2 = 1, rs = sr −1 .
It implies that this group ∼
= D12 .

5.2 (b)
The multiplicative group generated by the complex matrices
   
0 i ω 0
, and (i2 = 1, ω 3 = 1, ω 6= 1).
i 0 0 ω2
Proof. Let    
0 i ω 0
A= , and B = .
i 0 0 ω2
Then it is easy to check that
A4 = I, B 3 = I, A−1 BA = B −1 .
It follows that this group ∼
= Z3 ⋊ Z4 .

5.3 (c)
The transformation of the form x 7→ ax + b, (a 6= 0), of the field F4 into itself.
Proof. This group ∼
= A4 . See the classification of groups of order 12.

5.4 (d)
The dihedral group D12
Proof. D12 ∼
= Z3 ⋊ψ (Z2 × Z2 ). See the classification of groups of order 12.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

5.5 (e)
A non-abelian semidirect product of a group of order 4 by a group of order 3.
Proof. This group ∼
= Z3 ⋊ϕ Z4 . See the classification of groups of order 12.

6 Groups of order p3
There are two non-abelian groups of order p3 . The one is
2
G1 =< x, y | xp = y p = 1, xyx−1 = y 1+p > .

The other one is

G2 =< x, a, b | xp = ap = bp = 1, xa = ax, xb = bx, x = aba−1 b−1 > .

Let p be an odd prime. Consider the group, of order p3 , consisting of all matrices
 
1 a b
0 1 c 
0 0 1

with a, b, c ∈ Z/p. To which of the two non-abelian groups intentioned above is this group
isomorphic?
Proof. Let      
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
A = 0 1 0 , B = 0 1 1 , X = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Then it is easy to know that

X p = Ap = B p = I, XA = AX, XB = BX, X = ABA−1 B −1 .

It follows that this group ∼

= G2 .

9
 MA 553: Homework 4
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Normal Sylow p-subgroup

Lemma 1.1. Let H be a normal subgroup of a finite group G, and let N ⊳ H be a Sylow
subgroup of H. Prove that N ⊳ G.

Proof. Since H ⊳ G, we know that gHg −1 = H, ∀g ∈ G. Besides, N ⊂ H, we can get

gNg −1 ⊂ gHg −1 = H, ∀g ∈ G.

By Corollary 20 on Page 142 DF, that N ⊳ H is a Sylow p-subgroup of H means that N

is the unique Sylow subgroup of H. Besides, by Sylow theorem, all of the Sylow p-subgroups
of H are conjugate in H. Then

gNg −1 = N, ∀g ∈ G.

It follows that N ⊳ G.

2 Nilpotent groups
Lemma 2.1. Let G be a finite group. Let N be a normal subgroup such that G/N is
nilpotent. Suppose that for every Sylow subgroup P of G, P N is nilpotent. Prove that G is
nilpotent.
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Proof. First, claim that P N ⊳ G.

Since P is a Sylow subgroup of G and N ⊳ G, we know that P N/N is a Sylow subgroup
of G/N. Besides, G/N is nilpotent, so we know that P N/N ⊳G/N. It follows that P N ⊳G.
Second, claim that P is a Sylow subgroup of P N and P ⊳ P N.
Since P N < G and P is a Sylow subgroup of G, we know that P is also a Sylow subgroup
of P N. Besides, P N is is nilpotent, so we know that P ⊳ P N.
Third, by Lemma 1.1, the above two claims imply that P ⊳ G. Then we know that every
Sylow subgroup P of G is normal in G, which means G is nilpotent.

3 Abelian groups
Lemma 3.1. Let n be an integer > 1. Prove the following classification: every group of
order n is abelian if and only if n = pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαr r , where p1 , p2 , · · · , pr are distinct primes,
α
αi = 1 or 2 for all i ∈ {1, · · · , r} and pi does not divide pj j − 1 for all i and j.
Proof. First, suppose |G| = n = pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαr r where p1 , p2 , · · · , pr are distinct primes,
α
αi = 1 or 2 for all i ∈ {1, · · · , r} and pi does not divide pj j − 1 for all i and j. We want to
show that |G| is abelian.
Let us do induction by r.
If r = 1, then |G| = pα1 1 , where α1 = 1 or 2. If α1 = 1, then G is cyclic; if α1 = 2, then
G∼ = Zp21 or G ∼= Zp1 × Zp1 . Anyway, here G is abelian.
Suppose that every group of width at most k which satisfies the above conditions for |G|
is abelian. Let G be a group of width r + 1 such that |G| = n satisfies the above conditions.
Now every proper subgroup of G has width r at most, so that by the induction hypothesis,
every proper subgroup of G is abelian. We know that every finite group whose every proper
subgroup is abelian is solvable. So G is solvable.
Since G is solvable, we can find H < G such that H ⊳ G and G/H has prime order,
which means G/H ∼ = Zp . Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. H is the direct product of
its Sylow subgroups, and the Sylow subgroups of H are normal in H. In particular, H is
generated by elements of prime and prime squared order. Let x ∈ H have prime or prime
squared order and let y ∈ P . If < xy >= G, then G is cyclic, hence abelian. If < xy > is
a proper subgroup of G, then yx = xy, so that < x >< CG (y). Anyway, we can conclude
< x >< CG (y), which implies H < CG (P ) ⇒ HP = G < CG (P ) ⇒ P < Z(G). Similarly,
HP = G < C(H), so that H < C(G). Thus HP = G < C(G), and G is abelian.
Second, suppose every group of order n = p1α1 pα2 2 · · · pαr r is abelian. Without loss of
generality, if α1 ≥ 3, let Q be a nonabelian group of order pα1 1 . (We may take Q to be the
direct product of a nonabelian group of order p3 and a cyclic group.) Then Q × Zpα2 2 ···pαr r
is nonabelian of order n. Thus ai ∈ {1, 2} for all i. Now suppose (again without loss of

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

generality) that p1 divides pα2 2 . If α2 = 1, then we may construct a nonabelian group Q of

order p1 p2 . Then Q×Zpα3 3 ···pαr r is a nonabelian group of order n. If a2 = 2, we may construct
a nonabelian group of order pq 2 . By taking the direct product with a cyclic group, there
α
exists a nonabelian group of order n. It implies that pi ∤ pj j − 1 for all i and j.
Now we can conclude that every group of order n is abelian, then n should satisfy the
conditions enumerated in the problem statement.

4 Classification of finite order

Question: Describe explicitly some groups of order 1, 163, 225 such that every group of that
order is isomorphic to precisely one of those you have described.
Solution: Since 1, 163, 225 = 52 × 7 × 172 × 23, the elementary factors are

{5, 5, 7, 17, 17, 23},

{5, 5, 7, 172, 23},
{52 , 7, 17, 17, 23},
{52 , 7, 172, 23}.

The invariant factors are

{5 × 17, 5 × 7 × 17 × 23},
{5, 5 × 7 × 172 × 23},
{17, 52 × 7 × 17 × 17 × 23},
{52 × 7 × 172 × 23}.

The invariant factor decompositions of the abelian groups of order 1, 163, 225 are as
follows

Z85 × Z13685 ,
Z5 × Z232645 ,
Z17 × Z68425 ,
Z1163225 .

Besides, by Lemma 3.1, we know that there is no nonabelian group of order 1, 163, 225.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

5 Simple groups
5.1 (a)
Lemma 5.1. Show that a simple group which has a subgroup of index n > 2 is isomorphic
to a subgroup of the alternating group An .
Proof. Let G be a simple group and H < G such that [G : H] = n > 2. Consider the action
of G on the left coset of H,
ϕ : G → Sn .
Since G is simple, ker ϕ = 1 Thus ϕ is injective. It follows that G is isomorphic to a
subgroup of Sn . Identify G with its image in Sn we write G < Sn . If G is not contained in
An , then GAn = Sn and
|G||An |
= Sn ,
|G ∩ An |
which implies that G ∩ An is of index 2 in G and therefore is a normal subgroup of G, which
contradicts that G is simple. Hence, G < An .

5.2 (b)
Question: What is the smallest index [An : G] occurring for a subgroup G & An ?
Solution:
For n = 1, 2, An is trivial.
For n = 3, A3 only has trivial subgroup.
For n = 4, A4 has a proper normal subgroup K ⊳ A4 , where

K = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}.

It follows that [A4 : K] = 3.

For n ≥ 5, we know that An is simple. Suppose An has a subgroup of index k, then by
Lemma 5.1, An is isomorphic to a subgroup of Ak . It is obvious that |An | ≤ |Ak | ⇒ n ≤ k.
So For n at least 5, the index of a subgroup of An is at least n.

5.3 (c)
Question: Show that there is not simple group of order 112.
Solution: Let G be a simple group of order 112. We know that 112 = 24 × 7. Suppose
there are n2 Sylow 2 subgroup of G. Sylow’s theorems imply that n2 = 7. (n2 6= 1 since G

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

is simple.) Let H be one of the Sylow 2 subgroups of G. By Lemma 5.1, G is isomorphic

to a subgroup of A7 .
However, since |G| = 24 × 7 and |A7 | = 23 × 3 × 5 × 7, we know that |G| ∤ |A7 |, which
means G can not be the subgroup of A7 .
Therefore there is no simple group of order 112.

5.4 (d)
Question: Show that there is not simple group of order 120.
Solution: Let G be a simple group of order 120. We know that 120 = 23 ×3 ×5. Suppose
there are n5 Sylow 5 subgroup of G. Sylow’s theorems imply that n5 = 6. Let H be one
of the Sylow 5 subgroups of G, and its normalizer is NG (H). Then [G : N(H)] = 6. By
Lemma 5.1, G is isomorphic to a subgroup of A6 .
On one hand, since [G : NG (H)] = 6, then |NG (H)| = 20. On the other hand, NG (H) is
a subgroup of A6 .
Claim that there is no subgroup of A6 of order 20.
By the table of groups of small order on page 168 DF, we know that there are 5 distinct
groups of order 20, namely Z20 , Z10 × Z2 , D20 , Z5 ⋊ Z4 and F20 . It is easy to check that
none of them is the subgroup of A6 .
This contradiction proves that there is no subgroup of A6 of order 20 and therefore there
is no simple group of order 120.

5.5 (e)
Question: Is every group of order 120 solvable?
Solution: No.
There are solvable as well as non-solvable groups of this order. All the non-solvable
groups have alternating group A5 and cyclic group Z2 as the composition factors in their
composition series.
For example, S5 is a non-solvable of order |S5 | = 120. We know that

{e} < A5 < S5

is a composition series for S5 (note that S5 /A5 ∼

= Z2 , which is simple). The Jordan-Holder
Theorem tells us that any composition series for S5 has quotient groups A5 and Z2 , and so
there is no composition series with abelian quotients.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

6 Groups of order 2800

Question: Find the distinct abelian groups of order 2800 having different number of elements
of order 28.

Solution: Since 2800 = 24 × 52 × 7, there are 10 distinct abelian groups. We will discuss
them respectively.

1. Z16 × Z25 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 2 × 6 = 12;

2. Z16 × Z5 × Z5 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 2 × 6 = 12;

3. Z2 × Z8 × Z25 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 2 × 2 × 6 = 24;

4. Z2 × Z8 × Z5 × Z5 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 2 × 2 × 6 = 24;

5. Z4 × Z4 × Z25 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 12 × 6 = 72;

6. Z4 × Z4 × Z5 × Z5 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 12 × 6 = 72;

7. Z2 × Z2 × Z4 × Z25 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 6 = 48;

8. Z2 × Z2 × Z4 × Z5 × Z5 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 6 = 48;

9. Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z25 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 0;

10. Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z5 × Z5 × Z7 , the number of elements of order 28 is 0.

In conclusion, there are exactly 2 distinct abelian groups of order 2800 having exactly
12 elements of order 28; there are exactly 2 distinct abelian groups of order 2800 having
exactly 24 elements of order 24; there are exactly 2 distinct abelian groups of order 2800
having exactly 48 elements of order 28; there are exactly 2 distinct abelian groups of order
2800 having exactly 72 elements of order 28; there are exactly 2 distinct abelian groups of
order 2800 having exactly 0 elements of order 28.

6
 MA 553: Homework 5
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Note: in this paper, let M be a fixed commutative monoid with cancelation; [a, b] means
the least common multiple (LCM) of a and b; (a, b) means the greatest common divisor
(GCD) of a and b.

1 LCM and GCD

Lemma 1.1. Prove that if [a, b] exists, then for all c,
1. [ac, bc] = [a, b]c.
2. (a, b) exists, and (ac, bc) = (a, b)c.
Proof. Let d = [a, b], then

a | d, ab | d ⇒ ac | dc, bc | dc ⇒ dc is a common multiple of ac and bc.

Let x be any common multiple of ac and bc, then

ac | x, bc | x,
⇒ x = ace = bcf,
x x
⇒ | a, | b,
c c
x
⇒ d = [a, b] | ,
c
⇒ dc | x.

It follows that dc = [a, b]c is the least common multiple of ac and bc.
By the proposition in class, we know that if [a, b] exists, then
ab
(a, b) = .
[a, b]
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Let g = (a, b). Suppose y be any common divisor of ac and bc, then

y | ac, y | bc. (1.1)

Let us focus on y. On one hand, if y ∤ c, then by (1.1), we know that

y | a, y | b,
⇒ y | g,
⇒ y | gc.

On the other hand, if y | c, then it is obvious that y | gc.

Anyway, we can get y | gc. It follows that gc = (a, b)c is the greatest common divisor of
ac and bc.

2 LCM and GCD

Lemma 2.1. Prove that [a, b] exists ⇔ (ac, bc) exists for all c.
Proof. ⇒): By Lemma 1.1 (Part two), we know that if [a, b] exists then (a, b) exists and
(ac, bc) = (a, b)c exists for all c.
⇐): Since for ∀c, (ac, bc) | ac and (ac, bc) | bc, we know that (ac, bc) | abc. Now let us
denote
abc
d= . (2.1)
(ac, bc)
Since (ac, bc) | bc, we can rewrite d as
bc
d=a ,
(ac, bc)

which means a | d. Similarly, we can get b | d. It follows that d is a common multiple of a

and b.
Choose c = 1, then we know that (a, b) exists. Besides, similarly as Lemma 1.1 (Part
one), it is easy to know that (ac, bc) = (a, b)c for all c. Now we can rewrite d as
ab
d= . (2.2)
(a, b)
Let
a = a1 (a, b), b = b1 (a, b),
then, (a1 , b1 ) = 1.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Besides, suppose x is any common multiple of a and b, then

x = ae = bf, (2.3)
⇒ x = a1 (a, b)e = b1 (a, b)f, (2.4)
⇒ a1 e = b1 f. (2.5)
Now we claim that a1 | f . Since
a1 a1 b1 f
| a1 , | ,
(a1 , f ) (a1 , f ) (a1 , f )
 
a1 b1 f
⇒ | a1 , =1
(a1 , f ) (a1 , f )
⇒ a1 = (a1 , f ),
⇒ a1 | f.
Now we know that
f = a1 f1 ,
⇒ x = bf = b1 (a, b)a1 f1 . (2.6)
Besides,
ab
d= = a1 (a, b)b1 . (2.7)
(a, b)
By Eqs.(2.6) and (2.7), we know that
d | x.
It implies that d is the least common multiple of a and b.

3 Prime
Lemma 3.1. If a is prime and a does not divide b, then [an , b] = an b for all n.
Proof. First, claim that if n = 1, then [a, b] = ab.
It it obvious that ab is a common multiple of a and b. Suppose x is any common multiple
of a and b, then
x = ae = bf,
⇒ a | x = bf,
⇒ a | b, or a | f, (since a is prime)
⇒ a | f, (since a ∤ b)
⇒ abf | xf, (since bf = x)
⇒ ab | x.

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

It follows that ab is the least common multiple of a and b.

Second, if [an , b] = an b, claim that [an+1 , b] = a[an , b] = an+1 b.
Since
[an+1 , b] | [an+1 , ab] = a[an , b],
we know that a[an , b] is a common multiple of an+1 and b.
Besides, suppose x is any common multiple of an+1 and b, then
[an , b] | [an+1 , b] | y,
⇒ an b | y.

Since an+1 | y and a ∤ b, we know further that

an+1 b | y.
It implies that an+1 b is least common multiple of a and b.
By induction, we can get the conclusion.

4 Unit
Lemma 4.1. Suppose a is a unit or a product of prime. Prove that
1. (a, b) and [a, b] exist for all b.
2. If (b, c) exists then (ab, ac)=a(b,c).
Proof. 1. If a is a unit, then it is obvious that (a, b) = a and [a, b] = b for all b.
If a is a prime, then it is easy to know that

b if a | b,
[a, b] =
ab if a ∤ b.

If a = p1 p2 · · · pn , where each pi is a prime, i = 1, · · · , n, then claim that

[a, b] = LCM {[p1 , b], · · · , [pn , b]} ,
where 
b if pi | b,
[pi , b] =
pi b if pi ∤ b.
By induction, we know that [a, b] exists.
By the proposition in class, we know that if [a, b] exists, then
ab
(a, b) = .
[a, b]

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2. It is obvious that

(b, c) | b, (b, c) | c,
⇒ a(b, c) | ab, a(b, c) | ac,
⇒ a(b, c) is a common divisor of ab and ac.

If g is any common divisor of ab and ac, then

ge = ab, gf = ac. (4.1)

If a is a unit, then

a−1 ge = b, a−1 gf = c,
⇒ a−1 g | (b, c),
⇒ g | a(b, c),

which implies that a(b, c) is the GCD of ab and ac.

If a is a prime, then by Eq.(4.1), we know that either g | a or g | b&g | c. It follows
that g | a(b, c), which means a(b, c) is the GCD of ab and ac.
If a is a product of prime, then by induction, we can get the conclusion.

5 GCD
Lemma 5.1. Assume that (x, y) exists for all x, y ∈ M.

1. Prove that if (a, b) = 1, then (ai , bj ) = 1 for all (i, j).

2. Without assuming (a, b) = 1, deduce from Part 1 that

(a, b)n = (an , bn )

for all n.

3. Prove that if (a, b) = 1 and ab = cn then a ∼ (a, c)n and b ∼ (b, c)n .

Proof. 1. In class, we know this lemma:

Lemma 5.2. If (ac, bc) exists, and (a, b) = (a, c) = 1, then (a, bc) = 1.

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Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Here, by Lemma 5.2, we know that

(a, b) = 1,
⇒ (a, b2 ) = 1,
⇒ (a, bj ) = 1,
⇒ (a2 , bj ) = 1,
⇒ (ai , bj ) = 1,

for ∀i, j.

2. We know that
 
a b
, = 1,
(a, b) (a, b)
 n
bn

a
⇒ , = 1, (by Part 1)
(a, b)n (a, b)n
⇒ (an , bn ) = (a, b)n ,

for all n.

3. On one hand, by Part 2, we know that

(a, c)n = (an , cn )

⇒ a | (a, c)n . (since a | an , a | cn ) (5.1)

On the other hand, (a, c)n = (an , cn ) = (an , b) = (an , ab) = a(an−1 , b). By Part 1,

(a, b) = 1,
⇒ (an−1 , b) = 1,
⇒ a(an−1 , b) | a,
⇒ (a, c)n | a. (5.2)

Now, by Eqs.(5.1) and (5.2), we can conclude that

a ∼ (a, c)n .

Similarly, we can conclude that

b ∼ (b, c)n .

6
 MA 553: Homework 6
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Definition of ring
In each case, decide whether the given structure forms a ring. If it is not a ring, determine
which of the ring axioms hold and which fail:

1.1 (a)
U is an arbitrary set, and R is the set of subsets of U. Addition and multiplication of
elements of R are defined by the rules

A + B = A ∪ B,
A · B = A ∩ B.

Solution: This is a ring.

1. (R, +) is an abelian group:

A + B = A ∪ B = B ∪ A = B + A.

2. (R, ·) is associative:

(A · B) · C = A ∩ B ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) = A · (B · C).

3. the distributive laws hold:

A · (B + C) = A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = (A · B) + (A · C),
(A + B) · C = (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A · C) + (B · C).
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

1.2 (b)
U is an arbitrary set, and R is the set of subsets of U. Addition and multiplication of
elements of R are defined by the rules

A + B = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B),
A · B = A ∩ B.

Solution: This is a ring.

1. (R, +) is an abelian group:

A + B = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) = (B ∪ A) − (B ∩ A) = B + A.

2. (R, ·) is associative:

(A · B) · C = A ∩ B ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) = A · (B · C).

3. the distributive laws hold:

A · (B + C) = A ∩ [(B ∪ C) − (B ∩ C))] = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) − A ∩ B ∩ C,
A · B + A · C = (A ∩ B) + (A ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) − A ∩ B ∩ C,
⇒ A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C.

Similarly, we can get

(A + B) · C = (A · C) + (B · C).

1.3 (c)
R is the set of continuous functions R → R. Addition and multiplication are defined by
the rules

[f + g](x) = f (x) + g(x),

[f ◦ g](x) = f (g(x)).

Solution: This is not a ring.

1. (R, +) is an abelian group:

[f + g](x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = [g + f ](x).

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2. (R, ·) is associative:
[(f ◦ g) ◦ h](x) = f (g(h(x))) = [f ◦ (g ◦ h)](x).

3. but the distributive laws do not hold:

f ◦ [g + h](x) = f (g(x) + h(x)),
[f ◦ g + f ◦ h](x) = f (g(x)) + f (h(x)),
⇒ f ◦ [g + h] 6= f ◦ g + f ◦ h.

2 Cubic root ring

Let ζ = e2πi/3 .

2.1 (a)
Show that
Z[ζ] := {a + bζ | a, b ∈ Z}
is a subring of the field C of complex numbers.
Solution: It is easy to know that
√
2πi/31 3
ζ=e =− + i,
2 2√
1 3
ζ 2 = e4πi/3 = − − i = −1 − ζ.
2 2
Let z1 = a1 + b1 ζ, z2 = a2 + b2 ζ ∈ Z[ζ], then
z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )ζ ∈ Z[ζ],
and
z1 z2 = (a1 + b1 ζ)(a2 + b2 ζ),
= a1 a2 + b1 b2 ζ 2 + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )ζ,
√ !
1 3
= a1 a2 + b1 b2 − − i + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )ζ,
2 2
√ !
1 3
= a1 a2 − b1 b2 − b1 b2 − + i + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )ζ,
2 2
= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 − b1 b2 )ζ ∈ Z[ζ].
It follows that Z[ζ] is a subring of C.

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2.2 (b)
Let the norm of s ∈ Z[ζ] be defined to be

N(s) := ss̄,

where s̄ is the complex conjugate of s. Show that for s, t ∈ Z[ζ],

N(st) = N(s)N(t).

Solution: It is easy to know that

ζ ζ̄ = |ζ|2 = 1,
ζ + ζ̄ = −1.

Let s = a1 + b1 ζ, t = a2 + b2 ζ ∈ Z[ζ], then

N(s) = ss̄,
= (a1 + b1 ζ)(a1 + b1 ζ̄),
= a21 + b21 |ζ|2 + a1 b1 (ζ + ζ̄),
= a21 + b21 − a1 b1 .

Similarly, we can get

N(t) = a22 + b22 − a2 b2 .
By Part (a), we know that

st = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 − b1 b2 )ζ.

It follows that

N(st) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 )2 + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 − b1 b2 )2 − (a1 a2 − b1 b2 )(a1 b2 + a2 b1 − b1 b2 ),

= (a1 a2 )2 + (a1 b2 )2 + (a2 b1 )2 + (b1 b2 )2 − a1 b1 a22 − a1 b1 b22 − a21 a2 b2 − a2 b2 b21 + a1 a2 b1 b2 ,
= (a21 + b21 − a1 b1 )(a22 + b22 − a2 b2 ),
= N(s)N(t).

2.3 (c)
Show that
s ∈ Z[ζ] ⇒ s̄ ∈ Z[ζ].

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Solution: Let s = a + bζ ∈ Z[ζ], then

s̄ = a + bζ̄,
√ !
1 3
= a+b − − i ,
2 2
√ !
1 3
= (a − b) − b − + i ,
2 2
= (a − b) − bζ ∈ Z[ζ].

2.4 (d)
Show that s is a unit in Z[ζ] if and only if N(s) = 1.
Solution: On one hand, if ss−1 = 1, then by part (b),

N(1) = N(ss−1 ) = N(s)N(s−1 ),

⇒ 1 = N(s)N(s−1 ),
1
⇒ N(s−1 ) = .
N(s)

But both N(s) and N(s−1 ) are in N, which implies N(s) = N(s−1 ) = 1.
On the other hand, if N(s) = 1, let s = a + bζ ∈ Z[ζ], then

N(s) = a2 + b2 − ab = 1. (2.1)

So
1
s−1 = ,
a + bζ
1
= √ ,
(a − b/2) + 3b/2i
√
(a − b/2) − 3b/2i
= ,
(a − b/2)2 + 3b2 /4
a−b b
= − ζ.
a2 + b2 − ab a2 + b2 − ab
By Eq.(2.1), we can get
s−1 = (a − b) − bζ ∈ Z[ζ].

5
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2.5 (e)
Show that the group of units in Z[ζ] consists of all 6-th roots of unity in C.
Solution: First, claim that all 6-th roots of unity are in Z[ζ].
√
pi/3 1 3
ξ1 = e = + i = 1 + ζ ∈ Z[ζ],
2 2
ξ2 = e2pi/3 = ζ ∈ Z[ζ],
ξ3 = −1 ∈ Z[ζ],
ξ4 = e4pi/3 = ζ 2 = −1 − ζ ∈ Z[ζ],
√
5pi/3 1 3
ξ5 = e = − i = −ζ ∈ Z[ζ],
2 2
ξ6 = 1 ∈ Z[ζ].

Second, by part (d), just need to show that if ξ is one of the 6-th roots of unity in C,
then N(ξ) = 1. We know that

N(ξj ) = ξj ξ¯j = |ξj |2 = 1, j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

3 Nilpotent
An element x of a ring R is called nilpotent if some power of x is zero. Prove that if x is
nilpotent, then 1 + x is a unit in R.
Solution: If x is nilpotent, then ∃p ∈ N, such that

xp = (−x)p = 0.

For 1 + x, suppose (1 + x)y = 1, then

1
y= ,
1+x
∞
X
= (−x)k ,
k=0
p−1
X
= (−x)k ∈ R.
k=0

It implies that 1 + x is a unit in R.

6
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

4 Unit ideal
Prove or disprove: If an ideal I contains a unit, then it is the unit ideal.
Solution: Yes.
Since ring R contains a unit u, then we know that u−1 is in R.
Since u ∈ I and u−1 ∈ R, then uu−1 = 1 ∈ I.
But then for any r ∈ R, 1 ∈ I, and thus 1r = r ∈ I.
Thus I is all of R.
Note: That is why the ideal of R which is all of R is called the “unit ideal ”– it is the
only ideal that could possibly contain a unit.

5 Polynomial ring
Prove that if two rings R, R′ are isomorphic, then so are the polynomial rings R[x] and
R′ [x].
Solution: Suppose we have an isomorphic

φ : R → R′ ,

such that
r → φ(r), ∀r ∈ R.
Now we can define a map
φ̃ : R[x] → R′ [x],
Pn
such that for any p = k=0 ak xk ,
n
X
φ̃(p) = φ(ak )xk .
k=0

An easy verification proves that φ̃ is a ring isomorphism.

6 Automorphism
Let R be a ring, and let f (y) ∈ R[y] be a polynomial in one variable with coefficients in
R. Prove that the map R[x, y] → R[x, y] defined by

φ: x → x + f (y), y → y, (6.1)

7
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

is an automorphism of R[x, y].

Solution: It is obvious that the map φ : R[x, y] → R[x, y] defined by (6.1) is homo-
morphism. We just need to define the inverse:
φ−1 : x → x − f (y), y → y, (6.2)
which implies that φ−1 is also a homomorphism.
It follows that φ is an automorphism.

7 Automorphism
Determine all automorphisms of the polynomial ring Z[x].
Solution: Suppose
φ : Z[x] → Z[x]
be an automorphism of Z[x].
First, it is easy to know that φ(1) = 1, which means φ(c) = c for all constant c. Hence,
φ is completely determined by φ(x), which can be regarded as an element in Z[x].
Second, suppose deg(φ(x)) = d, then for non-constant polynomials f (x) ∈ Z[x],
deg(φ(f (x))) > d,
since f (x) is a linear combination of the power of x. However, since φ is an automorphism,
it must be surjective, so there exists non-constant f (x) ∈ Z[x] such that φ((f (x)) = x.
Hence, it must be the case that d = 1, which is to say that
φ(x) = αx.
Third, suppose α = pq where p, q ∈ Z, and
φ(g(x)) = qx,
then
φ(x) = αx = pqx, p = φ(p), qx = φ(g(x)),
⇒ φ(x) = φ(p)φ(g(x)) = φ(pg(x)).
However, the only values of p and g for which this could be satisfied are
p = ±, g(x) = ±x.
Finally, there are only two automorphisms of Z[x], φ1 and φ2 , where
φ1 (x) = x, φ2 = −x.

8
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

8 Quotient ring
Find a simpler description for each of the following rings.

8.1 (a)

Z[x]/(x2 − 3, 2x + 4).
Solution: My answer is

Z[x]/(x2 − 3, 2x + 4) ∼
= {a + bi | a = 0, 1 & b ∈ Z}.

For any p(x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 ∈ Z[x], if deg p(x) = n ≥ 2, we can choose

q1 (x) = an xn−2 such that
p(x) = q1 (x)(x2 − 3) + r1 (x), (8.1)
where deg r1 (x) ≤ n − 1.
Keep doing this process, we can get

p(x) = (q1 + · · · qk )(x2 − 3) + rk (x), (8.2)

where deg rk (x) ≤ 1. Suppose

rk (x) = a1 x + a0 .
If a1 = 0, 1, then it is fine; if a1 ≥ 2, then we can get

a1 = 2s + t,

where t = 0, 1.
So we have
rk (x) = s(2x + 4) + tx + (a0 − 4s), (8.3)
where t = 0, 1.
By Eqs.(8.2)-(8.3), we can get

p(x) = (q1 + · · · qk )(x2 − 3) + s(2x + 4) + tx + (a0 − 4s). (8.4)

It is implies that

Z[x]/(x2 − 3, 2x + 4) ∼
= {a + bi | a = 0, 1 & b ∈ Z}.

9
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

8.2 (b)

Z[i]/(2 + i).
Solution: My answer is
Z[i]/(2 + i) ∼
= Z5 .
For any a + bi ∈ Z[i], we know that

a + bi = b(2 + i) + (a − 2b). (8.5)

Besides, we know that

(2 − i)(2 + i) = 5.
If (a − 2b) < 5, then it is fine; if (a − 2b) ≥ 5, then we can do further:

a − 2b = 5q + r = (2 + i)(2 − i)q + r, (8.6)

where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
By Eqs.(8.5)-(8.6), we can get

a + bi = (b + 2q − qi)(2 + i) + r, (8.7)

where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
Now it is clear that
Z[i]/(2 + i) ∼
= Z5 .

10
 MA 553: Homework 7
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Fractions of ring
Let p be a prime ideal in an integral domain R, and let M consist of all elements in R lying
outside p (so that M is a multiplicative submonoid of R). In this case it is customary to
denote the ring of fractions RM by Rp .

1.1 (a)
Show that if q is any prime ideal in Rp , then q ∩ R is a prime ideal in R, contained in p;
and that one obtains in this way a one-one correspondence between all prime ideals in Rp
and those prime ideals in R which are contained in p.

Solution: We know that the homomorphism

θ : R → Rp

is given by
r
θ(r) = .
1
It implies that for any r ∈ R, we can regard r as an element in Rp .
Suppose q is any prime ideal in Rp , then ∀x, y ∈ q ∩ R, either x ∈ q or y ∈ q. But
x, y ∈ R, so either x ∈ q ∩ R or y ∈ q ∩ R. It implies that q ∩ R is a prime ideal in R.
Besides, since the kernel of θ is p, so q ∩ R is contained in p.
Now we have a one-one correspondence between all prime ideals in Rp and those prime
ideals in R which are contained in p:

φ : q ↔ q ∩ R.
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

1.2 (b)
Definition 1.1. A commutative ring R is called a local ring if it has a unique maximal
ideal.

Show that Rp is a local ring.

Solution: We know that every maximal ideal is prime. But by part (a), we also know
that any prime ideal q in Rp , q ∩ R is a prime ideal in R and contained in p.
Then φ−1 (p ∩ R) is the unique maximal ideal in Rp , which means Rp is a local ring.

2 Category
Let R be a commutative ring and let M and N be commutative monoids. With coordi-
natewise multiplication, M × N is then also a commutative monoid.

2.1 (a)
Consider the category T of triples (S, µ, ν) such that S is a commutative R-algebra and
µ : M → S and ν : N → S are monoid homomorphisms, maps between such triples being
defined in the obvious way.
Find monoid homomorphisms µ1 : M → (R[M])[N] and ν1 : N → (R[M])[N], µ2 :
M → R[M × N] and ν2 : N → R[M × N], such that both ((R[M])[N], µ1 , ν1 ) and (R[M ×
N], µ2 , ν2 ) are initial objects in T ; and deduce that there is an R-algebra isomorphism

α : (R[M])[N] → R[M × N],

such that !
X X X
α ( rmn m)n = rmn (m, n).
n∈N m∈M (m,n)∈M ×N

Solution: First, we have

ϕ1 : M → R[M],
in which
ϕ1 (m) = polynomial with value 1 at m and 0 eleswhere
Second, we also have
φ1 : R[M] → (R[M])(N),

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

in which
φ1 (r) = fr ,
where
fr (e) = r, fr (n) = 0, n 6= e.
Now just define µ1 : M → (R[M])[N] in a natural way µ1 = φ1 ◦ ϕ1 , which means

µ1 (m) = m. (2.1)

Note that the m in the right hand side of the Eq.(2.1) should be regarded as an element
in (R[M])[N].
Similar definition can be done to ν1 : N → (R[M])[N] in which

ν1 (n) = n. (2.2)

Note that the n in the right hand side of the Eq.(2.2) should be regarded as an element
in (R[M])[N].
Besides, we have these homomorphisms in natural way

ϕ2 : M → M × N,

and
φ2 : M × N → R[M × N].
So we can define µ2 : M → R[M × N] as µ2 = φ2 ◦ ϕ2 , which means

µ2 (m) = (m, 1N ). (2.3)

Similarly, we can define ν2 : N → R[M × N], which means

ν2 (n) = (1M , n). (2.4)

Suppose the universal property of monoid algebras holds here, for any S in this cate-
gory T, we can define f : (R[M])[N] → S as
!
X X X
f ( rmn m)n = rmn µ1 (m)ν2 (n). (2.5)
n∈N m∈M m∈M,n∈N

Besides, we can define g : R[M × N] → S as

 
X X
g rmn (m, n) = rmn (µ2 (m), ν2 (n)). (2.6)
(m,n)∈M ×N m∈M,n∈N

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

It follows that both ((R[M])[N], µ1 , ν1 ) and (R[M × N], µ2 , ν2 ) are initial objects in
T. That is to say there exists a unique R-algebra homomorphism

α1 : (R[M])[N] → R[M × N],

and a unique R-algebra homomorphism

α2 : R[M × N] → (R[M])[N].

It follows that α1 = α2−1 , which means there is an R-algebra isomorphism

α : (R[M])[N] → R[M × N].

2.2 (b)
Explain carefully how the isomorphism α specializes to give isomorphisms of polynomial
rings, such as
(R[W, X])[Y, Z] → R[W, X, Y, Z].

Solution: By part(a), we just need to choose M = W X and N = Y Z. and define α

in this way
! !
X X X
α rwx wx yz = rwxyz (wx, yz),
y∈Y,z∈Z w∈W,x∈X w∈W,x∈X,y∈Y,z∈Z

which means
α : (R[W, X])[Y, Z] → R[W X × Y Z]
is an isomorphism.
Besides, we know that there is a natural isomorphism

π : W X × Y Z → W XY Z,

in which
π(wx, yz) = wxyz.
Then we have an isomorphism

π̃ : R[W X × Y Z] → R[W, X, Y, Z]

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

defined by
!
X X
π̃ rwxyz (wx, yz) = rwxyz π(wx, yz).
w∈W,x∈X,y∈Y,z∈Z w∈W,x∈X,y∈Y,z∈Z

Now we know that

β : (R[W, X])[Y, Z] → R[W X × Y Z] → R[W, X, Y, Z],
where β = π̃ ◦ α is an isomorphism.

2.3 (c)
Let φ : M → N be a monoid homomorphism, and let θ : R[M] → R[N] be the cor-
responding
P R-algebra
P homomorphism (given by the universal property of R[M], so that
θ( rm m) = rm φ(m)). Show that the kernel of θ is generated by the set of elements
of the form 1.m − 1.m with φ(m) = φ(m).

Solution: Since 0 is obvious in the kernel of θ, we can assume rm 6= 0 such that

X  X
θ rm m = rm φ(m) = 0.
P
Let f = rm m ∈ R[M].
For each n ∈ N, if there are two element m, m′ such that φ(m) = φ(m′ ), then
X X
rm θ(m) = (rm + rm′ )θ(m).

It follows that in order to get θ(f ) = 0 ∈ R[N], we should let

rm + rm′ = 0,
which means
f = rm (m − m′ ).
Besides, if there are three elements m1 , m2 , m3 ∈ M such that φ(m1 ) = φ(m2 ) =
φ(m3 ) = n, then similarly, in order to get θ(f ) = 0 ∈ R[N], we have
rm1 + rm2 + rm3 = 0 ⇒ rm3 = −rm1 − rm2 .
So
f = rm1 m1 + rm2 m2 + rm3 m3 = rm1 (m1 − m3 ) + rm2 (m2 − m3 ).
By induction we know that the kernel of θ is generated by the set of elements of the
form 1.m − 1.m with φ(m) = φ(m).

5
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3 Commutative monoid with cancellation

Show that a monoid M is a commutative monoid with cancellation if and only if there
exists an injective monoid homomorphism from M into an abelian group.

Solution: On one hand, suppose there exist an injective monoid homomorphism

φ : M → R,

where R is an abelian group.

Then φ(M) is a submonoid of R. Now

φ : M → φ(M) ⊂ R,

is an isomorphism. Since R is abelian, we know that M is a commutative monoid with

cancellation.
On the other hand, suppose M is a commutative monoid with cancellation, we just
need to do the “localization ”with respect to M.
Find a ring R such that M is a multiplication submonoid of R. Define a equivalence
relation on pairs (r, m) ∈ R × M,

(r1 , m1 ) ≡ (r2 , m2 ) if r1 m2 = r2 m1 .

Denote
r/m := equivalence class of (r, m).
Then define
r1 r2 r1 m2 + r2 m1
+ = ,
m1 m2 m1 m2
r1 r2 r1 r2
· = .
m1 m2 m1 m2
Now define
λ : R → RM
by
r
λ(r) = ,
1
such that λ(m) is a unit for every element m ∈ M.
Now λ is a ring injective homomorphism.

6
 MA 553: Homework 8
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Quadratic norm-Eculidean domain

1.1 (a)
Let α and β be rational numbers with |α| ≤ 1/2, and let m > 0 be an integer such that

α2 − mβ 2 = −1 − δ, (1.1)

where 0 ≤ δ < 1. Set 

1, if α ≥ 0
ǫ= (1.2)
−1, if α < 0.
Show that if m is not of the form 5n2 (n ∈ Z) then

|(α + ǫ)2 − mβ 2 | < 1. (1.3)

Solution: It is easy to know that

|(α + ǫ)2 − mβ 2 | = |α2 + 2αǫ + ǫ2 − mβ 2 | = |2αǫ − δ|. (1.4)

By the definition of ǫ, we know that if 0 ≤ α < 1/2, then

2αǫ = 2α ∈ (0, 1),

⇒ (2αǫ − δ) ∈ (−1, 1),
⇒ |2αǫ − δ| < 1.
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Similarly, if −1/2 < α < 0, then

2αǫ = −2α ∈ (0, 1),

⇒ (2αǫ − δ) ∈ (−1, 1),
⇒ |2αǫ − δ| < 1.

Besides, if α = ± 12 , thanks to the fact that m is not of the form 5n2 (n ∈ Z), then
α2 − mβ 2 = −1 − δ, where δ ∈ (0, 1) (note that here δ 6= 0). Now we can also get the
inequality (1.3).

1.2 (b)
√ √
Deduce that Z[ω] is norm-Euclidean when ω = 6 or ω = 7.

Solution: Let ω 2 − q = 0, then q = 6 or 7. For any α, β ∈ Q, e, f ∈ Z, then

N((α + βω) − (e + f ω)) = (α − e)2 − q(β − f )2 . (1.5)

First, choose e1 such that |α − e1 | ≤ 1/2; second, choose f such that

(α − e1 )2 − q(β − f )2 = −1 − δ,

where 0 ≤ δ < 1; third, choose ǫ such that


1, if α − e1 ≥ 0
ǫ=
−1, if α − e1 < 0.

Let e = e1 − ǫ ∈ N. Then by part (a), we can get

|(α − e)2 − q(β − f )2 | < 1,

where q = 6 or 7. √ √
It follows that Z[ω] is norm-Euclidean when ω = 6 or ω = 7.

1.3 (c)
Deduce that Z[ω] is norm-Euclidean when ω 2 − ω + q = 0 with q = −4, −5, −7.

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2 Primes in polynomial ring

Let R be a UFD, with fraction field K. Suppose you already have computer algorithms for
factoring into primes in R and in the polynomial ring K[X]. Describe briefly how you would
instruct a computer to factor into primes in R[X].
Solution: Choose f (x) ∈ R[X], and factor f (x) into primes in K[X], we can get
f (x) = c(x − a1 /b1 )(x − a2 /b2 ) · · · (x − an /bn ).
In order to have f (x) ∈ R[X], we should have
n
Y
c=d bj .
j=1

Now it is clear that

f (x) = d(b1 x − a1 )(b2 x − a2 ) · · · (bn x − an ).
Factoring d into primes in R, we can get
d = d1 d2 · · · dn .
Now, we can factor f (x) into primes in R[X],
f (x) = d1 d2 · · · dn (b1 x − a1 )(b2 x − a2 ) · · · (bn x − an ).
Note that aj and bj should not have any common factor for any j.

3 Prime and irreducible polynomial

Let k be a field, x, y, and z indeterminates.

3.1 (a)
Let f (x) and g(x) be relatively prime polynomials in k[x]. Show that in the polynomial ring
k(y)[x], f (x) − yg(x) is irreducible.
Proof. We know that k(y)[x] ∼ = k(x)[y]. So we can see f (x) − yg(x) as an element in k(x)[y].
If it is not irreducible, then
f (x) − yg(x) = (a(x)y + b(x))c(x),
⇒ f (x) = a(x)c(x), g(x) = b(x)c(x),
which contradicts with the fact that f (x) and g(x) are relatively prime.

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3.2 (b)
Prove that in k(y, z)[x], the polynomial

f (x, y, z) = x4 − yzx3 + (y 2z 2 − y)x2 + (y 2 z − y)x + y 2z,

is irreducible.
Proof. We can rewrite f (x, y, z) as

f (x) = x2 y 2 z 2 + (xy 2 + y 2 − yx3 )z − yx2 − yx + x4 ,

= (xy)2 z 2 + y[(x + 1)y − x3 ]z − x[(x + 1)y − x3 ],
= a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0

Choose P be the ideal generated by (x+1)y −x3 . By part (a), P is a prime ideal. Besides,
a1 , a0 ∈ P while a2 ∈/ P and a0 ∈ / P 2 . By Eisenstein theorem, we know that f (x, y, z) is
irreducible.

4 Polynomial ring
Let R be an integral domain with fraction field K, let R[X] be a polynomial ring, and let a
and b be nonzero elements in R.

4.1 (a)
If R is a UF D and P ⊂ R[X] is a prime ideal with P ∩ R = (0), then P is a principal ideal.
Proof. There is a natural map π : R[X] → K[X] defined by

π(f (x)) = f (x).

If P is a prime ideal in R[X], then P is a principal ideal in K[X], which means

 
f (x)
P = ,
d

where f (x) ∈ R[X].

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

It implies that ∀hinP ,

f (x)
h(x) = g(x),
d
g(x)
= f (x) .
d
g(x)
Since f, h ∈ R[X], we know that d
∈ R[X]. It follows that P is generated by f (x). Hence,
P is a principle ideal.

4.2 (b)
aR ∩ bR = abR iff the ring R[X]/(aX − b) is an integral domain.
Proof. On one hand, suppose aR ∩ bR = abR. Then we know that aR ∩ bR = [a, b]R so
ab = [a, b], which means (a, b) = 1. It follows that aX − b is irreducible.
Let P = (aX − b). Then for any f g ∈ P , f (X)g(X) = (aX − b)h(X). So we have either
aX − b | f (X) or aX − b | g(X). It implies that P is a prime ideal. Hence, R[X]/(aX − b)
is an integral domain.
On the other hand, if R[X]/(aX −b) is an integral domain, then (aX −b) is a prime ideal.
So aX − b is irreducible. It follows that (a, b) = 1, which implies that aR ∩ bR = abR.

4.3 (c)
If c = aq = bp is a nonzero common multiple of a and b then c is an l.c.m. of a and b iff
pX − q is a prime element in R[X].
Proof. On one hand, if c = [a, b], then (p, q) = 1. By part(b), we know that R[X]/(pX − q)
is an integral domain. It follows that pX − q is a prime element in R[X].
On the other hand, if (pX − q) is a prime ideal. So pX − q is irreducible. It follows that
(p, q) = 1, which implies that c = aq = bp = [a, b].

4.4 (d)
An l.c.m. [a, b] exists iff the kernel of the R-homomorphism φ : R[X] → R[ ab ] ⊂ K taking X
to ab is a principal ideal.

5
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Proof. If f (X) ∈ ker(φ), then

φ(f (X)) = f (b/a) = 0,

which means b/a is a root of f (x) in K. So

f (X) = (aX − b)g(X). (4.1)

Now we can prove the conclusion.  

a b
On one hand, if [a, b] exists, then (a, b) exists, and (a,b) , (a,b) = 1. By Eq.(4.1), we can
get

f (X) = (aX − b)g(X),

 
a b
= X− (a, b)g(x),
(a, b) (a, b)
= (pX − q)g̃(x),
a b
where p = (a,b) , q = (a,b) . By part (c), we know that the kernel of φ is a principle ideal.
On the other hand, if the kernel of φ is a principle ideal, which is generated by (pX − q)
(Since aX − b ∈ ker(φ), so the generator should be in this form.) By part (b) and (c), we
have (p, q) = 1. So

aX − b = c(px − q),
⇒ a = cp, b = cq.

Now cpq = [a, b].

5 Quotient ring
5.1 (a)
Prove that if x 6= 0 and y are elements in a UFD such that x2 divides y 2, then x divides y.
Proof. In a UFD, we have

x = pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαnn ,

y = pβ1 1 pβ2 2 · · · pβnn ,

where {pj } are primes and αj , βj ≥ 0.

6
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Now x2 | y 2 means

2αj ≤ 2βj ,
⇒ αj ≤ βj ,
⇒ x | y.

5.2 (b)
Let k be a field. In the quotient ring R = k[X, Y, Z]/(Y 2 − X 2 Z) let x = X̄ and y = Ȳ be
the natural images of X and Y . Show that x2 divides y2 in R, but x does not divide y.
Proof. By the definition of the quotient ring, we know that

x = X̄ = f (X, Y, Z)(Y 2 − X 2 Z) + X, y = Ȳ = g(X, Y, Z)(Y 2 − X 2 Z) + Y,

 2
x = (Y 2 − X 2 Z)(f 2 Y 2 − f X 2 Z + 2f ) + X 2 ,
⇒
y 2 = (Y 2 − X 2 Z)(g 2 Y 2 − gX 2 Z + 2g) + Y 2 = (Y 2 − X 2 Z)(g 2Y 2 − gX 2Z + 2g + 1) + X 2 Z,
⇒ x2 | y 2 .

But it is obvious that x can not divides y since Y can not be written in the form (Y 2 −
X 2 Z)q + rX.

5.3 (b)
Is R an integral domain? (Why?)
Proof. No. Since if R is an integral domain, then the cancelation law holds. But by part (b),
we know that it does not holds.

6 Fermat equation
Find all solutions in positive integers of the equation

y 3 = x2 + 4. (6.1)

7
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

6.1 (a)
a + bi is divisible by 1 + i ⇔ a − b is even.
Proof. On one hand, suppose a + bi is divisible by 1 + i, then
a + bi = (1 + i)(c + di) = (c − d) + (c + d)i,
⇒ a − b = 2d.
which implies that a − b is even.
On the other hand, if a − b is even, then it is easy to know that a + b is also even. We
can suppose that
a − b = 2k,
a + b = 2l,
which implies that
a=l−k
b = l + k.
Now we can find l + ki such that
(1 + i)(l + k) = (l − k) + (l + k)i = a + bi,
which means a + bi is divisible by 1 + i.

6.2 (b)
If y 3 = x2 + 4, (x, y ∈ Z), then

1 if x is odd,
(x + 2i, x − 2i) = 3 , (6.2)
(1 + i) if x is even,
Proof. If x = 2k + 1, then
(x + 2i, x − 2i) = (2k + 1 + 2i, 2k − 1 − 2i) = 1.
If x = 2k, then
(x + 2i, x − 2i) = (2k + 2i, 2k − 2i) = −2 + i = (2i)(1 + i) = (1 + i)3 .

8
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

6.3 (c)
If y 3 = x2 + 4, then x + 2i = in (a + bi)3 , for some n, a, b.
Proof. By part (b), we know that

(x + 2i, x − 2i) = z 3 ,

where z = 1 or z = 1 + i.
It follows that  
x + 2i x − 2i
, = 1,
z3 z3
Now we can get

y 3 = (x + 2i)(x − 2i),
 y 3  x + 2i   x − 2i 
⇒ = ,
a2 z3 z3
x + 2i
⇒ = (a + bi)3 ,
z3
⇒ x + 2i = (z(a + bi))3 = in (a + bi)3 .

Let n = 0, then

x + 2i = (a + bi)3 = (a3 − 3ab2 ) + (3a2 b − b3 )i,

⇒ 3a2 b − b3 = 2,
⇒ b(3a2 − b2 ) = 2,
⇒ b = 1, a = ±1; or b = −2, a = ±1,
⇒ x = 2, y = 2; or x = 11, y = 5.

So the equation (6.1) has two solutions over positive integers:


x = 2,
y = 2,
or 
x = 11,
y = 5,

9
 MA 553: Homework 9
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Quadratic norm-Eculidean domain

Let ω ∈ C satisfy ω 2 − pω + q = 0 where p and q are integers such that p2 − 4q is not the
square of an integer. The norm of a + b ∈ Z[ω] is

N(a + bω) : = (a + bω)(a + bω̄),

= (a + bω)(a + b(p − ω)).

It was shown that if (a, b) = 1, then the natural map is an isomorphism

Z/(N(a + bω))Z → Z[ω]/(N(a + bω))Z[ω].

Prove that for any a, b ∈ Z, |N(a + bω)| is the cardinality of Z[ω]/(N(a + bω))Z[ω]
Proof. First, I want to show that

φ : Z ⊕ Z → Z[ω]

is a group isomorphism. Just define φ as

φ(a, b) = a + bω,

where (a, b) ∈ Z ⊕ Z, a + bω ∈ Z[ω].

Then it is easy to know that φ is a group isomorphism.
Second, I want to show that

ϕ : Z[ω] → (a + bω)Z[ω]
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

is also a group isomorphism. Here, for any x + yω ∈ Z[ω], we define

ϕ(x + yω) = (a + bω)(x + yω),

= ax + byω 2 + (ay + bx)ω,
= ax + by(pω − q) + (ay + bx)ω,
= (ax − bqy) + (bpy + ay + bx)ω.

Note that a and b does not equal to 0 at the same time.

It is obvious that ϕ is a homomorphism. Besides, since (a + bω)Z[ω] ⊂ Z[ω], we just need
to show that ϕ is injective, which means ker ϕ = 0. For any x + yω ∈ ker ϕ,

ϕ(x + yω) = (a + bω)(x + yω) = 0,

⇒ x + yω = 0,

since a + bω 6= 0.
Now we have this group isomorphism:

Z⊕Z ∼
= Z[ω] ∼
= (a + bω)Z[ω]. (1.1)

Third, we know that

Z[ω] Z[ω] (a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω]
= · (1.2)
(a + bω)Z[ω] (a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω] (a + bω)Z[ω]
 
a b
Since (a,b) , (a,b) = 1, we know that

Z[ω] |N(a + bω)|

cardinality of = . (1.3)
(a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω] (a, b)2
Besides, by the isomorphism (1.1), we know that
   
∼ a b
(a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω] = Z⊕ Z,
(a, b) (a, b)
(a + bω)Z[ω] ∼= aZ ⊕ bZ.

It follows that
   
a b
(a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω] (a,b)
Z⊕ (a,b)
Z
cardinality of = cardinality of = (a, b)2 .
(a + bω)Z[ω] aZ ⊕ bZ
(1.4)

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

By Eqs.(1.2)-(1.4), we can get

Z[ω]
cardinality of ,
(a + bω)Z[ω]
Z[ω] (a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω]
= cardinality of × cardinality of ,
(a/(a, b) + bω/(a, b))Z[ω] (a + bω)Z[ω]
|N(a + bω)|
= × (a, b)2 = |N(a + bω)|.
(a, b)2

2 Square in Z/π
Assume that Z[ω] (as in section 1) is a UFD. Let π be a Z-prime. Suppose there are integers
a and b, not both divisible by π, such that π divides a2 + pab + qb2 . Show that there are
integers c and d such that π = ±(c2 + pcd + qd2 ). Deduce from this that if e = 1 or e = 2,
then π is of the form x2 + ey 2 ⇔ −e is a square in Z/π.
Proof. We know that
π | a2 + pab + qb2 ,
⇒ π | (a + bω)(a + bω̄), but π ∤ a + bω, π ∤ a + bω̄,
⇒ π is not a prime,
⇒ π is not irreducible,
⇒ π is reducible,
⇒ π = ±(c + dω)(c + dω̄),
⇒ π = ±(c2 + pcd + qd2 ).
Furthermore, if π = 2, then for e = 1, we have
2 = x2 + y 2 ,
⇔ x = 1, y = 1,
⇔ −1 is a square in Z/2.
Similarly, for e = 2, we have
2 = x2 + 2y 2 ,
⇔ x = 0, y = 1,
⇔ −2 is a square in Z/2.

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

For the case that π ≥ 3, we claim that π = x2 + ey 2 | a2 + b2 , but not both a and b
divisible by π, where e = 1. For e = 1, we know that x2 + y 2 | 4x2 + 4y 2. So we can choose
a = 2x, b = 2y, then it is fine.
Similarly, for π ≥ 3 and e = 2, we can choose a = 2x, b = 2y, then π = x2 + ey 2 | a2 + b2 ,
but not both a and b divisible by π.
By previous conclusion, we know that

x2 + ey 2 ⇔ −e is a square in Z/π.

3 Primes
Let ω 6= −1 be a complex number satisfying ω 3 = −1. We showed in class that Z[ω] is a
Euclidean domain.

3.1 (a)
Let p > 3 be an odd prime in Z. Show that:

p ≡ 1( mod 6) ⇔ −1 has three cubic roots in Z/π ⇔ −3 is a square in Z/π. (3.1)

Proof.

p ≡ 1( mod 6),
⇔ |(Z/π)∗ | divided by 6,
⇔ (Z/π)∗ has an element of order 6,
⇔ −1 has three cubic roots in Z/π. (3.2)

Besides,

p ≡ 1, ( mod 6),
⇔ p = 6n + 1,
⇔ (Z/π)∗ has an element of order 6n,
⇔ −3 is a square in Z/π, since (−3)3n ≡ 1, ( mod p) (3.3)

By Eq.(3.2)-(3.3), we can get (3.1).

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3.2 (b)
Prove that every prime p > 0 in Z of the form p = 6n + 1 can be represented in the form
p = a2 + ab + b2 (a > b > 0) in one and only one way.
Proof. Consider the UDF Z[ω] where ω satisfies
ω 2 + ω + 1 = 0.
By part (a), we know that −3 is a square in Z/p. Hence for some a, b ∈ Z,
p = a2 + ab + b2 .
Furthermore, if we set a > b > 0, then the a and b should be unique.

3.3 (c)
Prove that every prime p > 0 in Z of the form p = 6n + 1 can be represented in the form
p = a2 + 3b2 (a, b > 0) in one and only one way.
Proof. Consider the UDF Z[ω] where ω satisfies
ω 2 + 3 = 0.
Since −12 = −3 × 22 and −3 is a square in Z/p, we know that for some a, b ∈ Z,
p = a2 + 3b2 .
Furthermore, if we set a > b > 0, then the a and b should be unique.

3.4 (d)
√
Prove that every odd prime p in Z factors into primes in Z[ −3]. What about p = 2?
Proof. Let p be a prime and p = 2n + 1. Consider n by different cases.
√
1. If n = 3k, then p = 6k + 1. By part (c), we know that p factors into primes in Z[ −3].
2. If n = 3k + 1, then p = 6k + 3 = 3(2k + 1). Now p is not a prime, which is impossible.
√
3. If n = 3k + 2, then p = 6k + 5. Now p can also factor into primes in Z[ −3].

5
 MA 553: Homework 10
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Field extension
Question: Let K ⊂ L be a field extension of finite degree, and let f ∈ K[X] be an irreducible
polynomial whose degree is relatively prime to [L : K]. Show that f is irreducible in L[X].
Proof. Suppose f is reducible in L[X]. But we know that f is irreducible in K[X]. So ∃α ∈ L
such that f (x) is the minimal polynomial of α in K. Consider F = K(α), then

K ⊂ F ⊂ L. (1.1)

Let [L : K] = m, deg(f ) = n, then [F : K] = n, by (1.1),

m = [L : F ]n,

which contradicts with (m, n) = 1.

Thus f should be irreducible in L[X].

2 Factor into irreducibles

2.1 (a)
Question: Factor X 16 − X into irreducible polynomials over F4 and over F8 .
Solution: In the textbook, we know that over F2 , the X 16 − X can be factored into
irreducible polynomials as

X 16 − X = X(X − 1)(X 2 + X + 1)(X 4 + X + 1)(X 4 + X 3 + 1)(X 4 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1). (2.1)

In order to get the factorization over F4 , we just need to do factoring based on (2.1).
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Suppose F4 = {0, 1, α, α2}. It is easy to know that over F4 ,

X 2 + X + 1 = (X − α)(X − α2 ), (2.2)
X 4 + X + 1 = (X 2 − X + α)(X 2 + X + α2 ), (2.3)
X 4 + X 3 + 1 = (X 2 + αX + α)(X 2 − α2 X + α2 ), (2.4)
X 4 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1 = (X 2 − αX + 1)(X 2 + α2 X + 1). (2.5)

Now, we know that over F4 ,

X 16 − X
= X(X − 1)(X − α)(X − α2 )(X 2 − X + α)(X 2 + X + α2 )
(X 2 + αX + α)(X 2 − α2 X + α2 )(X 2 − αX + 1)(X 2 + α2 X + 1).

For F8 , we know that

F8 = F2 [X]/(X 3 + X 2 + 1),
= {0, 1, x, x + 1, x2 , x2 + 1, x2 + x, x2 + x + 1}.

2.2 (b)
Question: Use Maple to factor X 80 − 1 mod 3. How many irreducible polynomials of degree
4 are there in Z3 [X]? What about degree 3?

Solution: The answer is

71
!
X
X 80 − 1 = X(X + 2) 1 + Xk .
k=5

There are 18 irreducible polynomials of degree 4 are there in Z3 [X]. And there are 8
irreducible polynomials of degree 4 are there in Z3 [X].

2.3 (c)
Question: Display the set of all irreducible polynomials of degree 2 over a field of cardinality
9.

Solution:

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3 Irreducible polynomials over finite field

3.1 (a)
Question: Show that the polynomials f (X) = X 3 + X 2 + 1 and g(X) = X 3 + X + 1 are
irreducible over the field F4 with four elements.
Proof. We know that F2 = {0, 1}, and it is easy to check that both f (X) and g(X) are
irreducible in F2 [X], whose degrees are 3. Besides, [F4 : F2 ] = 2. According to Problem 1, we
know that f (X) and g(X) are irreducible in F4 [X].

3.2 (b)
Question: Describe explicitly an isomorphism between the field F4 [X]/(f (X)) and F4 [Y ]/(g(Y )),
both of which have cardinality 64.
Solution: The isomorphism is given by
Y = X + 1.
We just need to check that α(x) = x + 1 is a root of f (X) = X 3 + X 2 + 1 in the field
F4 [X]/(g(X)).
f (x + 1) = (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)2 + 1,
= x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 3,
= x3 + x + 1,
= 0.

4 Minimal polynomial
√ √
Question: Determine the minimal polynomial for α = 3+ 5 over each of the following:

4.1 (a): Q.
Solution:
√ √
α = 3 + 5,
√
⇒ α2 = 8 + 2 15,
√
⇒ α2 − 8 = 2 15,
⇒ α2 − 16α2 + 64 = 60,
⇒ α2 − 16α2 + 4 = 0,
which means the minimal polynomial of α over Q is
X 4 − 16X 2 + 4.

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

√
4.2 (b): Q( 5).
√ √
Solution: Suppose α2 + aα + b = 0, where a = a1 + a2 5, b = b1 + b2 5. It √ is easy to find
that a1 = 0, a2 = −2, b1 = 2, b2 = 0. Then the minimal polynomial of α over Q 5 is
√
X 2 − 2 5X + 2.
√
4.3 (c): Q( 10).
√
Solution: This case is similary to part (a). The minimal polynomial of α over Q 10 is

X 4 − 16X 2 + 4.
√
4.4 (d): Q( 15).
√ √
Solution: Since α2 = 8 + 2 15, the minimal polynomial of α over Q 15 is
√
X 2 − 8 − 2 15.

5 Algebraic extension
Let F be a field, and let α be an element which generates a field extension of F of degree 5.
Prove that α2 generates the same extension.
Proof. First, claim that α2 ∈
/ F and further [F (α2 ) : F ] > 1.
If α2 ∈ F , then f (X) = X 2 − α2 would be the minimal polynomial of α over F , which
implies [F (α) : F ] = 2. It contradicts with the fact that F (α) is a field extension of F of
degree 5.
Seccond, since αinF (α) and F (α) is a field, then α2 ∈ F (α). So F (α2) ⊂ F (α). Now we
have

F ⊂ F (α2 ) ⊂ F (α)
⇒ [F (α) : F ] = [F (α) : F (α2 )][F (α2 ) : F ],
⇒ 5 = [F (α) : F (α2)][F (α2 ) : F ].

Since [F (α2 ) : F ] > 1, we can get

[F (α) : F (α2 )] = 1, [F (α2 ) : F ] = 5.

It implies that α2 generates the same extension as α.

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

6 Algebraic extension
√
Decide whether or not i = −1 is in the field
√
6.1 (a): Q( −2).
No.
√
6.2 (b): Q( 4 −2).
No.
√
6.3 (c): Q( 4 −4).
Yes.
Since
√ √ √
( 4 −4)2 = −4 = 2 −1,
√ 1 √ √
⇒ −1 = ( 4 −4)2 ∈ Q( 4 −4).
2

6.4 (b): Q(α) where α3 + α = −1.

No. √ √
Since we know that [Q(α) : Q] = 3 and [Q( −1) : Q] = 2. If −1 ∈ Q(α), then we have
√
Q ⊂ Q( −1) ⊂ Q(α),
√ √
⇒ [Q(α) : Q] = [Q(α) : Q( −1)][Q( −1) : Q],
√
⇒ 3 = [Q(α) : Q( −1)] 2,
which is impossible.

7 Algebraic extension
Question: Let α, β be complex numbers of degree 3 over Q, and let K = Q(α, β). Determine
the possibilities for [K : Q].
Solution: It is easy to know that [K : Q] ≤ 9. Besides,
Q ⊂ Q(α) ⊂ Q(α, β),
⇒ [K : Q] = [Q(α, β) : Q(α)][Q(α) : Q],
⇒ [K : Q] = [Q(α, β) : Q(α)] 3.
It follows that the possibilities for [K : Q] is
3, 6, 9.

5
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

8 Straightedge and compass construction

Determine whether or not the regular 9-gon is constructible by ruler and compass.
Solution: It is imposible to consctruct the regular 9-gon.
To construct a regular 9-gon is the same as constructing the complex number ζ = e2π/9 .
Then the minimal polynomial for ζ over Q is

f (X) = X 6 + X 3 + 1.

It follows that [Q(ζ) : Q] = ϕ(9) = 6. But we can not find any integer k such that 2k = 6. So
it is imposible to consctruct the regular 9-gon.

9 Finite field
9.1 (a)
Let F be a finite field of characteristic p, and let ϕ : F → F be the map defined by ϕ(x) = xp .
Show that ϕ is an automorphism of F .
Proof. First, it is easy to know that ∀x, y ∈ F ,

ϕ(x + y) = (x + y)p = xp + y p = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y),

ϕ(xy) = xp y p = ϕ(x)ϕ(y).

It implies that ϕ is a homomorphism.

Second, since ϕ(x) = xp = 0 ⇒ x = 0, we know that ker ϕ = 0.
Now we can conclude that ϕ is an automorphism of F .

9.2 (b)
Show that every automorphism of F is a power of ϕ.
Proof. First, considering only the multiplicative structure, claim that any automorphism must
be of the form
xxa ,
for some fixed a < |F |.
Second, write a = pe b with (p, b) = 1. Claim that every element of F is a root of the
polynomial
(X p + 1)b − X a − 1
e

(of degree ¡ |F |). Further, we can conclude that b = 1.

6
 MA 553: Homework 11
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Splitting field
Determine the splitting field and its degree over Q.

1.1 x4 − 2.
We know that
√ √ √ √
f (x) = x4 − 2 = (x − 2)(x + 2)(x − i 2)(x + i 2).
4 4 4 4

√ √
Let K = Q( 4 2, i) = Q( 4 2)(i).
On one hand, K contains all the roots of f (x) = x4 − 2. Hence it contains the splitting
field of f (x).
√ √ √
4
2
On the other hand, since i 4 2 and 4 2 are contained in the splitting field, then i = i√
4
2
should also be contained in the splitting field, which
√ means the splitting field contains K
since K is the smallest field containing√Q, i and 4 2.
Now we can conclude that K = Q( 4 2, i) is the√ splitting field of f (x) = x4 − 2.
Besides, the√minimal polynomial of i over Q( 2) is p1 (x) = x2 + 1; while the minimal
4

polynomial of 4 2 over Q is p2 (x) = x4 − 2. Now we have

√4
√4
√
4
[K : Q] = [Q( 2, i) : Q( 2)][Q( 2) : Q] = 2 × 4 = 8.
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

1.2 x4 + 2.
Suppose α is a root of g(x) = x4 + 1, then
π  π √
2
α = cos + i sin = (1 + i).
4 4 2
It is easy to check that α2 = i and (α3 )2 = −i. We know that
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (x) = x4 + 2 = (x2 − i 2)(x2 + i 2) = (x − 2α)(x + 2α)(x − 2α3 )(x + 2α3 ).
4 4 4 4

√ √
Let K = Q( 4 2α, i) = Q( 4 2α)(i) and S = the splitting field of f (x) = x4 + 2.
On one hand, K contains all of the roots of f (x), which means K ⊇ S.
On the other hand,
√ √
2α, 2α3 ∈ S,
4 4

√4
2α3
⇒ √4
= α2 = i ∈ S,
2α
√
4
⇒ K = Q( 2α, i) ⊆ S,
√
since K is the smallest field containing√Q, 4 2α and i.
Now we can conclude that K = Q( 4√2α, i) is the splitting field of f (x) = x4 + 2.
Besides, the minimal polynomial of 4 2α over Q(i) is p1 (x) = x4 + 2; while the minimal
polynomial of i over Q is p2 (x) = x2 + 1. Now we have
√
4
[K : Q] = [Q( 2α, i) : Q(i)][Q(i) : Q] = 4 × 2 = 8.

1.3 x4 + x2 + 1.
We know that
f (x) = x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 − x + 1).
√ √
Suppose ω = − 12 + 23 i, then ω 2 = − 12 − 2
3
i. It is easy to know that ω and ω 2 are roots
of g1 (x) = x2 + x + 1. √ √
Besides, −w = 12 − 23 i and −ω 2 = 12 + 2
3
i. It is easy to know that −ω and −ω 2 are
roots of g2 (x) = x2 − x + 1.
Now we know that

f (x) = (x − ω)(x − ω 2 )(x + w)(x + w 2 ).

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

It is easy to check that the splitting field of f (x) is

K = Q(ω).

It follows that
[K : Q] = 2.

1.4 x6 − 4.
We know that
f (x) = x6 − 4 = (x3 − 2)(x3 + 2).
√ √
3 3
Let ω = − 21 + 2
i, then ω 2 = − 12 − 2
i. It is easy to know that ω 3 = 1. Then
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (x) = (x − 2)(x − ω 2)(x − ω 2 2)(x + 2)(x + ω 2)(x + ω 2 2).
3 3 3 3 3 3
(1.1)
√
Let K = Q( 3 2, ω). On one hand, since K contains all roots of f (x), it must contain
the splitting field of f (x).
√ √ √3
On the other hand, the splitting field contains 3 2 and ω 3 2; hence ω = ω√3 22 is contained
in the splitting field.
√ It follows that the splitting field contains K since K is the smallest
3
field containing Q, 2 and ω. √
Now we know that K = Q( 3 2, ω) is the splitting field √ of f (x) = x6 − 4.
Furthermore, the minimal
√ polynomial of ω over Q( 2) is p1 (x) = x2 + x + 1; while the
3

minimal polynomial of 2 over Q is p2 (x) = x3 − 2. Now we have

3

√3
√3
√3
[K : Q] = [Q( 2)(ω) : Q( 2)][Q( 2) : Q] = 2 × 3 = 6.

2 Splitting field
Lemma 2.1. Let K be a finite extension of F . Prove that K is a splitting field over F if
and only if every irreducible polynomial in F [x] that has a root in K splits completely in
K[x].

Question: Let K1 and K2 be finite extensions of F contained in the field K, and assume
both are splitting field over F .

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2.1 (a)
Prove that their composite K1 K2 is a splitting field over F .
Proof. Since K1 and K2 are finite extensions of F , we can suppose

K1 = F (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ),
K2 = F (β1 , β2 , · · · , βm ).

Then it is easy to know that

K1 K2 = F (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn , β1 , β2 , · · · , βm ).

By Lemma 2.1, we just need to show that every irreducible polynomial in F [x] that
has a root in K1 K2 splits completely in K1 K2 [x].
Suppose there exists a polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] which has a root αi βj ∈ K1 K2 , but it
can not splits completely in K1 K2 [x]. Then

(x − αi βj )f˜(x)
Y
f (x) =

Then we can find an irreducible polynomial f˜(x) ∈ F [x] such that f˜ has a root in K1
but can not split in K1 [x], which contradicts with the fact that K1 is a splitting field over
F.
Therefore, K1 K2 is a splitting field over F .

2.2 (b)
Prove that K1 ∩ K2 is a splitting field over F .
Proof. Let f (x) be irreducible in F [x] which has a root γ ∈ K1 ∩ K2 . By Lemma 2.1,
f (x) splits completely over both K1 and K2 . Therefore, f (x) splits splits completely over
K1 ∩ K2 , which means K1 ∩ K2 is a splitting field over F .

3 Wilson Theorem
Prove that an integer p > 1 is prime if and only if (p − 1)! ≡ −1( mod p).

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Proof. Let F be a finite field with char(F) = p and |F| = pn . So |F∗ | = pn − 1 where
F∗ = F \ {0}. Let
f (x) = xp −1 − 1.
n
(3.1)
On one hand, by Lagrange’s theorem, if α ∈ F∗ , then the order of α divides pn − 1. So
pn −1
= 1 or αp −1 − 1 = 0. It implies that ∀α ∈ F∗ , f (α) = 0.
n
α
On the other hand, since the degree of f (x) is pn − 1, then f (x) has at most pn − 1
roots.
No we can conclude that f (x) splits completely over the field F, which means
Y
f (x) = (x − α). (3.2)
α∈F∗

Let x = 0 in (3.2), we can get


Y
pn 1, p=2
α = (−1) = (3.3)
−1, p is odd .
α∈F
∗

Now we can prove the conclusion that an integer p > 1 is prime if and only if (p − 1)! ≡
−1( mod p).
If p = 2, the it is obviously true.
If p is odd and n = 1, then F∗ ∼ = Z∗p = {1, 2, 3, · · · , p − 1; mod p}. By (3.3), we know
that
(p − 1)! ≡ −1( mod p). (3.4)
Conversely, if (3.4) is true, then
kp − 1 = (p − 1)!.
If p > 3, then (p − 1)! is even, so p must be odd.
If p is not a prime, say
p = rs.
Then
rs | (p − 1)!,
since r < p − 1, s < p − 1.
However, by (3.4), we know that
rs | (p − 1)! + 1,
which means
rs | 1.
It is impossible. So p must be a prime.

5
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

4 Even polynomials
Let f (X) ∈ Q[X] be an irreducible polynomial of degree n > 2 such that

f (X) = f (−X). (4.1)

Prove that the Galois group of f is not the symmetric group Sn .

Proof. By the (4.1), we know that the degree of f (X) is an even number, say n = 2k.
Besides, since the f (X) is irreducible over Q, then the roots of f (X) should appear in
pairs, say
S = {w1 , −w1 , w2 , −w2 , · · · , wk , −wk },
where |S| = n = 2k.
Let G be the Galois group of f , then G ⊂ Sn . If σ ∈ G such that σ1 (w1 ) = w2 (or we
say if σ ∈ Sn contains a two cycle (12)) then σ should satisfy σ(−w1 ) = −w2 since σ is
an automorphism of the splitting field of f . It implies that the permutation (12) ∈ Sn but
/ G, which means G $ Sn .
(12) ∈

5 Galois group
Let K be the splitting field over Q of f (x) = x4 − 2x2 − 1.

5.1 (a)
Determine the Galois group of K/Q.
Proof. The resolvent cubic for f (x) is

g(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 8x,

= x(x2 + 4x + 8),
= x(x + 2 + 2i)(x + 2 − 2i).

The discriminant of g(x) is

D = −322 .
Just need to consider whether f (x) is reducible over Q(32i) = Q(i).

6
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

We know that
f (x) = x4 − 2x2 − 1,
√ √
= (x2 + ( 2 − 1))(x2 − (1 + 2)),
√ √  √ √
  q  q 
= x + ( 2 − 1)i x − ( 2 − 1)i x − 1 + 2 (x + 1 + 2 ,
√
where i = −1.
It is clear that f (x) is irreducible over Q(i). It follows that the Galois group of K/Q is
D8 = {1, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (12), (34), (1324), (1423)}.

5.2 (b)
√ √
Show
√ that the only three subfields of K having degree 2 over Q are Q( −1), Q( 2) and
Q( −2).
Proof. Let
√ √ √
r1 = ( 2 − 1)i = −2 − −1,
√ √ √
r2 = −( 2 − 1)i = − −2 + −1,
√
q
r3 = 1 + 2,
√
q
r4 = − 1 + 2.
Let σ = (1324), τ = (12). It is easy to know that D8 has only three subgroup of order
4,
S = {1, σ, σ 2 , σ 3 },
T = {1, σ 2 , τ, σ 2 τ },
U = {1, σ 2 , στ, σ 2 τ }.
The corresponding subfields are
√
K S = Q( −1),
√
K T = Q( 2),
√
K U = Q( −2).

7
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

6 Resolvent cubic
Let k be a field of characteristic 6= 2, and let f ∈ k[X] be an irreducible polynomial of
degree 4. If r1 , r2 , r3 and r4 are the roots of f (in some splitting field), then the polynomial
g whose roots are

p1 = r1 r2 + r3 r4 ,
p2 = r1 r3 + r2 r4 ,
p3 = r1 r4 + r2 r3 .

is called the resolvent cubic of f .

6.1 (a)
Show that the the discriminant of f is the same as that of g.
Proof. It is easy to get that

p1 − p2 = (r1 − r4 )(r2 − r3 ), (6.1)

p1 − p3 = (r1 − r3 )(r2 − r4 ), (6.2)
p2 − p3 = (r1 − r2 )(r3 − r4 ). (6.3)

By the definition of the discriminant, we can know that discriminant of f is the same
as that of g.

6.2 (b)
Let G ⊂ S4 be the galois group of f , and let V ⊳ S4 be the unique normal subgroup of
order 4. Prove that the fixed field T of V ∩ G is a splitting field of g.
Proof. It is easy to know that

V = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}.

Since G < S4 and V ⊳ S4 , by the second isomorphism theorem,

V ∩ G ⊳ G.

Let L = k[r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 ], then

T = LG∩V = {x ∈ L | gx = x, ∀g ∈ G ∩ V }.

8
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Let S = k[p1 , p2 , p3 ] be the splitting field of g over k and denote the galois group of S/k
as GS .
On one hand, by the definition of V , we know that any permutation in V fixes p1 , p2 , p3 ,
so GS ⊇ G ∩ V . On the other hand, if σ ∈ G but σ ∈ / G ∩ V , then σ moves at least one of
the p1 , p2 , p3 , which means σ ∈/ GS . Therefore, GS = G ∩ V .
By fundamental theorem of Galois theory, we can conclude that T = S.

6.3 (c)
Let t = [T : k] (see (b)). Prove that G = S4 , A4 or V according as t = 6, 3 or 1. What are
the possibilities for G when t = 2?
Proof. First of all, by the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, we know that

t = [T : k] = [G : V ∩ G].

Now let us consider t = 6, 3, 1 or 2 respectively.

1. t = 6 or 3.
In these two cases, since |G| = t|V ∩ G|, 3 is a divisor of |G|. Besides, 4 is also a
divisor of G. Hence, |G| is a multiply of 12. Notice that |S4 | = 24. So G must be S4
or A4 . Furthermore,

[S4 : S4 ∩ V ] = [S4 : V ] = 24/4 = 6,

[A4 : A4 ∩ V ] = [A4 : V ] = 12/4 = 3.

It follows that if t = 6 then G = S4 while if t = 3 then G = A4 .

2. t = 1.
In this case, G = G ∩ V , so G < V . Besides, |G| is a multiple of 4 and |V | = 4, we
have G = V .

3. If t = 2, then G = D8 or Z4 .
In this case, |G| = 2|G ∩ V |. Since |V | = 4, we have |G ∩ V | = 1, 2, 4.

(a) If |G ∩ V | = 1, then |G| = 2, which contradicts with the face that |G| is a
multiple of 4.
(b) If |G ∩ V | = 2, then |G| = 4, which implies that G = Z4 .

9
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

(c) If |G ∩ V | = 4, then |G| = 8. But a subgroup of S4 of order 8 is a Sylow

2-subgroup, and all of such subgroup are conjugate and therefore isomorphic.
One of theses subgroups is D8 .

6.4 (d)
Can the roots of f (X) = X 4 + X − 5 ∈ Q[X] be constructed with ruler and compass?

Solution: The resolvent cubic of f (X) is

g(X) = X 3 + 20X + 1,

which is irreducible over Q. Besides, the discriminant is D = 32027, which is a prime. So

the galois group of f (x) is S4 .
Let L be the splitting field of f over Q, then [F : Q] = 24 is not a power of 2. It follows
that roots of f (X) can not be constructed with ruler and compass.

6.5 (e)
Lemma 6.1. Suppose that f (x) = x4 + ax2 + b ∈ Q[x] is irreducible and G is its galois
group. Then
√
1. If b ∈ Q, then G ∼
= V , the Klein 4-group;
√ √
2. If a2 − 4b b ∈ Q, then G ∼= C, the cyclic group Z4 ;
3. otherwise, G ∼
= D8 .
Proof. By Problem 4 of this homework, we know that G 6= S4 . Furthermore, G 6= A4 since
we have shown that (12) ∈ / G. The possible G’s are V, C, D8 . Suppose the roots of f (x)
are α, β, −α, −β which satisfy the following relations:
√
αβ = b,
√
α2 − β 2 = a2 − 4b,
√ √
α3 β − βα3 = a2 − 4b b.

Now we have the discussion here.

10
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

√ √
b
1. If b ∈ Q, then αβ ∈ Q. Let σ ∈ G be such that σ(α) = β, then σ(β) = σ(α) = α.
Similarly, if σ(α) = −β, then σ(−β) = α; Finally, if σ(α) = −α, then σ(β) = −β.
Thus every element of G has order 2. It implies that G ∼ = V , the Klein 4-group.
√ √
2. If a2 − 4b b ∈ Q, then α3 β − βα3 ∈ Q. Let σ ∈ G be such that σ(α) = β. If
σ(β) = α, then
σ(α3 β − βα3 ) = β 3 α − αβ 3 ,
which is impossible. Therefore σ(β) = −α. It implies that σ is of order 4, which
means G ∼ = C, the cyclic group Z4 .
√ √ √ √
3. We know that the splitting field must contain Q( b), Q( a2 − b) and Q( a2 − 4b b).
√ √
The irreducibility of the polynomial implies that a2 − 4b ∈/ Q . Therefore if b,
√ √
2
a − 4b b ∈ / Q, the splitting field contains at least three subfields of degree 2.
Hence the either G ∼ = ∼ ∼
√K4 or G = D8 . However, if G = K4 , then αβ is fixed by any
element of G. Since b ∈ / Q, the only possibility is G ∼
= D8 .

Using the Lemma 6.1, we can determine the galois group for the minimal polynomial
over Q of these numbers.
p √
6.5.1 3+2 2

√
q
x = 3 + 2 2,
√
⇒ x2 = 3 + 2 2,
√
⇒ x2 − 3 = 2 2,
⇒ (x2 − 3)2 = 8,
⇒ x4 − 6x2 + 1 = 0.

So the minimal polynomial is x4 − 6x2 + 1.

Besides, since 1 ∈ Q, the galois group is V , the Klein 4-group.

11
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

p √
6.5.2 7 + 2 10

√
q
x= 7 + 2 10,
√
⇒ x2 = 7 + 2 10,
√
⇒ x2 − 7 = 2 10,
⇒ (x2 − 7)2 = 40,
⇒ x4 − 14x2 + 9 = 0.
So the minimal polynomial
√ is x4 − 14x2 + 9.
Besides, since 9 ∈ Q, the galois group is V , the Klein 4-group.
p √
6.5.3 5+2 5

√
q
x= 5 + 2 5,
√
⇒ x2 = 5 + 2 5,
√
⇒ x2 − 5 = 2 5,
⇒ (x2 − 5)2 = 20,
⇒ x4 − 10x2 + 5 = 0.
4
So the minimal polynomial
√ is x√ − 10x2 + 5.
Besides, since 10 − 4 × 5 5 = 20 ∈ Q, the galois group is C, the cyclic group Z4 .
2

p √
6.5.4 5 + 2 21

√
q
x= 5 + 2 21,
√
⇒ x2 = 5 + 2 21,
√
⇒ x2 − 5 = 2 21,
⇒ (x2 − 5)2 = 84,
⇒ x4 − 10x2 − 49 = 0.
So the minimal polynomial
√ is x4 −√10x2 − 49. √
/ Q and 102 + 4 × 49 −49 ∈
Besides, since −49 ∈ / Q, the galois group is D8 .

12
 MA 553: Homework 12
∗
Yingwei Wang
Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

1 Problem 40(c), Page 622

Question: Express the symmetric function as a polynomial in the elementary symmetric
functions.
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 x22 + x21 x23 + x22 x23 .

Solution: Since n = 3, we know that

s1 = x1 + x2 + x3 ,
s2 = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 ,
s3 = x1 x2 x3 .

By the procesure in Exercise 38, we know that the first step is to compute

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) − s01 s22

= x21 x22 + x21 x23 + x22 x23 − (x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 )2 ,
= −2x21 x2 x3 − 2x1 x22 x3 − 2x1 x2 x23 .

The second step is

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) − s01 s22 + 2s1 s02 s3 ,

= −2x21 x2 x3 − 2x1 x22 x3 − 2x1 x2 x23 + 2(x1 + x2 + x3 )x1 x2 x3 ,
= 0.

Now we know that

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = s22 − 2s1 s3 .
∗
E-mail address: [email protected]; Tel : 765 237 7149

1
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

2 Problem 48, Page 623

Determine the splitting field K for the polynomial

f (x) = x6 − 2x3 − 2,

over Q.

2.1 (a)
√
Prove that f (x) is irreducible over Q with roots the three cube roots of 1 ± 3.
Proof. By Eisenstein’s criterion, we know that f (x) is irreducible over Q.
Besides, it is easy to get
√ √
f (x) = (x3 − 1 − 3)(x3 − 1 + 3). (2.1)
p
3
√ p
3
√ √
Let α = 3 + 1, β = 3 − 1 and ω = − 21 + 23 i, then

f (x) = (x − α)(x − ωα)(x − ω 2 α)(x + β)(x + ωβ)(x + ω 2β). (2.2)

3 (b)
√ rd
√
Prove that K contains the field Q( −3) √ of 3 roots of unity and containsQ( 3), and hence
contains the biquadratic
√ √ field F = Q(i, 3). Furthermore, conclude that K is an extension of
the field L = Q( 3 2, i, 3).
Proof. First of all,
 3 √
α 3+1 √
=√ = 2 + 3 ∈ K,
β 3−1
√
⇒ Q( 3) ∈ K.

Second,

α, ωα ∈ K,
√
ωα 1 −3
⇒ =ω=− + ∈ K,
α√ 2√ 2
⇒ Q( −3) = Q( 3i) ∈ K.
√
Now we know that K ⊃ F = Q(i, 3).

2
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

Furthermore,
q√ √ √
3 3
αβ = ( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1) = 2 ∈ K,
√
3
√
⇒ L = Q( 2, i, 3) ∈ K,

3.1 (c)
Prove that [L : Q] = 12 and that K is obtained from L by adjoining the cube root of an
element in L, so that [K : Q] = 12 or 36.
Proof. It is easy to know that
√3
√ √ √
[L : Q] = [Q( 2, i, 3) : Q(i, 3)][Q(i, 3) : Q(i)][Q(i) : Q],
= 3 × 2 × 2 = 12.
√
Besides, since K is obtained from L by adjoining the cube root of 1 + 3 ∈ L, then
[K : Q] = 12 or 36.

3.2 (d)
√ √
Prove that if [K : Q] = 12 then K = Q( 3 2, i, 3) and that Gal(K/Q) is isomorphic to the
direct product of the cyclic group of order 2 √
and S3 . Furthermore, if [K : Q] = 12 then there
is a unique real cubic subfield in K, namely 3 2.
Proof.
√ We
√ know that K ⊃ L ⊃ Q and [L : Q] = 12. So if [K : Q] = 12 then K = L =
3
Q( 2, i, 3).
It is easy to know that L is the splitting field of g(x) over Q, where g(x) defined by

g(x) = (x3 − 2)(x2 − 3).

The galois group of x3 − 2 is S3 while the galois group of x2 − 3 is Z2 . It follows that

Gal (K/Q) = Z2 × S3 .
√ √
Furthermore, [(Z2 × S3 ) : (Z2 × Z2 )] = 3 and the fixed field of Z2 × Z2 is Q( 3 2). So 3 2 is
the unique real cubic subfield in K if [K : Q] = 12.

3
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

3.3 (e)
p
3
√ p 3
√ p3
√
Show that 2 + 3, 2 − 3 ∈ R are both elements of K. Show that γ = 2 + 3+
p3
√ 3
2 − 3 is a real root of the irreducible cubic equation x − 3x − 4, whose discriminant √ is
−22 44 . Conclude that the galois closure of Q(γ) contains Q(i) so in particular Q(γ) 6= 3 2.
Proof. First of all,
√ √
q q
α 3 β 3
= 2 + 3 ∈ K, = 2 − 3 ∈ K,
β α
√ √
q q
3 3
⇒ γ = 2 + 3 + 2 − 3 ∈ K.

Besides, the minimal polynomial of γ over Q is

h(x) = x3 − 3x − 4.

It is easy to check that h(x) has one real root√and two complex roots. So the Galois closure
of Q(γ) contains Q(i). In particular, Q(γ) 6= 3 2.

3.4 (f )
Determine all the elements of G = Gal (K/Q) explicitly and in particular show that G is
isomorphic to S3 × S3 .
Proof. Form part (e), we know that |G| = [K : Q] = 36.

4
Yingwei Wang Abstract Algebra

4 Finite fields
Let L ⊃ K be finite fields, c := |K|, and let f (X) ∈ K[X] be irreducible, of degree e dividing
[L : K]. Show that there is an a ∈ L such that in L[X],
2 e−1
f (X) = (X − a)(X − ac )(X − ac ) · · · (X − ac ).

How many such a are there?

Proof. First, suppose c = p is a prime. Then K = Fp , L = Fpm and L/K is a Galois extension.
Besides, the Galois group Gal(L/K) is cyclic and a generator is the pth power map:ϕp : t → tp .
Since e | [L : K], the splitting field of f (x) over K is contained in L. Let a ∈ L is a root of
f (x), then other roots can be obtained from a by applying Gal(K(a)/K) to this root. Since
2
the Galois group is generated by the pth power map, the roots of f (x) are a, ap , ap , · · · . Once
we reach ap , we have cycled back to the start ap = a since K(a) ∼
e e
= K/f has order pe .
The polynomial f is separable since its roots lie in a Galois extension K(α)/K. Besides,
since its degree is d, its different roots must be
2 e −1
a, ap , ap , · · · , ap .

Second, suppose c = pn and [L : K] = d Then K = Fc and L = Fcd . Similarly, L/K is also

a Galois extension and the Galois group GalL/K is cyclic with generator the cth power map
ϕc : t → tq . Similarly, we can show that if f (x) is irreducible with degree e | d, then there is
a ∈ L such that a is a root of f and the full set of roots is
2 e −1
a, ac , ac , · · · , ac .

Since K(a) ⊂ L and [K(a) : K] = e, [L : K] = d, the number of such a should be

d − e + 1.