Electrical circuits

power supplies
and passive circuit
elements
Electrical Circuit – example
 Types of Circuit Elements
Circuit components are generally classified as control
elements, passive elements, and active elements
•Control Elements – direct and modify the current (e.g. switches)
•Passive Elements – total energy delivered to the element by the
rest of the circuit is nonnegative (e.g. resistors, capacitors,
inductors)
•Active Elements – can provide energy to the circuit (e.g.
batteries, generators)
Control element (example – switches)
•Switches can be used to direct and control the
flow of current

•The switch can act as an insulator or a conductor

Switch operation
• Time t<0: • Time t>0:
 Power Supplies
Power supplies provide a source of electrical power
•The power source is typically a non-electrical process
• Electro-mechanical sources: generators typically convert a rotational
motion to electrical power by moving magnets relative to one
another. The rotational motion is induced by mechanical means,
such as flowing fluid through a turbine.
• Chemical sources: batteries convert energy created by a chemical
reaction to electrical energy
• Piezoelectric : materials produce a voltage when they are deformed
• Solar cells : convert light to electrical energy
Conceptual types of power supplies
Power supplies can be modeled in a number of ways:
•Voltage, current sources
•Independent, dependent sources
•Ideal and non-ideal sources
Voltage Sources
• Independent voltage sources • Ideal, independent voltage source
provide a specified voltage symbols:
• Regardless of the current provided
• Can provide infinite power!
Voltage Sources – continued
•Dependent voltage sources provide a voltage which is
based on some other parameter in the system
•Example dependent source symbol:

•Often used as control elements

Current Sources
• Independent current sources • Ideal, independent current
provide a specified current source symbol:
• Regardless of the voltage provided
• Can provide infinite power!
Current Sources – continued
•Dependent current sources provide a current which is
based on some other parameter in the system
•Example dependent source symbol:

•Also often used as control elements

 Common types of source signals
Time-varying signals
•DC (Direct Current) signals
•Constant with time

•AC (Alternating Current)

•Vary sinusoidally with time
Passive Circuit Elements
Examples:
•Resistors
•Capacitors
•Inductors
Passive circuit elements - resistors
•Resistance models the fact that energy is always
lost during charge motion
•Electrons moving through a material “collide”
with the atoms composing the material
•These collisions impede the motion of the electrons
•Thus, a voltage potential difference is required for
current to flow. This potential energy balances the
energy lost in these collisions.
Resistance
Resistors
• Circuit symbol: • Voltage-current relation (Ohm’s
Law):

v( t )  R  i( t )

•R is the resistance
• Units are ohms ()
Passive circuit elements – capacitors
•Capacitors store energy in the form of an electric field
• Typically constructed of two conductive materials separated by a
non-conductive (dielectric) material
Capacitors
• Circuit symbol: • Voltage-current relation:
dv( t )
i( t )  C
dt
• Capacitors can store energy

1 2
Wc  Cv
• C is the capacitance 2
• Units are Farads (F)
Capacitors
Notes:
•Capacitors can store energy
•The voltage-current relation is a differential
equation
•Capacitance limits rate of change of voltage
•If the voltage is constant, the current is zero
and the capacitor looks like an open-circuit
Passive circuit elements - inductors
• Inductors store energy in
the form of a magnetic field
• Often constructed by coiling
a conductive wire around a
ferrite core
Inductors
• Circuit symbol: • Voltage-current relation:
di( t )
v( t )  L
dt
• Inductors can store energy

1 2
WL  Li
2
• L is the inductance
• Units are Henries (H)
Inductors
Notes:
•Inductors can store energy
•The voltage-current relation is a
differential equation
•If the current is constant, the voltage
difference is zero and the inductor looks
like a perfect conductor
 Series and
Parallel Circuits
Kirchoff’s Laws
Kirchoff’s Laws show the relationship between current and
voltage.

•Kirchoff’s First Law…current (junction rule)

At any junction, the sum of the currents
entering the junction equals the sum of the
currents leaving
Current in a series circuit:
Any junction has one path in and one
path out…..current is the same
everywhere
Current in a parallel circuit:
Sum of the currents entering equals the sum of
the currents leaving
Kirchoff’s Second Law…potential
difference (loop rule)

The sum of the drops in potential

(voltages) equals the potential
(voltage) at the source
RESISTORS IN SERIES
- In a series circuit, the current is the same
at all points along the wire.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3
- An equivalent resistance is the resistance of a single resistor that
could replace all the resistors in a circuit. The single resistor would
have the same current through it as the resistors it replaced.
RE = R 1 + R 2 + R 3
- In a series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops equal the voltage
drop across the entire circuit.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
Example
Two resistances of 2 Ω and 4 Ω respectively are connected in series. If the
source of emf maintains a constant potential difference of 12 V,
a. What is the current delivered to the external circuit?
Re = R1 + R2 V 12
IT   =2A
=2+4 Re 6
=6Ω

b. What is the potential drop across each resistor?

V1 = I R1
= 2(2)
=4V
V2 = I R2
= 2(4)
=8V
How can a series circuit be used as a voltage
divider?
R2 uses some of the
voltage from the
source, reducing the
voltage drop across
R1

Useful when a resistor requires a different voltage than the

voltage source
Consider two resistors in series with a voltage
v(t) across them:
Voltage division:
i(t)
+ + R1
v1(t)
v1 (t )  v(t )
R1 R1  R2
-
v(t) +
v2(t) R2
R2 v2 (t )  v(t )
R1  R2
- -
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
- In a parallel circuit, each resistor provides a new path for electrons to flow.
The total current is the sum of the currents through each resistor.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3

- The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit decreases as each new resistor is

added.
1 1 1 1
  
RE R1 R2 R3
- The voltage drop across each branch is equal to the voltage of the source.
VT = V1 = V2 = V 3
Consider two resistors in parallel with a voltage v(t)
across them:

Current division:

R2
i1 (t )  i (t )
R1  R2

R1
i2 (t )  i(t )
R1  R2
Example
The total applied voltage to the circuit in the figure is 12 V and the
resistances R1, R2 and R3 are 4, 3 and 6 Ω respectively.
a. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

R2 and R3 are in parallel (RP)

R1
1 1 1
  Rp = 2 Ω 4Ω
Rp 6 3 V R2 R3
3Ω 6Ω
12 V
RP and R1 are in series
Req = 4 + 2
=6Ω
 b. What is the current through each resistor?

V 12 I1 = 2 A (series)
IT   =2A
Re 6 V1 = IR1
= 2(4)
=8V

The voltage through the parallel combination is therefore: 12-8 = 4 V each

V 4 V 4 = 0.67 A
I2   = 1.33 A I3  
R2 3 R3 6
Example
Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown.

19 and 5 are in series:

19 + 5 = 24 Ω

1 1 1
this combination is in parallel with 8:  
R p 8 24
RP = 6 Ω
this combination is in series with 15:
15 + 6 = 21 Ω
1 1 1
this in turn is in parallel with 9:  
R p 21 9
RP = 6.3 Ω
finally the equivalent resistance:
Req = 6.3 + 2 + 0.2 = 8.5 Ω
Example
A potential difference of 20 V is applied to the circuit in the figure below. Find the
current through the entire circuit and the current through each resistor.

R1 and R2 are in parallel: 1 1 1

 
Rp 10 10
RP = 5 Ω
this combination is in series with R3:
5+3= 8Ω

this combination is now in parallel with R4:

1 1 1 RP = 4.8 Ω = Req
 
R p 8 12
 V 20
IT   = 4.17 A
Req 4.8

IT = I3 + I4

V 20 = 1.67 A
I4 
R4  12

I3 = IT - I4
= 4.17 - 1.67
= 2.5 A
The voltage for the parallel combination is:
V' = V - I3R3
= 20 - (2.5)(3)
= 12.5 V
V '  12.5 = 1.25 A
I1 
R1 10

I2 = 2.5 - 1.25 = 1.25 A

 Theorems
for
Electric Circuit Analysis
•Kirchhoff theorems
•Node voltage method
• Superposition theorem
•Source Transformation
• Thevenin theorem
• Norton theorem
•Delta to Wye Conversion
Kirchhoff theorems
The theorems are applicable in circuit analysis for insulated circuits (the
circuit is not exposed to external factors as electrical or magnetic fields).
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law :
The algebraic sum of the voltages at any instant around any loop in a
circuit is zero.
• Kirchhoff’s current law
The algebraic sum of the currents at any instant at any node in a circuit is
zero.

TKV :  v  0 TKI :  i  0
 Applying of Kirchhoff’s Theorem
• If a circuit has m loops and n nodes, then the complete description of its
operation is obtained by writing KVL for m-n+1 loops and KCL for n-1
nodes. The loops must form an independent system.

 Prior to the analysis of an electric circuit, the conventional directions of

the currents in the circuit are not known. So, before writing the
equations (Kirchhoff’s laws) for each loop, a positive arbitrary direction
is selected for each branch of the circuit.
 After performing the analysis of the circuit, if the value of the current is
positive, the arbitrary and conventional directions of the current flow
are identical. If the value of the current is negative, the conventional
direction is opposite to the arbitrary selected direction.
Applying of Kirchhoff’s Theorem
Step I – choosing the voltages and currents arbitrary
directions
Step II – choosing the loop’s cover direction
Step III – writing the Kirkhhoff’s theorems

I I
R1 R3
A

V
R1
V
R2
R2
I
R2
V
R3
R3  V 1  VR1  VR2  V 2  0
R1 330 150 1K

V1=5 V V2=9 V  V 2  VR2  VR3  0
I  I  I  0
B
 R1 R2 R3
 Solving equation systems
In order to solve the equations, the Ohm’s Law is VR1  R1  I R1
applied and the voltage across the resistors are
substituted. VR2  R 2  I R2
It is obtained a system with three equations and VR3  R3  I R3
three variables, IR1, IR2 and IR3.

  V 1  R1  I R 1  R 2  I R 2  V 2  0

 V 2  R 2  I R 2  R 3  I R3  0
I  I  I  0
 R1 R2 R3
The System Solutions
I I
R1 A R3

• The solutions are: V

R2
I
R2
V
R3
R1 R2 R3
• IR1-6 mA V
R1 330 150 1K

• IR2-13 mA V1=5 V V2=9 V

• IR37 mA
B

• The voltages across the resistances:

• VR1-2 V
• VR2-2 V
• VR37 V
 Node voltage method
In the node voltage method, you can solve for the unknown
voltages in a circuit using KCL.
Steps:
1. Determine the number of nodes.
2. Select one node as a reference. Assign voltage designations to
each unknown node.
3. Assign currents into and out of each node except the reference
node.
4. Apply KCL at each node where currents are assigned.
5. Express the current equations in terms of the voltages and solve
for the unknown voltages using Ohm’s law.
Node voltage method
find the magnitude and direction of each of the branch currents.
 I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

V1  E1 V 1 V 1  E 2
I1  I 2  I 2 
R R 3
R1 2

V1  E1 V1 V1  E 2
  0
R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 E1 E 2
V1 (   ) 
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2
 V1 = 44.6 volts
The Superposition Theorem
The Superposition theorem states that:
the response in a linear circuit with multiple sources can be
obtained by adding the individual responses caused by the
separate independent sources acting alone.
The source passivation  the sources are replaced by their
internal resistance.

By passivation, the voltage source is replaced with a short-

circuit, and the current source is replaced with an open-
circuit.
The Superposition Theorem

 +
 Source Transformation

A source transformation is:

the process of replacing a voltage source Vs in
series with a resistor R by a current source Is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
Source Transformation

vs
v s  is R or i s 
R
 Example
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit shown.
Solution
we use current division in Fig (c) to get
2
i ( 2 )  0 .4 A
28

and
vo  8i  8(0.4)  3.2V
OPEN AND SHORT
CIRCUITS
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
Open circuits and short circuits can often
cause more confusion and difficulty in the
analysis of a system than standard series or
parallel configurations. This will become
more obvious in the chapters to follow when
we apply some of the methods and
theorems.
An open circuit is simply two isolated terminals not
connected by an element of any kind, as shown in Fig.

Since a path for conduction does not exist, the current

associated with an open circuit must always be zero.
“An open circuit can have a potential difference
(voltage) across its terminals, but the current is
always zero amperes.”
EXAMPLE
Determine the voltages Vab and Vcd for the network of Fig.

Vab = E1 = 10 V

The voltage Vcd requires an application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

+ E1 - E2 – Vcd = 0
Or
Vcd = E1 - E2 = 10 V - 30 V = - 20 V
A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct
connection between two terminals of a network, as
shown in Fig. The current through the short circuit
can be any value, as determined by the system it is
connected to, but the voltage across the short circuit
will always be zero volts because the resistance of
the short circuit is assumed to be essentially zero
ohms and
V= IR = I (0) = 0 V.
“A short circuit can carry a current of a level
determined by the external circuit, but the
potential difference (voltage) across its
terminals is always zero volts.”
The effect of the 2 Ω resistor has effectively
been “shorted out” by the low-resistance
connection.

The maximum current is now limited only by

the circuit breaker or fuse in series with the
source.
EXAMPLE
Determine the unknown voltage and current for each network of
Fig.

Solution
Thevenin’s and Norton’s
Theorems
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
Consider the following:
A
Network • Network
B
1 • 2

For purposes of discussion, at this point, we consider that

both networks are composed of resistors and independent
voltage and current sources
Suppose Network 2 is detached from Network 1 and we
focus temporarily only on Network 1.

Network • A
1 • B

Network 1 can be as complicated in structure as one

can imagine. Maybe 45 meshes, 387 resistors, 91
voltage sources and 39 current sources.
 Network
• A
1 • B

Now place a voltmeter across terminals A-B and read the

voltage. We call this the open-circuit voltage.

No matter how complicated Network 1 is, we read one voltage.

It is either positive at A, (with respect to B) or negative at A.

We call this voltage Vos and we also call it VTHEVENIN = VTH

• We now deactivate all sources of Network 1.

• To deactivate a voltage source, we remove

the source and replace it with a short circuit.

• To deactivate a current source, we remove

the source.
Consider the following circuit.

I2
V3
_+ A
R1 R3
R2
R4
_+ V1 _ I1
V2 +
B

How do we deactivate the sources of this circuit?

When the sources are deactivated the circuit appears as in Fig.

A
R1 R3
R2 R4

Now place an ohmmeter across A-B and read the resistance.

If R1= R2 = R4= 20  and R3=10  then the meter reads 10 .
We call the ohmmeter reading, under these conditions,
RTHEVENIN and shorten this to RTH.

Therefore, the important results are that we can replace

Network 1 with the following network.

A

RTH
+
_ VTH

B

We can now tie (reconnect) Network 2 back to terminals A-B.

A

RTH
+ Network
_ VTH
2


B

We can now make any calculations we desire within Network 2

and they will give the same results as if we still had Network 1
connected.
It follows that we could also replace Network 2 with a Thevenin
voltage and Thevenin resistance. The results would be as
shown in Fig.

A

RTH 1 RTH 2
+
_ VTH 1 VTH 2 _+


B
Example
Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B.
12  4 A

+

30 V +
_ 6 2 VX
_

B

First remove everything to the right of A-B.

 12  4 A


30 V +
_ 6


B

(30)(6)
VAB   10V
6  12
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4  resistor
(A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage across the
resistor.
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and
find the resistance seen looking in these terminals.
12  4 A

RTH
6


B

We see,
RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 
After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this
to the load in order to find VX.
RTH A

8 +
VTH + 10 V VX
_ 2
_
B


(10)( 2)
VX   2V
28
In some cases it may become tedious to find RTH by
reducing the resistive network with the sources
deactivated. Consider the following:
RTH A


VTH + ISS
_

B

We see;
VTH
RTH 
I SS
Example
For the circuit in Figure, find RTH by using ISS.
12  C 4 A
 

30 V +
_ 6 ISS

 
D B

The task now is to find ISS. One way to do this is to

replace the circuit to the left of C-D with a Thevenin
voltage and Thevenin resistance.
Applying Thevenin’s theorem to the left of terminals C-D
and reconnecting to the load gives,
4 C 4 A
 

10 V +
_ ISS

 
VTH 10 D B
RTH    8
I SS 10
8
Example
For the circuit below, find VAB by first finding the
Thevenin circuit to the left of terminals A-B.
1.5 A

5
 A
10 

20 V _+ 20  17 


• We first find VTH with the 17  resistor removed.
• Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B with
the sources deactivated.
 1.5 A

5
 A
10 

20 V _+ 20 


20(20)
VOS  VAB  VTH  (1.5)(10) 
(20  5)
 VTH  31V
 5
 A
10 

20 


5(20)
RTH  10   14 
(5  20)
 RTH A

14  +
VTH + 31 V VAB
_ 17 
_
B


We can easily find that,

VAB  17V
Example (Working with a mix of independent and dependent sources.)
Find the voltage across the 100  load resistor by first
finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V
100 

6 IS
B

First remove the 100  load resistor and find VAB = VTH to
the left of terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V

6 IS
B


 86  80 I S  6 I S  0  I S  1 A
VAB  6 I S  30 I S   36V
To find RTH we deactivate all independent sources but retain
all dependent sources as shown in Figure.
IS A

50  40 
30  RTH

6 IS
B

We cannot find RTH of the above circuit, as it stands. We
must apply either a voltage or current source at the load
and calculate the ratio of this voltage to current to find RTH.
 IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A
6 IS

Around the loop at the left we write the following equation:

50 I S  30( I S  1)  6 I S  0
From which
15
IS  A
43
 IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1 A=I
6 IS

Using the outer loop, going in the cw direction, using drops;

 15 
50    1(40)  V  0 or V  57.4 volts
 43 

V V
RTH    57.4 
I 1
The Thevenin equivalent circuit tied to the 100  load
resistor is shown below.
RTH

57.4 

VTH +_ 36 V 100 

36 x100
V100   22.9 V
57.4  100
Example
Finding the Thevenin circuit when only resistors and dependent
sources are present. Consider the circuit below.
Find Vxyby first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of x-y.
10Ix
x

20  50 

50  60  100 V +
_

IX


y

For this circuit, it would probably be easier to use mesh or nodal

analysis to find Vxy. However, the purpose is to illustrate
Thevenin’s theorem.
We first reconcile that the Thevenin voltage for this circuit must be
zero. There is no “juice” in the circuit so there cannot be any open
circuit voltage except zero. This is always true when the circuit is
made up of only dependent sources and resistors.
To find RTH we apply a 1 A source and determine V for the circuit
below.
10IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
 10IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
m

Write KVL around the loop at the left, starting at “m”, going cw,
using drops:
 50(1  I X )  10 I X  20(1  I X )  60 I X  0

I X  0.5 A
 10IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
m
n

We write KVL for the loop to the right, starting at n, using drops
and find;
 60( 0.5)  1 x 20  V  0
or
V  50 volts
We know that, V
RTH  ,
I where V = 50 and I = 1.

Thus, RTH = 50 . The Thevenin circuit tied to the load is given

below.
x

50 

50  _+ 100 V

Obviously, VXY = 50 V 
y
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Assume that the network enclosed below is composed of
independent sources and resistors.

Network

Norton’s Theorem states that this network can be replaced by a

current source shunted by a resistance R.

I R
In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit
current of the network, that is, the current obtained by
shorting the output of the network. The resistance is the
resistance seen looking into the network with all sources
deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

ISS RN = RTH
We recall the following from source transformations.

R
+ V
_ V R I=
R

In view of the above, if we have the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a

network, we can obtain the Norton equivalent by using source
transformation.
However, this is not how we normally go about finding the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Example
Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for
the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit
to the load and find the current in the 50  resistor.
10 A

20  40  A


+
_ 50 V 60  50 


B
 10 A

20  40 

+
_ 50 V 60 
ISS

It can be shown by standard circuit analysis that

I SS 10.7 A
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources, We find the
resistance looking into terminals A-B is

RN  55 
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit.
The Norton equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.

10.7 A 55  50 
Example
This example illustrates how one might use Norton’s Theorem in
electronics. The following circuit comes close to representing the
model of a transistor.
For the circuit shown below, find the Norton equivalent circuit to
the left of terminals A-B.
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40 
_

B
 1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40 
_

We first find;
VOS
RN 
I SS
We first find VOS:

V OS  V X  (  25 I S )( 40 )   1000 I S
 1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40  ISS
_

We note that ISS = - 25IS. Thus,

VOS  1000 I S
RN    40 
I SS  25 I S
 1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40 
_

From the mesh on the left we have;

 5  1000 I S  3( 1000 I S )  0
From which,
I S   2.5 mA
We saw earlier that,
I SS   25 I S
Therefore;
I SS  62.5 mA

The Norton equivalent circuit is shown below.

A

IN = 62.5 mA RN = 40 

B
Using source transformations we know that the Thevenin
equivalent circuit is as follows:

40 

+
_ 2.5 V

Thevenin equivalent for Example

 Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in
a place where the circuit contains a delta configuration. We
superimpose a wye network on the existing delta network
and find the equivalent resistances in the wye network. To
obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye network, we
compare the two networks and make sure that the resistance
between each pair of nodes in the network is the same as
the resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y
network. For terminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 1 and 2 , for example,
 Eq. (1)

Eq. (2)

Eq. (3)

Eq. (4)

Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (2), we get

Eq. (5)
Adding Eqs. (3) and (5) gives

Eq. (6)

and subtracting Eq. (5) from Eq. (3) yields

Eq. (7)

Subtracting Eq. (6) from Eq. (2), we obtain

Eq. (8)
We do not need to memorize Eqs. (6) to (8). To transform a network to Y, we
create an extra node n as shown in Fig. and follow this conversion rule:
 Wye to Delta Conversion
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye
network to an equivalent delta network, we note from Eqs.
(6) to (8) that

Eq. (9)
Dividing Eq. (9) by each of Eqs. (6) to (8) leads to the
following equations:

Eq. (10)

Eq. (11)

Eq. (12)
From Eqs. (10) to (12) and Fig., the conversion rule for Y to
is as follows:

The Y and networks are said to be balanced when

Eq. (13)

Under these conditions, conversion formulas become

Eq. (14)
Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in
Fig. and use it to find current i.
In this circuit, there are two Y networks and one network. Transforming
just one of these will simplify the circuit.
If we convert the Y network comprising the 5-, 10-, and 20- resistors, we
may select R = 10 , R = 20 , R = 5
1 2 3
With the Y converted to ,the equivalent circuit (with the voltage source
removed for now) is shown in Fig. (a). Combining the three pairs of resistors in
parallel, we obtain