'I'h\:~\: cuhlc opcrutcd drum brakes remained Hydraulic brako activation Disk brake substantially reduces the danger

substantially reduces the danger of skidding.

in use for a long time. One example was The muin problem or the cable brake was Although British autornaker Lancaster had In 1986, it was followed by the traction
the standard VW model of' the 1950s the great maintenance effort and the uneven parented the disk brake in 1902, it was a long control system (TCS) with which Bosch
(Fig,10): braking effect caused by uneven friction time until this type of brake was introduced. extended system capability to the control
The primary element of this brake system during mechanical transmission. Not until some fifty years later, beginning in of wheel spin under acceleration.
was a brake pressure rail (Item 1), The four This was remedied when Lockheed intro- 1955, did the legendary Citroen DS-19 be- Fig. 11 shows road tests of these systems on
brake cables (2) attached to this element ran duced a hydraulically actuated brake in come the first mass-produced car to be fitted the Bosch proving grounds in Boxberg in
backwards through cable sleeves to the 1919. A special brake fluid now transmitted with disk brakes. The disk brake was derived southern Germany.
wheel brakes (drum brakes) of the four the brake pedal force uniformly to the actu- [1'0111 the multi-plate brake and was initially

wheels (3), The rear part of the rail was sup- ating cylinders of the wheel brakes over developed for the aircraft industry. As a further improvement of driving safety,
ported by a short lever that sat on the brake metal lines and hoses, without the need for In the disk brake, one brake lining presses Bosch introduced the electronic stability
pedal shaft, When the brake pedal of the levers, joints and cables. the brake disk from the inside and outside, program (ESP) in 1995, which integrates the
footbrake (4) was depressed, the brake pres- The brake disk (which is normally made of functions of ABS and TCS. It not only pre-
sure rail was pushed forwards along with the Hydraulic brake activation also made it pos- cast iron or, less commonly, of steel) is con- vents the vehicle wheels from locking and
four cables. The cables transmitted the force sible to amplify the foot pressure applied by nected to the wheel. Its advantage is its sim- spinning, it also keeps the vehicle from
to the wheel brakes. the driver by using intake manifold depres- ple and easy-to-assemble structure. It also pulling to the side. Alternative systems, such
The lever for the handbrake (5) was fur- sion as a source of power for a brake servo counteracts the reduction in braking effect as four-wheel steering and rear-axle kine-
ther back in the car. However, via a decou- system. The principle was patented in 1919 caused by overheating and prevents mis- matics, which were developed in the 1980s
pled rod, the hand brake ultimately acted on by Hispano-Suiza. alignment of the wheels of an axle. and 90s and were installed in some mass-
the same mechanism as the footbrake, and production vehicles, did not catch on be-
thus likewise acted on all four wheels. On commercial vehicles and railway rolling The first German car with disk brakes on the cause they weighed too much, cost too much
stock, air brakes established themselves as front wheels was the BMW 502 in 1959. The or were not effective enough.
the system of choice. first German cars to have disk brakes on all Meanwhile, the (electrohydraulic) sen-
four wheels were the Mercedes 300 SE, the sotronic brake control has found its place in
In 1926, the "Adler Standard" was the first Lancia Flavia and the Fiat 2300 in 1961. automobile construction. It provides all of
car in Europe to be equipped with a hy- Today, virtually all cars have a disk braking the ESP functions and decouples the me-
draulic brake system. The first hydraulic system, at least 011 the front wheels. In 1974, chanical operation of the brake pedal by
braking force reinforcement in auto racing the first Formula 1 racecars with carbon means of an electronic control system. For
were used in the Mercedes-Benz "Silver fiber composite brake disks were introduced. safety purposes, a hydra ulic fallback system
Arrows" in 1954. This ultimately became These disks are considered especially light is automatically available.
l_~dard model VW, cable brake I standard equipment for many mass-produc- and heat resistant and thus have gained
a tion vehicles. widespread use in motors ports and aviat.ion.

Because a possible failure of the brake cir- Brake pads and shoes

-e«: cuit could completely disable the early sin-

gle-circuit brakes, the dual-circuit brake was
later prescribed by law. According to VW
Suitable brake linings had to be developed
for drum and disk brakes, for which asbestos
proved to be particularly effective. Not until
it became known that asbestos fibers were Steep uphill drive in the Bosch proving grounds in
Golf developer Dr. Ernst Fiala, the early
Fig. 10 Boxberg for testing the driving stability systems of
"Beetles" (the standard model VWs) still had harmful to health was the material replaced

-
passenger cars and commercial vehicles
a Activation of the

1
foot brake
Activation of the
handbrake

Brake pressure rail

I b
..»: a cable-operated brake for that very reason:
at the time it was feared that a hose in the
hydraulic brakes could explode. Later, how-
ever - if only for competitive reasons - the
VW Export and VW Transporter featured
by plastic fiber.

Driving stability systems

The age of electronic brake systems dawned
in 1978 with the arrival of the antilock brak-
2 Brake cables
~~~5 hydraulic braking systems. ing system (ABS) for cars developed by
3 Wheel brakes
Bosch. During braking, ABS provides early
4 Brake pedal of ~
a detection of the incipient lock of one or
the foolbrake
a::::J more wheels and prevents wheel locking.
5 Lever of the
@I
handbrake
• It ensures the steerability of the vehicle and
 ry-bru k ' syst '111 Methods of operation Power-brake systems
Cia siflcation of S~Wl1d~\
Power-brake systems are generally used on
The se on lory-brake system must bc capable cpcnding on whether they are operated
car braking systems ntirely or partially by human effort or by commercial vehicles but are occasionally fitted
of providing at least some degree of braking
The entirety of the braking systems on a if the service-brake system fails. It must be another source of energy, braking systems on large cars in conjunction with an integral
vehicle is referred to as braking equipment. possible to infinitely vary the level of braking can be classed either as ABS facility. This type of braking system is
Car braking systems can be classified on the applied. • muscular-energy (unassisted) braking operated entirely without muscular-energy.
basis of systems,
The secondary-brake system does not have • power-assisted braking systems, or The system is operated by hydraulic power
• design and
• method of operation to be an entirely separate third braking system • power-brake systems, (which is based on fluid pressure) transmitted
(in addition to the service brakes and the by hydraulic means. The brake fluid is stored
Designs parking brake) with its own separate actua- Muscular-energy braking systems in energy accumulators (hydraulic accumu-
Based on legal requirements, the functions of tion device. It can consist of the remaining On this type of braking system frequently lators) which also contain a compressed gas
the braking equipment are shared among three intact circuit of a dual-circuit service-brake found on cars and motorcycles, the effort (usually nitrogen). The gas and the fluid are
braking systems: system on which one circuit has failed, or it applied to the brake pedal or hand-brake kept apart by a flexible diaphragm (diaphragm
• the service brakes, can be a parking-brake that is capable of lever is transmitted to the brakes either me- accumulator) or a piston with a rubber seal
• the secondary-brake system, and graduated application. chanically (by means of a rod linkage or ca- (piston accumulator). A hydraulic pump
ble) or hydraulically. The energy by which generates the fluid pressure, which is always
• the parking brake
Parking-brake system the braking force is generated is produced en- in equilibrium with the gas pressure in the
On commercial vehicles, the braking equip- The parking brake (hand brake) performs tirely by the physical strength of the driver. energy accumulator. A pressure regulator
ment also includes a continuous-operation the third function required of the braking switches the hydraulic pump to idle as soon
braking system (e.g. retarder) that allows the equipment. It must prevent the vehicle from Power-assisted braking systems as the maximum pressure is reached.
driver to keep the vehicle at a steady speed moving when stopped or parked, even on a The power-assisted braking system is the type
on a long descent. The braking equipment of gradient and when the vehicle is unattended. most commonly used on cars and light com- Since brake fluid can be regarded as practically
a commercial vehicle also includes an auto- mercial vehicles. incompressible, small volumes of brake fluid
matic braking system that operates the brakes According to the legal requirements, the It amplifies the force applied by the driver by can transmit large brake-system pressures.
of a trailer if it is detached from its towing parking-brake system must also have an un- means of a brake servo which utilises another
vehicle either deliberately or by accident. broken mechanical link, e.g. a rod linkage or source of energy (vacuum or hydraulic power).
a cable, between the actuation device and The amplified muscle power is transmitted
Service brakes the brakes that it operates. hydraulically to the brakes.
The service-brake system ("foot brake") is The parking-brake system is generally
used to slow down the vehicle, to keep its operated by means of a hand-brake lever
speed constant on a descent, or to bring it positioned near the driver's seat, or in some
completely to a halt. cases by a foot pedal. This means that the
service and parking-brake systems of a motor
The driver can infinitely vary the braking vehicle have separate actuation devices and
effect by means of the pressure applied to the means of force transmission.
brake pedal.
The service-brake system applies the brakes The parking-brake system is capable of
on all four wheels. graduated application and operates the brakes
on one pair of wheels (front or rear) only.
 mpon nts of a car braking Fore tr n ml Ion y t m ~rake-circuit configuration HI configuration
y tem 'I'll' for • transmission syst m cn ornpasscs This layout involves a front/front-and-rear
those parts of the braking system that transmit Lc '~I requirements demand that braking split - one brake circuit operates the front
!Ii '1I1" I shows thc schematic layout of a car the energy introduced by the energy supply systems incorporate a dual-circuit force- and rear brakes, the other operates only the
bral ing system. It consists of the following system(s) and controlled by the actuation transmission system. front brakes.
main component groups: device. It starts at the point where the actua-
• Energy supply system, tion device and the energy supply system end. According to DIN 74000, there are five ways LL configuration
• Actuation device, It ends at the point where it interfaces with in which the two brake circuits can be split This arrangement involves a two-front/one-
• Force transmission system, and those parts of the braking system that generate (Figure 1). It uses the following combinations rear split. Each circuit operates both front
• Wheel brakes. the forces that inhibit or retard vehicle motion. of letters to designate the five different con- wheels and one rear wheel.
It may be mechanical or hydromechanical in figurations: II, X, HI, LL and HH. Those let-
Energy supply system design. ters are chosen because their shapes roughly HH configuration
The energy supply system encompasses those The components of the force transmission approximate to the layout of the brake lines The circuits are split front-and-rearlfront-
parts of the braking system that provide, system include the transmission medi urn, connecting the master cylinder and the brakes. and-rear. Each circuit operates all four wheels.
control and (in some cases) condition the hoses, pipes and, on some systems, a pressure Of those five possibilities, the II and X
energy required to operate the brakes. It ends regulating valve for limiting the braking force configurations, which involve the minimum
at the point where the force transmission at the rear wheels. amount of brake piping, hoses, disconnectable
system begins, i.e. where the various circuits joints and static or dynamic seals, have become
of the braking system are isolated from the Wheelbrakes the most widely established. That character-

P=s------:
energy supply system or from each other. The wheelbrakes consist of those parts of istic means that the risk of failure of each of Brake-circuit configuration
Car braking systems are in the main power- the braking system in which the forces that the individual circuits due to fluid leakage is
assisted braking systems in which the physical inhibit or retard the movement of the vehicle as low as it is for a single-circuit braking sys-
effort of the driver, amplified by the vacuum are generated. On car braking systems, they tem. In the event of brake-circuit failure due a c::::J
in the brake servo unit, provides the energy are friction brakes (disc or drum brakes). to overheating of one of the brakes, the HI,
for braking. ~
LL and HH configurations have a critical 1 2 I
weakness because the connection of individual C::::>
Actuation device brakes to both circuits means that failure of
The actuation device encompasses those parts Layout of a car braking system one brake can result in total failure of the
of a braking system that are used to initiate braking system as a whole.
and control the action of that braking system.
The control signal may be transmitted within I Energy source (driver)
I In order to satisfy the legal requirements
the actua tion device, and the use of an addi- Service brakes Parking brake regarding secondary-braking effectiveness,
tional energy source is also possible. 1
Actuation (control) device
vehicles with a forward weight-distribution
The actuation device starts at the point at Actuation (contro~ de..noe bias are fitted with the X configuration. The
which the actuation force is directly applied. Brake pedal Hanc-brake lever
Master cylinder
II configuration is particularly suited to use on
It may be operated in the following ways:
• by direct application of force by hand or
foot by the driver,
,
Brake servo unIT

Energy source
cars with a rearward weight-distribution bias.

II configuration
• by indirect control of force by the driver. Hydraulic energy This layout involves a front-axle/rear-axle
Electrical energy
split - one circuit operates the rear brakes,
The actuation device ends at the point where
distribution of the braking-system energy •
Force transmission device
the other operates the front brakes .
Fig. 1
begins or where a portion of that energy is Modulator, linkage, X configuration a II configuration

"I i
diverted for the purpose of controlling brak- hydraulic pipes and electrical wiring, b Xx;onfiguration
This layout involves a diagonal split - each

1-,1'-'
pressure regulating valve, ECU
ing. Among the essential components of the H I configuration
t circuit operates one front brake and its diag-
actuation device are the vacuum servo unit t d LL configuration
UJ
onally opposed rear brake.
and the master cylinder.
Wheelbrake I '"R HH configuration
Front brake II Rear brake I o
rn
u,
e ~
1 ~Brake circuit 1
::J ::J
2 Brake circuit 2
e @
~ Direction of travel
 y L

Along with steering and changing gear, b I'S into th brnk 'I ipcs (4) an I brak hos s
braking is one of the most frequently per- (2), thereby transrniuing hy Irauli pr ssurc Brake pedal Brake-pedal module
formed operations when driving a car. On the brake-pedal module (Figure 2),
to the disk brakes (1) on the front wh cls
The components of the braking system must Function the pedal (3), brake servo unit (2) and master
and the drum brakes (12) on the rear
take account of that fact by making optimum I u ring the braking sequence, the force ap- cylinder (1) are combined to form a single
wheels. If one of the brake circui ts fails, the
use of the force applied to the pedal by the pi i d by the driver is transmitted to the unit. Design considerations dictate that the
other remains fully functional so that the effect
driver and by ensuring that the force required braking system through the brake-pedal. module illustrated is mounted below the
of a secondary-brake system is guaranteed.
remains as constant as possible for the desired This requires a sensitive response to the vehicle floor in the area of the driver's footwell.
The brake-fluid reservoir (6) connected to the
braking effect. force applied. A sealed casing (4) protects the mechanism
master cylinder (5) compensates for volume
from dirt and damp.
fluctuations in the brake circuits.
Design
Increasing deceleration during the braking
There are two types of brake-pedal design: Method of operation
Overview process shifts an increasingly larger proportion
• suspended and During the braking sequence, the driver applies
of the vehicle's weight from the rear to the
Figure 1 shows a conventional braking system • floor-mounted (brake-pedal module). foot pressure to the pedal (Item 7, Figure 1),
front wheels (dynamic axle-load shift).
of the dual-circuit type with a front/rear config- thereby overcoming the retaining force of the
Accordingly, the press me regulating valve (11)
uration and without electronic safety systems. Suspended design return spring (3) and transmitting force to the
lowers the braking pressure at the rear wheels
In order to operate the brakes, the driver Most cars have suspended-type brake pedals brake servo unit (1) via the connecting rod (4).
to prevent them being overbraked. This is a
applies foot pressure to the brake pedal (8), (Figure 1). The pedal (7) is attached to the pedal
brake-force balancing process rather than a
thereby moving the connecting rod which joins mount (5) through its spindle (6). A return
brake- force control process such as is effected
it to the piston of the brake servo unit (7). spring (3) attached to the front bulkhead (2)
by antilock braking systems.
The brake servo unit amplifies the force ap- holds the brake pedal in the neutral position
The parking-brake system linked to the
plied by the driver and transmits the amplified when it is not being operated.
rear brakes (12) is operated by the hand-
force to the push-rod connected to the master brake lever (9) and the hand-brake cable
cylinder (6). The master cylinder converts the (10).
mechanical force from the push-rod into hy-
draulic pressure. The two pistons in the master
Brake pedal (suspended design) Brake pedal module
cylinder force brake fluid (hydraulic fluid)
out of the master cylinder pressure cham-

Components of a hydraulic dual-circuit car braking system ' -...,

12 2 4 5 6 7
Fig. 1
1 Front brake
I
(disk brake)
2 Brake hose
3 Connecting union
between brake pipe
and brake hose Fig. 1
4 Brake pipe 1 Brake servo unit
5 Master cylinder 2 Bulkhead
6 Brake-fluid reservoir 3 Return spring
7 Brake servo unit 4 Connecting rod
8 Brake pedal 5 Pedal mount
9 Hand-brake lever 6 Pedal spindle
(parking brake) 7 Pedal
10 Hand-brake cable

J
L
(parking brake)
11 Pressure regulating
>- ;: Fig. 2
';::" :;:
valve 0 1 Master cylinder
tn
u,

U
12 Rear brake ::> 2 Brake servo unit
(drum brake) @ 3 Pedal
4 Casing
 Brake servo unit Dual-chamber vacuum servo unit lli'~igll bel' is then greater than in the vacuum chamber.
Most cars are fitted witb a brake scrv unit A di.11hru '111 (Item 4, Figure 1) separates the The atmospberic pressure acts via the dia-
The brake servo unit amplifies the force applied of the vacuum type. There are two versions Vlt 1I11111 hamb I' (3) with its vacuum pipe phragm (4) on the diaphragm diskwith which
by the driver's foot when pressing the brake of this type of unit which both function in a (l1l11' Ii n fr III the working chamber (12). it is in contact. Because the diaphragm disk
pedal and thus reduces the effort required. similar manner: 'I'hc onn .cting rod (10) transmits the applied is attacbed to the valve body (8), the latter
It is combined with the master cylinder to • the dual-chamber type (Figure 1) and 1001 pressure to the working piston (5) and moves when the disk moves, thereby assist-
form a single unit and is a component of the • the four-chamber tandem type (Figure 2) III r amplified force is passed to the master ing the foot pressure transmitted by the con-
majority of car braking systems. A fundamental for greater power assistance. ylin IeI' via the push rod (1). necting rod. The foot pressure and the assist-
technical requirement demanded of brake ing force thus combine to overcome the
servo units is that they reduce the physical Function M .thod of operation force of tbe compression spring (2) and
effort required of the driver without impairing Vacuum brake servo units utilise the negative Whcn the brakes are not being applied, the move the push rod (1) forwards, thereby
the response sensitivity of the braking system pressure generated in the intake manifold vn UUIll chamber (3) and working chamber transmitting the output force of the servo
and the feedback on the level of braking, during the induction stroke on gasoline en- (12) are connected to one another via channels unit to the master cylinder.
The two common designs of brake servo unit, gines or the vacuum (0.5 ... 0.9 bar) produced in the valve body (8). Given that the vacuum When the brake pedal is released and
the vacuum servo unit and the hydraulic servo by a vacuum pump on diesel engines to am- pipe connection (3) is connected to a vacuum braking ceases, the vacuum chamber and
unit, utilise existing sources of energy in the plify the force applied by the driver's foot. s urce, this means that there is a vacuum in working chamber are connected again so
vehicle - the vacuum in the intake manifold The level of power assistance increases pro- both chambers. that there is a vacuum in both.
or the hydraulic pressure generated by a hy- portionally to the foot pressure until the As soon as a braking sequence is initiated,
draulic pump. "saturation point" is reached. This is close to the connecting rod (10) moves in the direction Four-chamber/tandem vacuum servo unit
the locking pressure for the front wheels and of the vacuum chamber (3) and presses the Function
may be between 60 and 100 bar depending seal of the double valve (7) against the valve Like the dual-chamber vacuum servo unit,
on the vehicle. From that point onwards, the seat (Ll ). Consequently, the vacuum chamber the four-chamber/tandem version uses vac-
level of power assistance does not increase and working chamber are then isolated from uum to amplify the foot pressure applied to
any further. each other. Since further movement of the the brake pedal by the driver. The four-
connecting rod lifts the sensing piston (6) chamber design allows greater power assistance
away from the double-valve seal, air at atmos- to be achieved than with the dual-chamber
pheric pressure is able to flow into the working version. Fig. 2
chamber. The pressure in the working cham- 1 Push rod
(transmits output
Twin-chamber vacuum servo unit
Four-chamber/tandem vacuum servo unit

Fig. 1 5
------~---------- ~--------6
force to master
cylinder)
4 2 Compression spring
1 Push rod
4 ~==~~~~ 7
(transmits output 5 3-~----.. A:=--~~ 8 3 Vacuum chamber II
with vacuum pipe
force to master r----9
6 connection
cylinder)
,,-----10 4 Diaphragm II and
2 Compression spring 7
2----11--, 11 diaphragm disk II
3 Vacuum chamber 2---11--,
8 12 5 Vacuum chamber I
with vacuum pipe
6 Partition

••
connection
9 13 7 Diaphragm I
4 Diaphragm and
and diaphragm disk I
diaphragm disk
8 Working cylinder
5 Working piston
10 9 Sensing piston
6 Sensing piston
11 10 Double valve
7 Double valve
11 Valve body
8 Valve body
12 Air filter
9 Airfilter 12 ---:v~-------15
13 Connecting rod
10 Connecting rod
~ (transmits pedal
'" ~-~-+---------16

II
(transmits pedal -e
co force)
force) 0
CD 14 Valve seat
u,
11 Valve seat ::>
15 Working chamber I
12 Working chamber @
16 Working chamber II

L W-~====~==== ~ _
 I >csign Vacuum non-r turn vivo l-uru t ion Method of operation of flow regulator and
There are four chamb rs - working chamber I All braking syst '1118 ' [ui] peel with a vn L1L1m Hydraulic brak rvo units amplify the force hydraulic accumulator
(previous page, Figure 2, Item 15), vacuum servo unit have a non-return valve (Figur 3) applied 10 the brake pedal by the driver when The flow regulator and hydraulic accumulator
chamber I (5), working chamber II (16) and in the vacuum pipe between the vacuum braking. They Lisehydraulic power that is are identified by the numbers 3 and 4 in the
vacuum chamber II (3) - arranged in series, source (engine intake manifold or vacuum g ncrated by a hydraulic pump and stored in diagram of the system (Figure 4).
one behind the other. Between vacuum cham- pump) and the vacuum servo unit. While a hydraulic accumulator. The steering pump delivers hydraulic fluid
ber I and working chamber II there is a par- there is a vacuum present, the non-return to port C1 of the pressure-controlled flow
tition (6). The connecting rod (13) transmits valve remains open. It closes when the vacuum I esign regulator (Figure 5 overleaf, Items 1... 5). The
the applied foot pressure to the working source ceases to produce a vacuum (engine The hydraulic brake servo system consists of flow regulator piston (4) directs the majority
piston (8) and the amplified force is passed is switched off) so that the vacuum inside the the following components: of the flow via port C2 to the power-steering
to the master cylinder via the push rod (1). brake servo unit is retained. On gasoline-en- • Steering pump (1) system, while the smaller proportion is used
gined cars, it also prevents fuel vapours being • Reservoir (2) with filter to charge the hydraulic accumulator (6 ... 8)
Method of operation drawn into the brake servo unit and damaging • Pressure-controlled flow regulator (3) to a pressure of36 ... 57 bar. When its shut-off
The method of operation is similar to that of rubber components. The throttle effect of with hydraulic accumulator (4) pressure is reached, the changeover valve (5)
the dual-chamber vacuum servo unit. When the valve also attenuates the pulsations gener- • Master cylinder (5) with brake-fluid connects the spring chamber of the flow-reg-
the brakes are not being applied, there is a ated by the intake manifold. reservoir (6) ulator piston (4) to the hydraulic reservoir via
vacuum in all four chambers, given that the port B. The entire hydraulic flow is then avail-
vacuum pipe connection (3) is connected to Note on fitting The steering pump supplies the brake servo able to the power-steering system.
a vacuum source. As soon as a braking se- The vacuum non-return valve must be fitted unit (7) and the power steering system (8)
quence is initiated, the sensing piston (9) lifts in the vacuum pipe so that the arrow points with hydraulic pressure.
away from the seal of the double valve (10). towards the vacuum source (engine intake
Air at atmospheric pressure is then able to manifold or vacuum pump).
enter working chambers I (15) and II (16) ~YdraUlic brake s_erv_o-..;sy_st_e_m.....l --,
If it is fitted the wrong way round it will not
thus creating a pressure difference between function as intended. It is fitted near to the
the working chambers and the vacuum engine intake manifold but not so close that
chambers. That pressure difference acts as the heat from the engine impairs its function.
an assisting force and amplifies the foot
pressure transmitted via the connecting rod. Hydraulic brake servo system
A hydraulic brake servo system (Figure 4) is
used on vehicles that are fitted with a means
of generating hydraulic power (e.g. a power
Fig.4
steering system) and have an engine that only 1 Steering pump
produces a small level of vacuum in the intake 2 Oil reservoir with
Vacuum non-return valve
manifold (e.g. diesel or turbocharged engine). filter
As part of such a system, the hydraulic brake 3 Pressure-controlled

servo unit (Page 33, Fig. 4, Item 7) occupies flow regulator

4 Hydraulic
significantly less space and has a higher output
accumulator
pressure (approx. 160 bar) than a vacuum
5 Master cylinder
servo unit. 6 Brake-fluid reservoir
7 Hydraulic brake
Notes on use servo

• Hydraulic oil is used in the brake servo 8 Power-steering servo

circuit (A), the intake and return lines (B) /

t
Piping systems
and the power-steering circuit (C).
Fig. 3 ~ __~~k~ _circuit-
• Brake fluid is used in the brake circuits (D). B. Intake and return
1 Connection to
vacuum brake servo lines

2 Non-return valve C Power-steering

3 Connection to circuit

engine D Brake circuits

 Master cylinder with captive piston spring
Method ol"op .rution ofthe hydrauli brake NIJII-I)/'(/kill); IIIOt/1' Master cylinder
servo unit Th ontrol cdgcs tPigur ,llI11S4 ... 6)
Design
The master cylinder (also called a tandem The "captive" piston spring (Figure 1, Item 9),
The hydra ulic brake servo unit is identified block the infl w f 11Ylraulic oi.! from the
master cylinder) converts the mechanical force a compression spring, keeps the push-rod
by the number 7 in the diagram of the system pressure-controlled flow regulator via port
applied by the driver to the brake pedal- and piston (11) and the float piston (7) - also
(Figure 4). C2 while allowing unpressurised oil to flow
amplified by the brake servo where fitted- called the intermediate piston - the same
out of port B to the hydraulic oil reservoir.
into hydraulic brake force by forcing brake distance apart when the cylinder is at rest.
fluid into the brake circuits in proportion to This prevents the piston spring (9) moving
Normal braking mode
the mechanical force applied and controlling the float piston to a position where its pri-
The foot pressure applied by the driver is
it accordingly. mary seal (13) has passed beyond the bal-
transmitted to the actuating piston (9) which
Statutory regulations require that cars are ancing port (5) when the cylinder is at rest.
moves the control piston (7), thereby shifting
fitted with two separate brake circuits. That If that were to happen, pressure equalisation
its control edges. As a result, pressurised oil
Fig. 5 r------4 requirement is accommodated by using a in the secondary circuit via the balancing
from the pressure-controlled flow regulator
1 Circulation-pressure tandem-type master cylinder which consists port (5) would not be possible and residual
is allowed to enter the servo via port C2 and
warning switch pressure in the circuit after release of the
outflow of oil to the reservoir via port B is in effect of two master cylinders connected
2 Non-return valve
in series. If one of the brake circuits fails, brakes would prevent the brake shoes/pads
3 Accumulator- blocked. The pressurised hydraulic oil acts
full braking pressure can then still be main- from retracting from the drum/disk.
pressure warning on the transfer piston (3) and the actuating
switch piston (9) as an assisting force supplementing tained in the other circuit.
4 Flow-regulator Method of operation
the foot pressure applied by the driver until
piston There are a number of possible variations on When the brakes are operated, the push-rod
a state of equilibrium is reached with the out-
5 Changeover valve
the master-cylinder design, as described below. piston (11) and the float piston (7) move to
6 Hydraulic chamber
put force from the master cylinder acting on
Other specialised designs such as the gradu- the left, pass over the balancing ports (5) and
7 Diaphragm the push rod (1).
ated master cylinder, the multistage master force brake fluid into the brake circuits via
8 Pneumatic chamber
cylinder or the Twintax master cylinder are the outlet ports (2). As the pressure increases,
Emergency braking mode Fig. 1
Ports --Bil+---- 8 only rarely used in motor vehicles. the float piston ceases to be moved by the
The control edges (5, 6) are in such a position 1 Cylinder housing
A to brake servo unit captive piston spring (9) and is moved instead
that they allow totally unrestricted through- 2 Pressure outlet to
B to oil reservoir by the pressure of the brake fluid. brake circuit
flow of pressurised hydraulic oil. As a result,
C1 from power-steering
3 Pressure chamber
pump
the maximum degree of power assistance is
4 To brake·fluid
C2 to power-steering obtained.
reservoir
servo
5 Balancing port
Master cylinder with captive piston spring
6 Snifter bore
Hydraulic brake servo (in non-braking mode) 7 Float piston
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 9 3 4 5 6 10 11 8 Intermediate
B
chamber

t 9 Captive piston

~~tlC\-~
spring
Plastic sleeve

IC,~~
10
Fig. 6
1 Push rod / 11 Push-rod piston

2 Return spring J1 /
I
(transmits input

3 Transfer piston • • •• • • 4!.! ~

7 ~ •• \.~ •• II 1111111 force from brake

.....•
servo)
4 ...6 Control
7 Control
edges
piston [ ~
I '>1

••• >. • • • "Si}

-11111111n-

!~
•• I 12 Compression
(secondary
spring
circuit)
8
9
Compression
Actuating piston
spring
• ( ~IIIIIIIII'
I/'
13 Primary seal
14 Isolating seal
10 Connecting rod 1/ 15 Captive sleeve
~ 16 Retaining screw
Ports ;';
so 17 Support ring
B to oil reservoir 0
m 18 Stop disk
C2 from pressure- 12 13 14 15 16 17 13 18 19 20 LL
=> 19 Secondary seal
controlled flow @
20 Circlip
regulator
 M ter cylinder with central valve M 'I hod of' 0P '1':11ion
Brake-fluid reservoir Pilot-pressure valve
I) 'sign The forcc applic I to the brake p sdal acts di rectly
Basically, this type of master cylinder (Fig- against the push-rod piston (14) and pushes The brake- fluid reservoir is generally attached Pilot-pressure valves maintain a pressure of
ure 2) is similar to the master cylinder with it to the left. This moves it past the balancing directly to the master cylinder. It acts not only 0.4 to 1.7 bar in hydraulic brake circuits in
captive piston spring described above. It was port (11) and the fluid in the pressure cham- as a reservoir for the brake fluid, but also as an order to ensure that the cup seals in the wheel
developed for vehicles with antilock braking ber (3) is then able to push the float piston (6) expansion vessel which accommodates volume cylinders function properly. They are used
systems (ABS). to the left as well. Once the float piston has fluctuations in the brake circuits. These occur instead of bottom valves and, if there is in-
moved about 1 mm to the left, the valve pin when the brakes are released, or as a result of sufficient space in the master cylinder or if
The particular feature of this master cylinder (18) is no longer resting against the clamping brake-lining wear, temperature differences the vehicle has both drum and disk brakes,
is a float piston with an integral central valve sleeve (7) and the valve seal (16) seals off the within the braking system or when the ABS are fitted external to the master cylinder.
that allows the brake fluid to flow back pressure chamber (3) from the intermediate or ESP systems are active. The brake-fluid The ball valve shuts off the connection
through the valve-pin channel (18) when chamber (9) by pressing against the float pis- reservoir is connected to the master cylinder between the master cylinder and the wheel-
the braking system is not under pressure. ton. As the force applied to the brake pedal in- by two outlets (Figure 3, Item 8). brake cylinders as soon as the pressure in the
The balancing port in the secondary circuit creases, so the pressure in both pressure The warning device for indicating when master cylinder drops below the set level
is thus dispensed with as the central valve chambers (3) rises. As the foot pressure is re- the fluid level is low operates according to the (Figure 4).
performs the same function. The intermedi- leased, the two pistons (14 and 6) move to the float principle. When the fluid level drops
ate chamber (9) is permanently connected right until the balancing port (11) is open below the minimum level, the float (5) com- Pilot-pressure valves are superfluous on
via a channel to the brake-fluid reservoir. again or the valve pin (18) presses against the pletes the electrical circuit of the warning braking systems that incorporate the latest
As there is a risk on vehicles fitted with ABS clamping sleeve (7) and the valve seal (16) lifts device (1) by means of the float switch (2) technological advances. That is because the
that when the piston passes over the balanc- away from the float piston (6). The brake so that the warning lamp (4) lights up. seals in the wheel cylinders function without
ing port u n, damage to the primary seal fluid can then flow back into the fluid reservoir having to be under pressure.
(17) can result at high pressures (leading to and the brakes are no longer under pressure.
failure of one of the brake circuits), master
Fig. 2 cylinders on such vehicles are generally fit-
1 Cylinder housing
ted with two central valves.
2 Pressure outlet to
brake circuit
3 Pressure chamber
4 Valve spring
5 To brake-fluid Master cylinder with central valve Brake-fluid reservoir Pilot-pressure valve
reservoir ~----------------~-----------.--~ Fig. 3
6 Float piston
1 Electrical circuit for
7 Clamping sleeve
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 10 3 5 11 12 13 14 level warning lamp
8 Intermediate piston
2 Float switch
9 Intermediate chamber
3 Reservoir cap
10 Compression spring
4 Warning lamp
11 Balancing port
5 Float
12
13
Snifter bore
Plastic sleeve J~ VI/ 6 Fluid level indicator

....
o·.·.·r 11'" "'"
/ / / ~~~h 7 Brake fluid
14 Push-rod
(transmits
piston
input
Jl~~lo
lJ ..•
•• !fI-I /..L
I
,.. 8 Connection to master
cylinder

-I
force from brake
servo)
o
I iii
,.n.. .••.
15 Compression spring
• 0 0 0 000 0", '7lI ••• 11 Fig.4

L -.:J
(secondary circuit) _/ 1 From master cylinder
/
16
17
Valve seal
Primary seal l ---'
2 To wheel·brake
cylinders
18 Valve pin
19 Isolating seal >- >-

20 Support ring 15 16 17 18 19 20 17 21 22 23 00 ;; Note on fitting:

21 Stop disk
"
<D
o o
<D
<D The arrow on the
In In hexago
22 Secondary seal
u.
:::>
2 u,
:::>
must p
23 Circlip •.........
~---------.---~--------
e
-l
@
the ma
 -------- ---------

Components for braking-force spc if! pressure ( han cover pressure or Fixed-setting pressure regulating valve Load-dependent pressure regulating valve
changeover I oint). Upwards of the change- Th I I' .surc regulating valve (Figure 1) is Vehicles whose payload can alter significantly
distribution
over point, static pressure regulating valves fitted in the rear-axle brake circuit. The valve from one journey to the next require so-called
As a result of dynamic axle-load shift under regulate the brake pressure according to a body (8) encloses a graduated piston (7) load-dependent pressure regulating valves
braking, more braking force can be applied to fixed characteristic, while dynamic pressure with an integral valve (9). The output pres- (Figure 3) so that the braking forces can be
the front wheels of a vehicle than to the rear regulating valves do so on the basis of a reg- sure is reduced relative to the input pressure adjusted according to the weight being carried.
wheels. Consequently, the front brakes are more ulating ratio that depends on the vehicle load in proportion to the ratio of the effective ar- This type of pressure regulating valve is at-
generously dimensioned than the rear brakes. or the rate of deceleration. eas of the annular chambers (2, 5). tached to the bodywork and connected to the
The reduction of the load on the rear axle is not Pressure regulating valves must be designed When the brakes are applied, hydraulic vehicle's rear axle (6) by means of a rod link-
alinearprogression,however, but advances at a in such a way that under practical conditions, pressure from the master cylinder passes via age (5). The relative movement between sus-
faster rate as deceleration increases. On vehicles the braking force is distributed at a level well the inlet port (1), the annular chamber (2), pension and body as the springs are com-
with "invariable braking-force distribution'; below the ideal level. The effect of variations the channel (3) in the graduated piston (7) pressed is transmitted to the graduated pis-
therefore, overbraking of either the front in the frictional coefficient of the road sur- and second annular chamber (5) to the out- ton (1). The piston then compresses the
wheels of the rear wheels will occur at some face, the engine braking torque and the tol- let port (4). Shortly before the changeover control springs (2) according to the amount
point depending on the force-distribution set- erance limits of the pressure regulating valve pressure is reached, the pressure acting on the of suspension travel, thereby altering the
ting. must also be taken into account in order to annular-chamber effective area (2) pushes the changeover point. This achieves an adaptive
Overbraking of the rear wheels has a neg- prevent rear-wheel lock-up. graduated piston to the right as far as the stop response of the rear-axle brake pressure rela-
ative effect on vehicle handling and can cause The pressure limiting valve (described at so that the valve (9) closes off the channel to tive to the weight of the vehicle payload
skidding. By adopting appropriate measures the end of this chapter) prevents the brake the outlet port (4). As the pressure continues (Figure 4).
(fitting a rear-wheel pressure regulating valve) , pressure to the rear wheels rising any further to increase, the graduated piston moves
however, the handling characteristics of the once a specific level (shut-off pressure) has rapidly back and forth, opening and closing
vehicle can be positively influenced and the been reached. the valve (9) accordingly, thereby regulating
actual braking force made to approximate Depending on the type of vehicle and the the output pressure in proportion to the ratio
more closely to the ideal braking force braking system used by the manufacturer, of the effective areas (2, 5). Once the braking
(no wheel lock-up ). there are essentially five versions employed: sequence ends, the pressure at the outlet port
A distinction is made between • Fixed-setting pressure regulating valve, (4) pushes the graduated piston (7) against
• static or dynamic pressure regulating • Load-dependent pressure regulating valve, the compression spring (6) until the excess
valves, and • Deceleration-dependent pressure regulating pressure in the annular chambers (2, 5) has Fig. 3
• pressure limiting valves. valve, reduced. Figure 2 shows the pressure curves. a Laden vehicle
• Integral pressure regulating valve, and b Unladen vehicle

With a pressure regulating valve, the rate of • Pressure limiting valve

1 Graduated piston
pressure increase for the rear brakes is less
Fig. 1 2 Control springs
than that for the front brakes upwards of a
1 Inlet port (from 3 Outlet port to brakes
Load-dependent pressure regulating valve Load-dependent pressure regulating valve
master cylinder) 4 Inlet port from master
Fixed-setting pressure regulating valve Fixed-setting pressure regulating valve
2,5 Annular chambers cylinder
3 Channel 5 linkage
~3

, t
4 Outlet port (to brakes) 6 Rear axle
6
7
8
Compression
Graduated
Valve body
piston
spring

l
1 2 3 4 5
t
i
<D
+-4 a <D
~ Fig. 4
~ a;
9 Valve a; 2
~ 1 Non-reduced
~ ~- pressure
~
:J
:J
<f) 2 Ideal pressure curve
<f) <f)
Fig. 2 <f)
~ ~
Q.
(laden vehicle)
1 Unregulated pressure Q. 3 Reduced pressure

b,A
<D
2 Ideal pressure curve
>-
~ 5
"" (laden vehicle)
(laden vehicle)
'"
0)
OJ
~ '"
0)
4 Ideal pressure curve
3
4
Regulated pressure
Ideal pressure curve
6 7 8 9 N
to
co
0
III
'"
io
so
0
III
6
''""
to
0
(unladen vehicle)
u.. u.. III
u.. 5 Reduced pressu
(unladen vehicle)
::J ::J ::J Brake pressure, front axle ---- (unladen vehi-
@ Brake pressure, front axle ---- e @
6 Changeovr
5 ' -,~ngeover point

-.
 Doc I r tlon-dependent pressure lis soon as (h ' rnt 'ofd 'c ,I 'I'll ( ion under 1 raking Braking-force limiter Braking-force limiter
regulating valve rea hes 11 crtain Icv 1,Ih inertia of the ball 1'h braking-force limiter (Figure 8) is fitted
Installation causes it to roll up rhc inclined plane - assisted in the rear-axle brake circuit and prevents
This type of pressure regulating valve must by the pressure from the inlet port (9) - and the rear-axle brake pressure rising beyond its 2 3 4

be fitted in the rear-axle brake circuit and close off the channel (8) through the stepped shut-off pressure. At that point, the valve
set at an angle, a, to the vehicle's horizontal piston (2). This point represents the first piston (6) compresses the compression spring
axis in such a way that when the vehicle is changeover point (1 or 3, Figure 6) because (5) and brings the valve cone(4) into contact
stationary, the ball (4) rests at the back of further increase of pressure at the inlet port with the valve seat (8) so that no further pres- Fig.8
the valve away from the stepped piston (9) cannot initially be passed through to the sure increase at the outlet port (9) is possible. 1 Inlet chamber
(2, Figure 5). rear-axle brake circuit (pressure limiter When the braking sequence comes to an end, 2 Inlet port

function). As the pressure at the inlet port (9) (from master cylinder)
the valve opens and releases the pressure.
3 Outlet chamber
Design and method of operation continues to increase, however, the stepped
4 Valve cone
The main components of the valve are a piston (2) is pushed forwards against the ac- >-
5 Compression spring
stepped piston (2) and aball (4). As the brake tion of the leaf spring (7) towards the outlet "
to 6 Valve piston
so
p,ress~required to obtain a given rate of port (1) and away from the ball. At that stage, 5 9 0
co
u, 7 Compression spring
::;,
~&eleratlon depends on the weight being the second changeover point (2 or 4) has 8 Valve seat
®
carried by the vehicle, this type of valve is load- been reached. The piston channel (8) has 9 Outlet port (to brakes)

dependent as well as deceleration-dependent. been opened again and the passage of fluid
between the two ports (9 and 1) is possible Reaction distance and total braking distance
~ Deceleration·dependent pressure regulati,n.g valve again. The pressure in the rear-axle brake circuit
According to ISO 611, the total braking distance is the • the distance travelled under fully developed deceler·
1 2 3 4 5
can now rise again at a reduced rate (pressure
distance travelled during the total braking time (see ation at a constant rate of deceleration.
regulating function).
Fig. 5 chapter "Basic principles of vehicle dynamics", "Defini-
Figure 6 shows the changeover points of a point at which the driver first Alternatively, half the period of increasing deceleration
1 Outlet port (to brakes) ~ ~ deceleration-dependent pressure regulating
tions" section). Thus, the
can be taken to be under fully developed deceleration
2 Stepped piston applies force to the actuation device is a decisive factor

3 Valve body valve for an unlaqen and a fully laden vehicle. in deterrnininq the total braking distance. However, as at the rate a, and the remaining period taken to be under

4 Ball far as the overall braking sequence is concerned, the zero deceleration. This time period is added to the other

distance travelled from when the driver first identifies a periods of zero deceleration (reaction time and brake-
5 Perforated disk Integral pressure regulating valve
6 Front of vehicle hazard to when the brakes are first applied is also of system response time) to form the dead time, 1". Thus
This device operates in the same way as the the distance required for braking is defined by the formula
7 Leaf spring significance. This is the driver's reaction time and is dif-
fixed-setting pressure regulating valve described ferent for every driver.
8 Channel
to previously. Because of its light weight and small S=V' tvz + ~:
9 Inlet port to The total distance travelled from identification of a
co
(from master cylinder)
0
dimensions (2), it can be integrated in the hazard to the point at which the vehicle comes to a halt The maximum rate of deceleration is limited by the friction
if'
::;, between the tires and the road. Minimum rates of decel-
a Angle to horizontal master cylinder (1) by being screwed into the is thus made up of a number of components consisting of
® • the distance travelled during the reaction time and the eration are defined by law.
axis rear-wheel brake circuit connection (Figure 7).
brake-system response time at a constant velocity, v, Assuming a dead time of 1s, the table below shows

• the distance travelled during the brake-pressure the combined reaction and total braking distance at var-
Deceleration-dependent pressure regulating valve Integral pressure regulating valve
build-up time at an increasing rate of deceleration, ious speeds.

i
5 10 30 50
Distance
60
Vehicle

travelled
70
speed

during
80
in km~~

90
dead time
100
to braking

120 140
of 1 s (un braked)
160
in m
180
__=
=i
-~
Fig. 6 .91
3 --/ 4
.:=J
~ 2.8 8.3 14 17 19 22 25 28 33 39 44 50 56
1, 2 Changeover
(unladen
points
vehicle)
~
@
-~...../2
Deceleration
in mis'
"I Reaction and total braking distance in m

....
3, 4 Changeover points ~ ~tAA

(laden vehicle) '"

~ 4.4 3.7 16 36 48 62 78 96 115 160 210 270 335 405
@ 365
5 Unregulated a. ; 5.0 3.5 15 33 44 57 71 87 105 145 190 240 300

pressure ~ .21 3.4 79 94 130 170 215 265 320

m
~ l!:l
5.8 14 30 40 52 65

<b 7.0 3.3 13 28 36 46 57 70 83 110 145 185 230 275

in
2 ..
Fig. 7
1 ~aster cylinder
'"
0
m
u,
8.0 3.3 13 26 34 43 53 64 76 105 135 170 205 250

::;, 9,0 3.2 12 25 32 40 50 60 71 95 125 155 190 225

2 Integral pressure-
Brake pressure, front axle ----- ®
regulating valve
 Brake pipes Brake hoses Brake fluid Viscosity
In order to ensure efficient and reliable op-
Warning:
Function Function Brake fluid is the hydraulic medium employed eration of the brakes over a wide range of
All brake fluids apart
Brake pipes are rigid metal pipes that carry Brake hoses form a flexible link between the to transmit actuation forces within the braking temperatures (-40 "C. ..+ 100 °C), the brake from DOT5 (silicone·
brake fluid from the master cylinder to the brake pipes that are rigidly attached to the system. The applicable quality requirements fluid's viscosity should have the minimum- based) are harmful to the
brakes and normally run underneath the bodywork and the brakes, which are attached are set down in the standards SAE J 1703, possible degree of dependence on tempera- skin and corrosive to
bodywork. The photograph in Figure 1 shows to the suspension/wheel hubs and therefore FMVSS 116, ISO 4925, and Table 1 below. ture. This is particularly important on ABS paint.

the routing of brake pipes and brake hoses in subject to movement. systems.
the area of the front suspension. Requirements
Design Equilibrium boiling point Compressibility
Design Flexible brake hoses consist of an inner layer The equilibrium boiling point provides an The compressibility of the fluid must be small
Rigid brake pipes are made of steel (normally of rubber, two rayon reinforcing layers (for index of the brake fluid's resistance to thermal and its temperature-dependence as low as
with an external diameter of 4.5 mm and an withstanding the fluid pressure), an outer stress. Thermal stress can be particularly high possible.
internal diameter of 2.5) and are often pro- rubber coating and the fittings (unions). in the wheel cylinders (this is where the highest
tected on the outside by a plastic corrosion- temperatures in the braking system occur). Non-corrosiveness
proof coating. Both ends of a length of pipe Usage At temperatures above the brake fluid's mo- According to FMVSS 116, brake fluid must not
are flared and are connected to other com- The lengths and usages of flexible brake hoses mentary boiling point, vapour bubbles are be corrosive to the metals normally used in
ponents by appropriate unions. are set down in specifications that in some produced. If that occurs, operation of the braking systems. This can only be achieved
cases are specific to particular vehicles. In brakes is no longer possible. by the use additives.
Usage general, the regulations require that the brake
When routing brake pipes, care must be taken hoses are not permitted to come into contact Wet boiling point Elastomer swelling
to ensure that, apart from at the intended with suspension or body components and The wet boiling point is the brake fluid's The elastomers used in a braking system must
fixing points, the pipes are not in contact with that the specified temperature and pressure equilibrium boiling point after it has absorbed be matched to the particular type of brake
the body or any other components. ranges are not exceeded. water under defined conditions. On hygro- fluid employed. A small amount of elastomer
scopic (glycol-based) fluids in particular, the swelling is desirable. However, it must not
effect is a substantial lowering of the boiling under any circumstances exceed 16 %, as
point. otherwise the strength of the components
The purpose of testing the wet boiling point will be impaired. Even small amounts of
is to determine the properties of used brake contamination of a glycol-based brake fluid
fluid, which can absorb water primarily by with mineral oils (mineral-oil-based brake
diffusion through the brake hoses. This is fluid, solvent) can result in damage to rubber
the main reason why it is necessary to replace components (such as seals) and consequently
the brake fluid in a vehicle every 1 ... 2 years. to brake failure.
This is absolutely essential for the safety of
the braking system, which must always be Chemical composition
bled afterwards. Although alteration of the chemical compo-
sition may improve one of the properties
referred to above, it normally brings about
changes to others at the same time.

1) FMVSS: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (USA).

DOT: Department of Transportation (USA).

Rating/version DOT3 DOT4 DOT5, DOT5.1 11.83

Fig. 1 Dry boiling point min.oC 205 230 260 205

Wet boiling point min.oC 140 155 180 140

1 Brake pipe
Cold viscosity at -40°C mma/e 1500 1800 900 1800
2 Brake hose Table 1
 There are lwo types of brake used on cars- In order to be able t meet those requirements Bosch test center at Boxberg

disk brakes and drum brakes. New cars are while remaining acceptably economical, in Eu-
An important component of the development There are two ford sections (3) with lengths
now fitted exclusively with disk brakes at rope small cars and some medium-sized cars
process for vehicle systems are the practical of 100 meters and 30 meters respectively and
the front, and there is an increasing trend are fitted with disk brakes on the front wheels
trials performed by the system supplier. Not depths of 0.3 and 1 meter.
towards disk brakes for the rear wheels as well. and drum brakes on the rear (drum brakes
all tests can be carried out on public roads. There are special sprayed sections (4) with
Both types are friction brakes in which the represent a cost saving). The more expensive
Since 1998 Bosch has performed this part the following surfaces:
braking energy transmitted by the braking mid-range cars, as well as executivelluxury of the development process at its test center • "chessboard" (asphalt and paving slabs)
system acts by pressing the brake pads or and sports cars have disk brakes all round. near Boxberg between Heilbronn and • asphalt
shoes against the brake disks/drums. This is because of the fact that the heavier WOrzburg (south Germany). The 92-hectare • paving slabs
weights and higher speeds of those vehicles site provides facilities for testing all conceiv- • blue basalt
are such that only disk brakes are capable of able handling, safety and convenience sys- • concrete
Overview coping with the levels of heat generated. tems and components to the limit. Seven • an aquaplaning section and
Consequently, particular attention has to be different sections of test track allow systems • a trapezium-shaped blue-basalt section
Requirements paid to to be tested to their physical limits under all
The demands placed on the brakes are • heat conduction, types of road conditions and driving situations The skid pan (5) for testing cornering charac-
extremely exacting and include: • brake ventilation and - and under the safest possible conditions for teristics has an asphalt surface 300 meters in

• short braking distance, the test drivers and vehicles. diameter. Parts of it can be watered to simu-
• stable frictional properties of the brake pads.
late ice and wet roads. It is surrounded by a
• fast response time,
The rough·surface sections (1) are designed safety barrier made of tires in order to protect
• short pressure build-up time Assessment of brakes
for speeds of up to 50 km/h and 100 km/h drivers and vehicles.
• even braking effect, The brake coefficient C* is used as an assess-
respectively. The following types of surface The high-speed circuit (6) has three tracks
• precise control, ment criterion for brake performance, and in-
are provided: and can be used by commercial vehicles as
• Insusceptibility to dirt dicates the ratio of braking force to applica-
• pot holes well as cars. This section is designed to allow
and corrosion, tion force. It takes account of the effect of in-
• undulations speeds of up to 200 km/h.
• high reliability, ternal force transmission (ratio of input to The handling track (9) incorporates two sec-
• high-vibration surface
• durability, output force) within the brake and of the tions - one for speeds of up to 50 km/h, and
• cobblestones, and
• resistance to wear, frictional coefficient, which is chiefly depen- • variable-surface sections. one for speeds up to 80 km/h. Both sections
• ease of maintenance. dent on the parameters speed, braking pres- have corners of varying severity and degrees
sure and temperature. Figure 1 shows the The asphalted gradient sections (2) for of camber. The handling track is mainly used
brake coefficient for various types of brake. hill-start and uphill acceleration testing with for testing handling-stability control systems.
gradients of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% include
sprayable, paved sections of various widths.

Fig. 1
Vie~~e test~ac~ sec~n modules J 1 Rouqh-surtace

Brake coefficients C* as a function of coefficient of friction and road speed at start of _br_a_kin..;9:....J --, 1 2 3 4 5 6 sections
2 Gradient sections
5 5 3 Ford sections
4 Special watered
4 4 sections

to to 5 Skid pan

c<D 3 C 6 High-speed circuit

"1:5 <D 3
:2 7 Building
;;= :!=
<D <D
0 - Workshops
o 0
o
<D 2 <D 2 - Offices

Fig. 1
'"co
ltl
.x:
ltl - Test benches
co
- Laboratories
1 Double-servo drum
- Filling station and
brake
- Staff common
2 Double·duplex drum
0 0 rooms
brake 7 6
0.2 0.4 0.6 20 40 60 80 100 km/h 8 Access road
3 Simplex drum brake
Friction 11 Speed at start of braking sequence 9 Handling track
4 Disk brake
 Drum brakes Automatic self-adjusting mechanism Non-braking mode At temperatures inside the brake drum of
The automatic self-adjusting mechanism 'l'he return sprin 'S ( ,14) holl the two brake < 80° ,the spring-action adjusting lever (20)
Principle of operation (Figures 1 and 2) maintains a constant clear- shoes (5, 12) and their attached friction linings pushes the lower arm of the elbow lever (17)
Drum brakes for cars generate their braking ance between the brake shoes and the brake ( ) away rrOI11the brake drum (6). This upwards. This allows the angled adjusting dog
force on the inner surface of a brake drum. drum (gap between the brake shoe and presses the brake shoes against the adjusting (19) to engage in the teeth of the adjuster
This principle is explained below based on drum when the brakes are not applied). screw (16) with its adjuster wheel (11) so that wheel (11). If, as a result of brake wear, the
the example of a simplex drum brake with The adjusting mechanism consists of they are held against the pressure sleeve (18) clearance between the brake drum and brake
integral parking-brake mechanism (Figure 1). • the pressure sleeve (18), wi th the result that the elbow lever (17) in linings is larger than the design requirement,
A double-acting wheel cylinder (1) operates • the adjusting screw (16) and adjuster I tween is prevented from moving. the adjusting lever turns the adjuster wheel
the brake shoes of the drum brake. This forces wheel (11), by the width of one tooth, thereby unscrewing
the friction lining (2) ofthe leading brake shoe • the return springs (4), Braking mode (t< aDOe) the adjusting screw (16) a small amount and
(12) and the trailing brake shoe (5) against • the bimetal strip (10), When the brakes are applied, the pistons in increasing the overall length of the adjusting
the inside of the brake drum (6). The other • the elbow lever (17) and the wheel cylinder (1) force the brake shoes mechanism. This restores the clearance to the
ends of the brake shoes on the opposite side • the adjusting lever (20). (5,12) and their attached friction linings (2) correct amount.
to the wheel cylinder are braced by a support against the inside of the brake drum (6).
bearing (15) that is attached to the brake an- The adjusting lever is attached to the pressure At the same time, the return springs (4) pull Braking mode (r > aDOe)
chor plate (13) sleeve in such a way that it is able to flex and the adjusting screw (16) and adjuster wheel Temperatures of> 80°C generated by extended
The drum brake can also be operated as a its adjusting dog (19) engages with the adjuster (11) away from the pressure sleeve (18). This or frequent braking (for example on long
parking brake by means of the hand-brake wheel. This Bosch/Bendix patented automatic leaves a gap in which the elbow lever (17) can descents) cause the brake drum to expand.
lever (7) and hand-brake cable (8). adjusting mechanism achieves optimum ad- move. I The clearance between the brake shoes and

justment increments of approximately 0.02 mm the drum then becomes larger (expansion
per adjustment cycle. clearance) than the design requirement. In
such cases, the bimetal strip (10) prevents
Note: Simplex drum brake with integral parking-brake mechanism (on right rear wheel)
Automatic self-adjustin..:;;g_m_e_ch_a_n_·lsm --J automatic adjustment. The bimetal strip bends
Identical components in
Figures 1 and 2 have the
upwards and holds the elbow lever (17) in
same index numbers. a 1611 17 10 18 position. Consequently, the adjusting lever
(20) cannot move and no adjustment can take
~~~~--------------10 place.
Fig. 1 r-~~ __ ------------11
1 Wheel cylinder
2 Hand-brake lever
2 Friction lining 2
o The hand-brake mechanism operates the
3 Return spring 3 ~19 20
(brake shoe)
drum brake by means of a cable (8) that is
4 Return spring 4
attached to the lower end of the hand-brake
(self·adjusting lever (7). The hand-brake lever is pivoted at
5
mechanism) the top in the trailing brake shoe (5) and en-
5 Trailing shoe
gages in the adjusting screw (16) of the self-ad-
6 Brake drum
c----13 justing mechanism. When the hand brake is
7 Hand-brake lever 6 Fig. 2
8 Hand-brake cable
operated, the cable pulls the hand-brake
10 Bimetal strip
9 Direction of drum lever to the right at the bottom. Its rounded
11 Adjuster wheel
rotation 7 upper right edge levers against the self-ad- 16 Adjusting screw
10 Bimetal strip justing mechanism and first of all pushes the 17 Elbow lever
(self-adjusting trailing shoe (5) outwards until it contacts 18 Pressure sleeve
c
mechanism)
8 14 the drum (6). It then pushes the leading 19 Adjusting dog
11 Adjuster wheel 20 Adjusting lever
shoe (12) against the brake drum by levering
(with elbow lever)
12 Leading shoe 15 >- >- through the' adjusting screw of the self-ad-
a Non-braking mode
13
00 ~I justing mechanism.
Anchor plate <0
b Braking mode
so co
0
14 Return spring <D iil (t<80°C)
u, u,
(brake shoe) :::> :::> c Braking mode
15 Support bearing ® ® (t> 80°G)
 ---------------------

Types of drum brake In addition they also have a tendency for Simpl 'X hrak '
Two different types of drum brake are distin- the trailing shoe to be self-inhibiting (i.e. it A double-acting wheel cylinder (Figure 4,
guished according to the way in which the diminishes the braking force applied, the ltcm 5) operates the brake shoes (6,7). The
-1
brake shoes are mounted and pivot: opposite of self-augmenting). Sliding-shoe anchor points (8) of the brake shoes are also
• Drum brakes with fixed-pivot brake shoes guides are used on simplex, duplex, double- pivot points (2 single pivots or 1 double pivot) .
5 Fig. 5
(Figures 3a and 3b) duplex, servo and double-servo brakes. When the vehicle is travelling forwards, the 4
Two leading shoes,
• Drum brakes with sliding shoes with parallel Most drum brakes fitted to modern cars are leading shoe (6) has a self-augmenting effect large degree of
or sloping anchors (Figures 3c and 3d) of the sliding-shoe type which do not have (2) while the trailing shoe (7) is self-inhibiting 6 self-augmentation
self-inhibiting properties. (3); when the vehicle is moving backwards, 1 Direction of drum

Fixed-pivot brake shoes can wear unevenly those effects are reversed. rotation (when
6
travelling forwards)
as they are not self-centring like sliding shoes. Self-augmenting factor: approx. 2 to 4.
2 Self·augmenting
>-
effect
5 4;;:;
Duplex brake
'"so
0
3 Torques
Each brake shoe is operated by a single-acting en
u, 4 Wheel cylinder
:;J
wheel cylinder (Figure 5, Item 4). The sliding- 5 Anchor points
Brake-shoe pivots Drum brake (simplex brake)
®
type brake shoes (6) are anchored against the 6 Brake shoes

back of the opposing wheel cylinder in each case.

Drum brake (duo-duplex brake)
The duplex brake is a single-acting brake, i.e.
a b when the vehicle is moving forwards, it has two
a
leading, self-augmenting (2) brake shoes. -1 Fig. 6
Fig. 3
When reversing there is no self-augmenting Two leading shoes
Brake shoe with
actuated by floating
fixed pivot point effect. Self-augmenting factor: up to approx. 6. 4 5
wheel cylinders,
(single pivot)
large degree of
Brake shoe with Duo-duplex brake sslf-auqmentation
fixed pivot point 6
Two double-acting wheel cylinders (Figure 6, 1 Direction of drum
(double pivot)
Item 4) operate the sliding-type brake shoes (6) rotation (when
Parallel-anchor
that are anchored against the opposing wheel 6 travelling forwards)
brake shoe
cylinder in each case. The duo-duplex brake is 2 Self-augmenting
d Sloping-anchor >- effect
brake shoe a double-acting brake, i.e. it has two leading, 5 4 co
co 3 Torques
co
self-augmenting (2) brake shoes when travelling 0
en
u.. 4 Wheel cylinder
forwards or in reverse. Self-augmentingfactor: :;J 5 Anchor points
Fig.4 ®
Up to approx. 6. 6 Brake shoes
a Brake shoes with
2 single pivots
Brake shoes with
Servo brake Drum brake (servo brake)

1 double pivot b A double-acting wheel cylinder (Figure 7,

c d
One leading shoe, Item 4) operates the two sliding-type brake Fig. 7
-1 Two leading shoes with
small degree of shoes (5,6). Unlike simplex and duplex
self-augmentation floating anchor,
brakes, the brake shoes are not anchored
1 Direction of drum unidirectional pressure
against a fixed point but have floating ends 4
rotation (when pin, large degree of

travelling forwards)
that bear against a pressure pin (7) that can self-augmentation

Self-augmenting move in one direction only. When the vehicle 5 6 1 Direction of drum

effect 7 is travelling forwards, this transmits the rotation (when

travelling forwards)
3 Self-inhibiting effect bracing force of the primary shoe (5) to the
4 Torque Self-augmenting
secondary shoe (6), imparting to it an even
5 Double-acting wheel effect
greater self-augmenting effect than acbieved >-
cylinder 7 -it
3 Torques
by the primary shoe. When the vehicle is re- co 4 Wheel cylinder
6 Leading shoe co
7 Trailing shoe
versing, the servo brake acts in the same way 0
en
u.. 5 Primary shoe
::;)
B Anchor point as a simplex brake. Self-augmenting factor: 6 Secondary shoe
®
(pivot point) Up to approx. 6. 7 Pressure pin
 Due-servo brake Self-augmenting effect l'igurc 9 shows the mctuo I (" pcration of Wheel cylinder
A double-acting wheel cylinder (Figure 8, The extent of the self-augmenting effect is an the a ljustingrncchanism on a double-acting On drum brakes, the brake pressure generated
Item 4) operates the two brake shoes (5,6). important property of drum brakes. Self- wheel cylinder (4) for simplex, duplex and in the master cylinder is transmitted by the
In contrast with the servo brake, the sliding- augmentation is an effect whereby the effective servo brakes. The combined cylinder cap and wheel cylinder via its cup seal (Figure l l ,
type brake shoes are anchored against a braking force is greater than the force that adjuster wheel (3) is tapped in the centre for Item4),piston (5) and the pressure pins (I, 7)
pressure pin (7) which can move in both would result directly from the application the threaded adjuster pin (2) which has a to the brake shoes and forces them against
directions. When the vehicle is travelling force generated by the master cylinder. It is slotted head into which the brake shoe (1) the brake drum. The piston spring (2) ensures
forwards or backwards, this transmits the brought about by the fact that the friction locates. By passing a screwdriver through a that the pressure pins are always held against
bracing force of the primary shoe (6) to the between the leading brake shoe and the drum hole in the brake backplate, the adjuster wheel the brake shoe. A rubber dust cap (6) protects
secondary shoe (5), imparting to it an even creates a turning force around the brake- (3) can be turned to adjust the brake-shoe the cylinder against dirt and damp.
greater self-augmenting effect than achieved shoe pivot which forces the shoe against the clearance. There are single-acting and double-acting
by the primary shoe. drum, thereby supplementing the application Figure 10 shows the method of operation wheel cylinders, as well as designs with an
Self-augmenting factor: up to approx. 6. force of the braking system. Only on the of an adjusting mechanism integrated in the integral pressure regulating valve (patented
simplex brake does the trailing brake shoe anchor bearing of a servo brake. In order to by Bosch/Bendix).
also create a turning force around the shoe adjust the brake-shoe clearance, two adjust-
pivot that diminishes the force applied by the ing screws (5) with slotted heads into which
hydraulic system, in other words a self-in- the brake shoes (1) locate, are screwed in or
hibiting or self-diminishing effect. out by turning the adjuster wheels (2,4).
Drum brake (double-servo brake) Wheel cylinder (single-acting)
Fig. 8 These are integral with the adjusting nuts (6).
As servo brake except Adjusting mechanisms The desire on the part of vehicle manufac-
that pressure pin moves As brake friction linings are subject to wear, turers for an automatic self-adjusting mech-
in both directions;
and wear enlarges the clearance between the anism has produced the following designs:
self-augmenting when 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 brake linings and the drum, drum brakes are • friction adjustment on the brake shoe
travelling forwards or in
reverse
fitted with adjusting mechanisms for adjust- • adjustment incorporated in the wheel Fig. 11
Direction of rotation ing the shoes. There are several types of ad- cylinder 1 Fixed pressure pin
5
(when reversing) 6 justing mechanism: • incremental adjustment (threaded for
Self-augmenting • manually operated adjusting mechanisms adjustment)
effect 2 Compression spring
on the wheel cylinder The incremental system is the only one which
3 Torques 3 Inlet port from master
:: • manually operated adjusting mechanisms is of any significance and has been described
4 Wheel cylinder cylinder

~"' co on the anchor bearings previously in the section dealing with the basic
5
6
7
Secondary
Primary shoe
Pressure pin
shoe
~;;~~~~~~-----7 ::0
• automatic adjusting mechanisms
(see above, Figures land 2)
principle of a drum brake (Figures land 2).
4
5
6
Cup seal
Piston
Rubber dust cap
®
(anchor bearing) 7 Movable pressure pin

Manually operated adjusting mechanism on wheel cylinder Manually operated adjustment mechanism on support bearing

2 3 4 3 2 2 3 4

Fig. 10
1 Brake shoes
2 Adjuster wheel
3 Support bearing
4 Adjuster wheel
5 Adjusting screws
Fig.9 6 Adjusting nuts
1 Brake shoes
2 Adjuster pin Play between
3 Combined cylinder adjuster wheel (2)
cap/adjuster wheel 6 5 and anchor
4 Wheel cylinder bearing (3)
 Disk brakes Sliding-caliper brake rei ascd, i.c. wh .n the by Iraulic pressure is Piston seal
The sliding-caliper brake is a variation of the remove I. This is only possible when the pres-
Principle of operation floating-caliper brake (Figure Ic). The single sure in the brake pipes feeding the disk brake a
Disk brakes generate the braking forces on the piston inside the sliding caliper presses the has completely dissipated. The pad clearance
surface of a brake disk that rotates with the inner brake pad directly against the brake on a disk brake is around 0.15mm and is there-
wheel. The U-shaped brake caliper is attached disk. The resulting reaction force simultane- fore in the vicinity of the maximum permissible
to non-rotating suspension components. ously shifts the caliper body in the opposite static disk runout.
direction, thereby indirectly pressing the As the brake pad wears and the piston travel --1+----4
Designs (Summary) outer pad against the disk. increases, the seal slides over it, thus allowing Fig. 2

There are three types of disk brake that can it to protrude further and thereby effecting b a Non-braking mode

be distinguished. Their basic principles are b Braking mode

Components of a disk brake automatic infinitely variable adjustment of
briefly explained below and described in more Piston seal the brake-pad clearance. Consequently, the >-
detail on the following pages. A rubber seal with a rectangular cross section
sits in a groove around the inside of the cylinder
pad clearance is kept constant and the disk
can rotate freely when the pad is not under
+-3 J,
co
co
0
co
1
2
Piston seal
Caliper body
Inlet port from
u, 3
Fixed-caliper brake and forms a seal around the piston while also pressure. 4 :::>
master cylinder
Two pistons in a rigidly mounted caliper press automatically adjusting the clearance between
e 4 Piston

the brake pads against the disk from both brake pad and disk (Figure 2). The internal Expander spring
sides (Figure la). diameter of the seal is slightly smaller than the The expander spring used on fixed-caliper Expander spring

piston diameter, so that the seal is under tension brakes is in the shape of a cross and has the
Floating-caliper brake i and grips the piston. When the brakes are ap- job of pressing the brake pads against the
A rigidly mounted caliper bracket holds a plied, the piston moves towards the brake disk pistons and assisting release of the brakes a b
movable ("floating") caliper (Figure Ib)?' and in so doing stretches the seal, which is de- (Figure 3).
The single piston forces the inner brake ipad signed so that its static friction prevents it from 5 Fig.3
a Expander spring
against the brake disk while the cylinder body sliding over the piston until (as a result of pad Brake piston (positioning) in fitted position
is simultaneously forced in the opposite di- wear) the distance travelled by the piston in If the pistons of fixed-caliper and floating- (top view)
rection, thereby moving the sliding calipe~l: order to close the gap between itself and the caliper disk brakes have heels (Figure 4, b Expander spring
and indirectly pressing the outer brake p~d disk is greater than the design clearance. Item 4) with a depth of approx. 3 mm on the
against the disk. Because the seal is elastic, it stores energy that pad leading-edge side, those heels must be ~ 1 Caliper body
2 Piston
returns it to its original shape and position so set an angle of 20° to the horizontal using a
3 Piston seal
that it pulls the piston back when the brake is piston gauge (3). The piston heel acting on the
4 Brake pad
brake pad reduces the pressure of the brake 5 Expander spring
pad against the disk on the pad leading edge 6 Brake disk
a b and therefore helps to produce more even
pad wear. A similar effect is produced by pis- Brake piston (positioning)
ton offset, whereby the piston does not act
centrally on the brake pad but is offset be-
tween 2 and 6 mm towards the trailing edge 3 4 5 1 2b 3
of the pad. The more evenly distributed pad /-\\-~
//" \( I ", Fig. 4
pressure that this produces leads to more y /-11-" " 1 Direction of disk
even pad wear. As an additional bonus, this /' ~i_
:0 /" -, rotation when
feature also has a noise-red ucing effect. / \ travelling forwards
(----...1 Upper contact
2a
\ /

Fig. 1 ....
'-.....-......
"
-, -j
/
r-/ ,/
surface in caliper
opening

J l_/-/
"~--\~/ /-
a Fixed-caliper b;;'~e 2b Lower contact
",,-.:1 >-
(front~)-- surface in caliper
b Floating-caliper co opening
2a 1 5 4 '""-
0
brake (top view) rn 3 Piston gauge
LL
:::> 4 Piston heel
c Slidinq-caliper brake
@
(front view) 5 Piston bore
 Fixed-caliper brake Method of opera lion Not's Method of operation
Function When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pres- Adjustment or rea ljustrnent of the fixed- When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pres-
The hydraulic pressure from the master sure from the master cylinder acts via the inlet alipcr brake is unnecessary due to the self- sure from the master cylinder acts via the inlet
cylinder is transmitted to the fixed-caliper port (10) on both pistons (8), thereby pro- adjusting effect of the elastic piston seals. port (6) on the piston (7) which moves out of
brake, in which it produces the application ducing tbe actuating force by which the brake Because of tbeir high mecbanical strength, the cylinder, closing the clearance gap and
force for the brake pads. The fixed caliper pads (5) are pressed against the friction sur- fixed-caliper brakes are used on heavy and pressing the inner brake pad (5) against the
holds the brake pads, braces the brake forces faces of the brake disk (6). The size of that high-speed cars. Their disadvantage is their brake disk (1). The hydraulic pressure si-
and automatically adjusts the brake-pad controllable actuating force is determined by sensitivity to heat under extended periods of multaneously acts against the cylinder body
clearance. tbe foot pressure applied to the brake pedal. braking (e.g. on long descents). That sensi- (8), moving the floating caliper (2) in the op-
When the brake is released, i.e. when the foot tivity is reduced on high -performance brakes posite direction to the piston, and indirectly
Design is taken off the brake pedal, the master-cylinder by replacing the internal hydraulic channel be- pressing the outer brake pad (4) against the
The caliper is made of two halves (Figure 5, piston is returned to its original position by tween the two halves of the caliper with an disk after closing the clearance gap on that
Items 1 and 9) that are held together by the the force of its compression spring and the external brake pipe. Fixed-caliper brakes re- side. When the brake pedal is released, the hy-
caliper tie bolt (2). In each half of the caliper pressure transmitted to the brake caliper quire more space inside the wheel rim so that draulic pressure at the inlet port (6) is re-
there may be one or two pistons (8) for pressing through the brake pipe is released. The pistons on vehicles with a negative kingpin offset moved.As on the fixed-caliper brake, the elas-
the brake shoes (5) against the brake disk (6). (8) are then drawn back to their original po- floating-caliper or sliding caliper brakes are tic piston seal (9) draws the piston (7) back
The brake fluid enters the caliper and passes sitions by the elastic piston seals (3). Having generally preferred. by an amount equivalent to the clearance
into the piston chambers via the inlet port been released by the brake pads, tbe brake disk gap and the disk is then free to rotate again.
(10) and the connecting channel (4). Each (6) is then free to rotate again. If the piston travel Floating-caliper brake
piston is sealed against the caliper by a ring is greater than the design clearance between Function Notes
seal (3) and protected against the ingress of brake pad a;1d disk due to pad wear, the piston The floating-caliper brake generates the Like the fixed-caliper brake, the floating-caliper
dirt, damp and friction-pad dust by a dust seal slides through the seal when the brakes are actuating force for the brake pads from the design does not require adjnstment or readjust-
(7). The fixed-caliper brake is attached to the applied and the clearance is reset to its correct hydraulic pressure created in the master ment. Because it is more compact, this brake is
hub carrier through its mounting flange (11). amount. cylinder, holds the brake pads, braces the particnlarly suited to use on vehicles where
brake forces and automatically adjusts the space is restricted or which have a negative
brake-pad clearance. kingpin offset. Because air can circulate freely
aronnd the hydraulic components, the hydranlic
Fixed-caliper brake fluid is effectivelycooled. Floating-caliper brakes
Design
The floating-caliper brake consists of two can incorporate a parking-brake mechanism.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
main components (Figure 6):
Floating-caliper brake
• the caliper bracket (3), which holds the
cylinder (8) and piston (7) assembly and
--+----9 the brake pads (4, 5), and is rigidly attached
to the hub carrier, and
• the floating caliper (2) which slides in the
curved guideways of the caliper bracket.
Fig. 5 '-.lS---6
1 Caliper half (cap)
A guide spring helps the caliper bracket and
2 Caliper tie bolt
floating caliper to slide smoothly and quietly
3 Piston seal
4 Hydraulic-fluid over each other. The brake fluid enters the Fig. 6
connecting channel chamber between the cylinder body and the 8 1 Brake disk
5 Brake pad piston via the inlet port (6). 2 Floating caliper
6 Brake disk 3 Bracket
7 Dust seal 4 Outer brake pad
8 Piston
~i_-----·11 5 Inner brake pad

__ J
9 Caliper half 6 Inlet port (from
(flanged) master cylinder)
10 Inlet port 7 Piston
from master cylinder 8 Cylinder
11 Mounting flange 9 Piston seal
 Sliding-caliper brake I) 'sign Sliding-caliper brake with integral parking- then free to rotate again. When the parking
l'unction The sliding caliper (3, 10) is mounted on two brake mechanism brake is applied, a cable pulls the hand-brake
The sliding-caliper brake (Figure 7) produces guide pins (2) on which it is able to slide in Function lever (17) so that the earn (15) turns and
the application force for the brake pads by and out. A bracket (1) attached to the hub This sliding-caliper brake functions both as presses the tappet (16) and the push-rod
using the hydraulic pressure from the master carrier holds the two guide pins. The piston a service brake and a parking brake. It pro- (12) against the piston, which then directly
cylinder. The sliding caliper holds the brake (9) acts directly on the inner brake pad (6) and duces the application force for the brake pads presses the inner brake pad against the disk.
pads, braces the brake forces and automati- indirectly on the outer brake pad (4). from the hydraulic pressure from the master The outer brake pad is pressed against the
cally adjusts the brake-pad clearance. The inlet port (8) connects the caliper to the cylinder or the tension applied by the hand- other side of the disk by the reactive force.
master cylinder. brake lever. The sliding caliper holds the brake In addition to the parking-brake mechanism
Comparison with floating-caliper brake pads, braces the brake forces and automatically illustrated in Figure 8, there is also the BIR
The sliding-caliper brake is easier to service Method of operation adjusts the brake-pad clearance. (Ball in Ramp) mechanism. In that case, the
than the floating-caliper brake from which it When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pres- inner brake pad is not moved by means of a
was developed. Like the floating-caliper brake, ure from the master cylinder acts via the inlet Design tappet, but by balls instead. When the parking
it too has a movable caliper (3, 10) and a
single piston (9). Similar too is the way in
l art (8) on the piston (9) which moves out of
the caliper and directly presses the inner brake
The sliding-caliper body (Figure 8, Item 8) is
mounted on two guide pins (2) on which it
brake is applied, the parking-brake mechanism
is caused to rotate, thereby moving three balls,
which the hydraulic pressure moves the pis- pad (6) against the brake disk (5). As the is able to slide in and out. A bracket attached each of which runs in a ramp-shaped groove.
ton against the inner pad while simultaneously brake fluid pressure acts with equal force to the hub carrier holds the two guide pins. Those ramps convert the rotation into a linear
pushing the caliper body (3) in the opposite against the piston and the caliper (10), the The piston (6) presses the inner brake pad movement by means of which the piston
direction so as to indirectly press the outer sliding caliper is pushed in the opposite di- (5) and the outer brake pad (3) against the presses the brake pads against the disk.
pad (4) against the disk (5). The caliper, rection to the piston. The caliper then slides disk (4) directly and indirectly respectively.
however, slides on two guide pins (2) instead on the guidepins (2) and draws the outer The piston is hydraulically operated by the
of on a caliper bracket. brake pad (4) against the disk. Both brake brake fluid entering the inlet port (11).
pads are then pressed against the disk with A metal casing (10) and a sealing disk (13)
equal force. When the isolate the hydraulic system from the parking-
Sliding·caliper brake
brake is released, the brake mechanism which is operated by the
elastic piston seal (7) hand-brake lever (17).
pulls the piston back to
its original position. Method of operation
When the service brakes are applied, hydraulic Fig. 8
1 Caliper' body base
pressure from the master cylinder acts via the
2 Guide pin (rear
inlet port (11) on the piston (6) which moves
guide pin concealed)
out of the caliper and directly presses the inner 3 Outer brake pad
3 ~----7 brake pad (5) against the 4 Brake disk
brake disk (4). At the same Sliding·caliper brake with integral parking·brake mechanism
5 Inner brake pad

time, the hydraulic pres- 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 Piston

~8 sure acts with equal force 7 Dust seal
8 Caliper body
+74-+--9 against the sliding caliper-
9 Self·adjusting
5-+--++-R"+-- body base. The caliper 14 mechanism
Fig. 7
1 Bracket
body (8) then slides on 10 Metal casing
15
2 Guide pin -+--10 the guide pins (2) and 11 Inlet port from master

3 Caliper body draws the outer brake pad 16 cylinder

6--1-------./ 12 Push- rod
4 Outer brake pad (3) against the disk. The
13 Sealing disk
5 Brake disk brake-pad pressure is thus
6 Inner brake pad 14 Caliper· body cap
equal on both sides of the
7 Piston seal 15 Cam
disk When the brake is re- r
16 Tappet
8 Inlet port from
master cylinder
leased, the elastic piston "
0-
<D 17 Hand-brake lever
0

9 Piston seal (18) draws the pis- co

u, 18 Piston seal
::J
10 Caliper body ton back to its original ®
19 Compression spring

11 Dust seal position and the disk is 20 Play

 Brake-type usage Replacement intervals for brake Quality requirements for brake friction
Brake pads, shoes and disks
Nowadays, all ars arc fitted with disk brakes shoes/pads materials
Braking sequence on the front wheels. Drum brakes are fitted As a rule drum-brake shoes have to be re- The quality requirements for brake friction
During braking, the brake pads or shoes are to the rear wheels of smaller/medium-sized placed twice as frequently as the drums, materials can be divided into the three cate-
pressed against a surface which is rotating cars. while disk-brake pads normally need to be gories of safety, comfort/convenience and
with the wheel. This friction pairing generates renewed five times as often as the disks. durability, and must be counterbalanced
a frictional or braking force that converts the Composition of brake friction material For the spare-parts trade, this obviously against one another to suit each particular
kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat. On disk The friction material from which brake linings/ means that brake pads for disk brakes are application.
brakes, the braking force is generated bXthe pads are made is basically made up of four raw sold in much larger numbers than brake
friction pairing of brake-pad friction ma~l'ial materials. The relative proportions of those shoes for drum brakes. Safety
and disk, and on drum brakes by the friction materials depends on the specifics of the ap- On some vehicles, a wear sensor integrated • Stability of frictional coefficient
pairing of brake-shoe friction lining and drum. plication and the required frictional coefficient in the brake pad comes into contact with the • Shear resistance
The kinetic friction coefficient between brake- (static and kinetic). Thus, the friction material disk when the friction material has been worn • Compressibility
pad/shoe friction material/lining and disk/ used on the disk-brake pads for a large exec- down to a thickness of 3.5 mm. In so doing, • Dimensional stability
drum determines, among other things, the utive saloon is different from that used in the it completes an electrical circuit connected to • Thermal conductivity
amount of force that has to be applied to the brake-shoe linings for a small "runabout". an indicator lamp on the dashboard, thus • Flammability
brake pedal to achieve a given braking effect. The precise details of the friction material warning the driver that the pads need replacing. • Corrosion resistance
It also has a fundamental effect on brake compositions are well-guarded secrets known • Running-in characteristics
balance and vehicle handling stability under only to the manufacturers (Table 1lists examples Note
braking. of the main constituents). If the brake pads/shoes or the disk/drum on Comforticonvenience
Brake-shoe friction linings are riveted or one wheel require replacement, the pads/ • Noise-generating characteristics
glued to the brake shoe. The brake shoes have shoes or disk/drum on the opposite wheel • Vibration absorption
a T-shaped cross-section which gives them should always be replaced at the same time • Response characteristics
the required rigidity. To make them easier in order to ensure that even braking efficiency
to fit, brake shoes can be supplied as a pre- Steel wool 14 is maintained on both (front or rear) wheels. Durability
assembled drum-brake kit comprising shoes, Copper powder When replacing brake shoes, pads, drums or • Wear characteristics
Fillers Aluminum oxide 23
wheel cylinder and accessories. Mica powder
disks, it is important to use only those com-
Disk-brake friction pads consist of a fric- Barite ponents approved by the brake manufacturer.
Iron oxide
tion material and an intermediate layer that
Friction adjusters Antimony sulphide 35
are glued to the metal backing plate. Graphite
Powdered coke Performance
Organic Aramide fibre • Speed-dependent coefficient of friction: Friction measurements under braking from 40 km/h ....•5 km/h
28
components Resin filler powder and from 180 km/h ....•150 km/h at 40 bar, 100·C;
Table 1 Binding resin decisive criterion for overall assessment.
• Difference in coefficient of friction: Friction measurements under braking from 40 km/h ....•5 km/h
and from 180 km/h ....•150 km/h at 40 bar, 100·.
~brake friction Disk·br~ke friction .£:d attached to backing plate Friction measurements under braking from 180 km/h ....•100 km/h.
• Motorway braking:
Reduction in braking effect at high temperatures resulting from
• Fade:
reduced friction caused by chemical reactions;
measured under braking from 0.9 Vm" ....• 0.5 Vm,,'
• Running·in characteristics: Measurement of number of braking operations required to stabilise
frictional coefficient of new brake pads.
• General friction coefficient levels Averaged figure for comparable brake pads made by different manu·

d
facturers

Wear
• Brakepad:
Wear in millimetres offriction-pad thickness at 150 ·C, 300·C and 400
Wear In grammes
.c·1
• Brake disk:
Visual appearance after testing
• Brake pad: subjective assessment
• Brake disk: subjective assessment

Physical data
• Shesr-strenqth levels: Rejection cntenon, measurement of m1mmumand maximum levels In kN
• Compressibility: Comfort feature, measurement In um
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 Approval of disk-brake pads Brake noises tha; 0 ur durin' the I raking Brake disks Outlook
A requirements profile detailing vehicle spec- sequence are distinguished according to whether For a number of years, research has been
l.ikc brake [rums, brake disks are attached
ifications, operating conditions and specific they are produced at the point when the brakes conducted into the use of carbon fibre as a
to the wheel hubs and for most applications
customer requirements forms the basis for are applied, continuously while the brakes are are mod f cast iron or steel. Compared material for brake disks in order to reduce
selection of a suitable base material. A bench on, or when they are released. Low-frequency vehicle weight, particularly on racing cars.
with the shoes in drum brakes, the pressure
test checks the brake friction material for per- noises between 0 and 500 Hz are imperceptible Ventilated disks made entirely of carbon
with which the pads are applied to a disk is
formance, noise/~tion characteristics and from inside the car. Noises with a frequency fibre have been tested under race conditions.
greater as their surface area is smaller. This
wear. Once that test has been passed, the road of 500 ... 1,500 Hz are not distinguishable by The latest developments have made it pos-
results in the generation of more heat and a
test follows. the driver as brake noises. High-frequency faster rate of pad wear as compared with sible to produce composite brake disks made
The road test encompasses a performance noises of between 1,500 and 15,000 Hz are of ceramic materials. In combination with new
drum-brake shoes. A brake disk is exposed
test, an endurance test to check for wear, an recognisable by the driver as brake noises. friction-pad materials, these new disks are
to the air and therefore effectively cooled by
extreme-load test including a drive over a Table 2 contains a trouble-shooting chart expected to last as long as the vehicle itself.
the air flow when the vehicle is in motion.
mountain pass, and a test for perceptible vi- for noisy brakes detailing fault causes and Since ceramic disks are only half the weight
Disks can be of three types: unventilated,
brations and noise. If all the tests are success- remedies. of conventional cast-iron disks, the overall
ventilated from the inside, or ventilated from
fully completed, the friction material is ap- weight of the vehicle can be reduced and
the outside (Figure 4). Due to their greater
proved. If only the noise characteristics are greater fuel economy achieved. At the same
mass, ventilated disks have a greater heat-
unsatisfactory, secondary modifications are time, the response characteristics of the shock
storage capacity and also cool down more
made to the friction pad such as application absorbers are improved due to the lower un-
quickly as a result of their radial ventilation
of a rubber coating or attachment of damper sprung mass.
channels that have a fan effect. Consequently,
plates. On completion of those modifications,
ventilated disks are usually preferred for the
the brake pads are put through the bench test
front wheels.
and road test again.
Approved disk-brake pads are identified Worn or incorrect Replace pads on both
by a numbei on the pad surface (Figure 3). brake pads (front/rear) wheels
New pads not yet Take vehicle on test run
run-in to run-in pads
Braking noises produced by disk-brake Friction pads contaminated Locate oil leak and remedy;
pads with oil fit newbrake pads
Uneven frictional processes between the brake Worn accessories Replace accessories Brake·disk types
Incorrect positioning of Check caliper-piston
pad and the disk generate vibrations, whose
brake-caliper piston position and adjust
sound waves can be discernible inside the as necessary
vehicle to the driver, depending on their fre- Excessive wheel-bearing play Adjust wheel-bearinq play
quency. The major determinants of brake Uneven disk runout Replace brake disk
a
noise are brake pressure, brake-disk temper- Wet or dirty brakes Clean brakes and
Table 2 ature, vehicle speed and climatic conditions. lubricate with
suitable lubricant
Disk-brake pad numbering

Fig. 3
1 Ten·digit Bosch part
number
Bosch production-
plant number
3 KBA (German
Fig. 4
vehicle-registration
a Unventilated
authority) number
b Ventilated from
4 Friction-material ;::
inside
'""'
manufacturer
ill
0
c Ventilated from
number
ill
u. outside
'5 Bosch :;)
3 4 5
manufacturing date <lti
Cooling channel