Jclid190846 PDF

1 AUGUST 2020 MOORMAN ET AL.
6599
Thermal Responses to Antarctic Ice Shelf Melt in an Eddy-Rich Global

Ocean–Sea Ice Model
RUTH MOORMAN, ADELE K. MORRISON, AND ANDREW MCC. HOGG

Research School of Earth Sciences, and ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes, Australian National University,
Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
(Manuscript received 15 November 2019, in final form 21 April 2020)
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ABSTRACT
The response of near-Antarctic waters to freshening by increased glacial melt is investigated using a high-
resolution (0.18) global ocean–sea ice model with realistic Antarctic water-mass properties. Two meltwater
perturbation experiments are conducted where the ocean model is forced with constant elevated glacial melt
rates of 1.5 and 2.8 times the control rate. Within 10 years of the onset of enhanced meltwater forcing, the
generation of Antarctic Bottom Water from Dense Shelf Water ceases, as shelf waters become increasingly
buoyant. Increased ocean stratification triggers subsurface warming in Dense Shelf Water source regions,
suggesting a localized positive feedback to melt. In a parallel response, meltwater forcing enhances the
subsurface lateral density gradients of the Antarctic Slope Front that modulate the transport of warm
Circumpolar Deep Water across the continental slope toward ice shelf grounding lines. Consequently, coastal
freshening acts to isolate the Antarctic Ice Sheet from open ocean heat, suggesting a cooling response to melt
that counteracts warming associated with stratification. Further, these strengthening density gradients ac-
celerate westward geostrophic currents along the coast and shelf break, homogenizing shelf waters and
amplifying remote feedbacks. The net effect on the continental shelf is transient warming, followed by cooling
in both experiments; however, this signal is the aggregate of a complex pattern of regional warming and
cooling responses. These results suggest coastal freshening by meltwater may alter the thermal forcing of the
Antarctic ice sheet in ways that both accelerate and inhibit ice shelf melt at different locations along the
Antarctic coastline.
1. Introduction and margin in ocean models (Stewart and Thompson

2015). Understanding how near-Antarctic waters re-
The Antarctic Ice Sheet poses the largest potential
spond to freshwater forcing is important for constraining
mass contribution to global sea level rise, with an esti-
future rates of ice shelf melt and sea level rise.
mated 58 m of sea level equivalent contained in land ice
A possible dynamical response to increasing fresh-
on the continent (Fretwell et al. 2013; Morlighem et al.
water input, suggested by observed deep ocean heat and
2019). The melting of Antarctic land ice has accelerated
salinity trends (Jacobs and Giulivi 2010; Purkey and
in recent decades, with losses from the marine termi-
Johnson 2010, 2012, 2013) and previous simulation
nating glaciers of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet driving
studies (e.g., Aiken and England 2008; Fogwill et al.
the trend (Paolo et al. 2015; Shepherd et al. 2018). In
2015; Kirkman and Bitz 2011; Menviel et al. 2010;
addition to driving sea level rise, the observed acceler-
Morrison et al. 2015; Snow et al. 2016; Stouffer et al.
ation of ice loss from Antarctica implies an increasing
2007; Lago and England 2019), is that coastal freshening
freshwater flux into Antarctic coastal seas. The effects of
will disrupt the production of Antarctic Bottom Water
this buoyancy forcing on Antarctic ocean circulation are
(AABW), a dense water mass that fills the majority of
poorly constrained by observations and models, due to
the abyssal oceans (Johnson 2008). AABW is sourced
the spatial and temporal scarcity of direct observations
from reservoirs of cold and saline dense waters that pool
near the Antarctic coast (Smith et al. 2019) and the high
on the Antarctic continental shelf following substantial
resolution required to simulate small-scale processes
surface buoyancy losses associated with sea ice pro-
dictating circulation on the Antarctic continental shelf
duction in polynyas near the Antarctic coast (Orsi et al.
1999). These downwelling coastal waters, referred to as
Corresponding author: Ruth Moorman, [email protected] Dense Shelf Water (DSW), are the precursor to AABW.
DOI: 10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0846.1
Ó 2020 American Meteorological Society. For information regarding reuse of this content and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright
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6600 JOURNAL OF CLIMATE VOLUME 33
DSW spills over the shelf break in localized plumes that et al. 2010; Fogwill et al. 2015; Bronselaer et al. 2018;
cascade down the continental slope to the abyssal ocean Schloesser et al. 2019; Golledge et al. 2019). However,
where they flow northward as AABW (Jacobs 2004). studies that report this feedback utilize relatively coarse
DSW generation is known to be sensitive to coastal (.18 grid) ocean models that do not resolve features such
freshening (Snow et al. 2016; Silvano et al. 2018) due to as the narrow ASF, localized DSW overflows, or eddy-
its dependence on surface water densification by brine driven shoreward CDW transports that contribute to the
rejection near the Antarctic coast. However, it is less Antarctic continental shelf heat budget. As such, while
clear how a reduction in DSW production would impact previous Antarctic meltwater perturbation experi-
the heat budget of the Antarctic continental shelf and ments using global models offer useful insights into the
ice sheet. sensitivity of large-scale circulation systems and open
Where DSW breaches the continental shelf margin at ocean water-mass characteristics to freshwater forcing,
overflow sites, it interacts with a relatively warm, saline they are ill equipped to diagnose feedbacks to the
water mass occupying the middepths north of the shelf Antarctic continental shelf or Antarctic Ice Sheet.

break, Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). Poleward Using a higher-resolution (0.258 grid) ocean sector
CDW transport is considered to be the dominant heat model with realistic DSW formation and export path-
flux driving basal melt beneath Antarctic ice shelves ways, Snow et al. (2016) found that meltwater-induced
(Stewart et al. 2018), and its presence near ice shelf Antarctic ocean warming is confined to the deep ocean,
grounding lines has been linked to high melt rates and that continental shelf waters cool in response to
in West Antarctica (Jenkins et al. 2018). Around most freshwater forcing, suggesting a negative feedback to
of Antarctica, the steeply sloping isopycnals of the melt. However, the 0.258 grid used by Snow et al. (2016)
Antarctic Slope Front (ASF) provide a natural barrier is insufficient to resolve eddy driven cross-slope heat
inhibiting the transport of warm CDW, and its intrinsic transport either within or outside DSW overflow sites.
melt potential, to ice shelf grounding lines (Thompson Previous regional (St-Laurent et al. 2013; Graham et al.
et al. 2018). Ekman downwelling velocities induced by 2016) and idealized (Stewart and Thompson 2015)
persistent coastal easterly winds depress isopycnals to- modeling studies have suggested a horizontal grid scale
ward the coast (Spence et al. 2014) and, in some regions, of ;1 km (nominally ;1/488) is required to fully re-
this isopycnal tilting is sufficiently steep that density solve eddy-driven transports of CDW and DSW across
surfaces containing warm CDW incrop on the continental the Antarctic continental shelf margin, although sub-
slope. This isopycnal incropping prevents CDW from ac- stantial improvements in the representation of cross-
cessing the continental shelf except where modified by slope exchange have been achieved at horizontal grid
diapycnal mixing, and thus limits the transport of open scales # 5 km (Nakayama et al. 2014) (nominally ;1/108).
ocean heat to the Antarctic Ice Sheet (Thompson et al. Furthermore, Snow et al.’s (2016) use of a sector model
2018). No such frontal barrier to shoreward CDW trans- neglects remote feedbacks and circum-Antarctic vari-
port exists at DSW overflow sites, which necessarily ability. Recent improvements in high-resolution global
maintain isopycnal connections between offshore CDW ocean–sea ice modeling provide the opportunity to in-
and shelf waters, and may even actively drive shoreward terrogate these feedbacks in simulations that represent
CDW transport (Stewart and Thompson 2016; Morrison many observed processes operating at the continental
et al. 2020). Nor is a strong ASF found in the Amundsen shelf margin and span the full circumpolar domain, al-
and Bellingshausen Seas of West Antarctica, where CDW though fully resolving near-Antarctic mesoscale eddy
floods the continental shelf and drives high basal melt rates activity in circumpolar models remains computationally
(e.g., Cook et al. 2016; Jenkins et al. 2016, 2018; Moffat and challenging.
Meredith 2018; Schmidtko et al. 2014). Both DSW for- In this study, we use a high-resolution (0.18 grid),
mation regions and the Amundsen and Bellingshausen global, coupled ocean–sea ice model with a realistic
Seas present potential hotspots for cross-slope heat ex- representation of near-Antarctic water masses to in-
change by permitting along isopycnal CDW transport to the vestigate the response of Antarctic ocean circulation to
shelf. Meltwater-induced density shifts near the Antarctic increased glacial melt rates. The central aim is to iden-
coast may modify these cross-slope isopycnal structures and tify possible feedback mechanisms whereby the fresh-
alter the pathways by which open ocean heat accesses the ening of Antarctic coastal oceans by increasing glacial
continental shelf. meltwater fluxes may increase or decrease the thermal
Prior simulation studies have found that coastal fresh- forcing of ice shelves, and thus accelerate or limit future
ening triggers strong subsurface warming trends around ice shelf melt. To this end, we conduct two enhanced
Antarctica, suggesting a positive feedback whereby coastal meltwater experiments, assessing shifts in the Antarctic
freshening by meltwater accelerates further melt (Menviel shelf water properties and the exchange of heat and
1 AUGUST 2020 MOORMAN ET AL. 6601
water masses (i.e., DSW and CDW) across the continental ACCESS-OM2–01 has a nominal horizontal grid length
shelf break triggered by increasing freshwater inputs. of 0.18 and a 75 level z* vertical grid (see Stacey et al. 1995;
Adcroft and Campin 2004), providing vertical grid spacing
ranging from 1.1 m at the surface to 198.4 m at depth.
2. Model and methods Along the Antarctic continental shelf and slope, the focal
region of this study, ACCESS-OM2–01 yields zonal and
a. The ACCESS-OM2–01 ocean–sea ice model
meridional grid spacing of 2.2–5.5 and 4.7–5.5 km, respec-
The principal tool of this study is ACCESS-OM2–01 tively. While representing a substantial improvement over
[for details, see Kiss et al. (2019)], a 0.18 global ocean– previous studies, this horizontal resolution is insufficient to
sea ice model comprising the MOM5.1 ocean model fully resolve the mesoscale eddy field along the ASF,
(Griffies 2012) coupled to the CICE5.1.2 sea ice model where the Rossby radius is ;4 km and a grid scale of
(Hunke et al. 2015), with atmospheric forcing repre- ;1 km is generally considered eddy resolving (Stewart and
sented by the JRA55-do v1.3 surface forcing product Thompson 2015; St-Laurent et al. 2013; Graham et al.

(Tsujino et al. 2018). In this section, we provide details of 2016). No mesoscale eddy parameterizations are em-
the model configuration and spinup protocol, and justify ployed; thus cross-ASF eddy heat transport may be un-
its suitability to the study of ocean processes near the derrepresented in ACCESS-OM2–01. Additionally, the
Antarctic coast. model omits tides, which have been suggested to modify
The ocean–sea ice model was run for a 37-yr spinup the structure of the ASF (Flexas et al. 2015) and to con-
period initialized from the World Ocean Atlas 2013 v2 tribute to the continental shelf heat budget (Stewart et al.
(WOA13v2) ‘‘decav’’ temperature and salinity fields (the 2018). Despite such deficiencies, the simulated tempera-
average of six decadal climatologies spanning 1955–2012; ture and salinity of Antarctic water masses on and adjacent
Zweng et al. 2013; Locarnini et al. 2013) before two en- to the continental shelf agree remarkably well with avail-
hanced meltwater perturbation experiments (described able observations, indicating that cross-ASF exchanges are
in section 2b) were branched off. The perturbation ex- well captured by the model. Figure 1 demonstrates broad
periments and control case were each run for a 10-yr consistency between observational estimates of Antarctic
experimental period. To remove the effect of interannual Shelf Bottom Water (ASBW) and CDW temperature and
atmospheric variability, and to isolate ocean and sea ice salinity by Schmidtko et al. (2014) and ACCESS-OM2–01
responses to imposed meltwater changes, a repeat-year control simulation output, with both the spatial variability
atmospheric forcing scheme is prescribed in both the and the range of tracer concentrations well replicated by
spinup and the experimental period that repeats the the model, although larger biases are evident in the
JRA55-do v1.3 forcing from 1 May 1984 to 31 April Weddell Sea (;508W) and Marie Byrd Land (;1308W).
1985—a year selected to minimize the influence of an- Note that, following Goddard et al. (2017), we define the
thropogenic warming and anomalies in major modes of Antarctic continental shelf as the region poleward of a
climate variability on the model baseline state (Stewart continuous approximation of the 1000-m isobath (black
et al. 2020). To avoid drifts in ocean salinity inherent to contours in Fig. 1), a natural boundary choice as this iso-
ocean–sea ice models due to the omission of atmospheric bath closely tracks the ASC and ASF (Goddard et al. 2017;
feedbacks, sea surface salinity is relaxed toward the Thompson et al. 2018).
WOA13v2 monthly climatology with a restoring piston The most salient success of ACCESS-OM2–01 in the
velocity of 33 m (300 days)21 (see Griffies et al. 2009). Antarctic region is that it accurately simulates the known
The 37-yr spinup period is short, relative to the equili- mechanisms of AABW formation from continental shelf
bration time of the global ocean, and as a result the model sourced dense waters. Using monthly model output, a sur-
deep ocean state drifts over the experimental period. face water-mass transformation analysis following Newsom
Model drift constitutes 20% and 45% of the volume av- et al. (2016) and Abernathey et al. (2016) reveals that
eraged temperature trend south of 508S and below 3000- Antarctic continental shelf surface waters transform into
m depth over the two enhanced meltwater simulations. downwelling density classes (s1 . 32.51 kg m23, where s1 is
However, waters on the shallow Antarctic continental potential density referenced to 1000 dbar), forming DSW,
shelf, the focal region of this study, quickly adjust to at a rate of 11.6 Sv (1 Sv [ 106 m3 s21). A map of transfor-
surface forcings such that volume averaged temperature mation rates across 32.51 kg m23 (Fig. 2, red shading) shows
and salinity values for the region poleward of the 1000-m that DSW formation is simulated in the four regions
isobath do not drift significantly (p . 0.05) over the 10-yr recognized as AABW sources in observations: the
control simulation. To minimize the influence of model Weddell Sea (Foster and Carmack 1976; Gordon et al.
drift on our findings, we primarily consider anomalies 1993), Ross Sea (Jacobs et al. 1970; Gordon et al. 2004,
between the 10-yr experimental and control simulations. 2009), Adélie Coast (Williams et al. 2008; Foster 1995),

FIG. 1. Comparison of Antarctic water-mass properties in ACCESS-OM2–01 with observations. (a)–(c) Conservative Temperature and
(d)–(f) Absolute Salinity of Antarctic Shelf Bottom Water (ASBW; shading poleward of black contour) and Circumpolar Deep Water
(CDW; shading north of black contour) partitioned by the 1000-m isobath (black contour). Observational estimates in (a) and (d) are from
Schmidtko et al. (2014), based on 1975–2012 data. Model values shown in (b) and (e) are averaged over the 10-yr control simulation.
Model values are binned onto the observational grid and spatially averaged to generate anomalies in (c) and (f). ASBW is defined as the
bottom ocean cell on the Antarctic continental shelf. Following Schmidtko et al. (2014), CDW characteristics are taken at the conservative
temperature maximum below the Winter Water depth, where the Winter Water depth is defined as the Conservative Temperature
minimum below 40-m depth. CDW is undefined where this Conservative Temperature maximum exceeds 2.88C. Regions where data are
unavailable or water-mass definitions are unsatisfied are in white.
and Prydz Bay (Ohshima et al. 2013). In agreement to the abyssal ocean floor (Heuzé et al. 2013). In ACCESS-
with observational studies (Pellichero et al. 2018), OM2–01, DSW generated by sea ice processes is success-
densification on the shelf is driven by brine rejection fully exported to the deep ocean where it drives an abyssal
from sea ice formation, with 95% of the DSW trans- overturning cell with a maximum transport of 25 Sv at 588S
formation rate attributable to salinity fluxes, and only that slows to 8 Sv at 308S [discussed further by Kiss et al.
5% to cooling. Mapping the relative ideal ocean age in (2019)]. The accurate representation of AABW formation
the bottom ocean grid cell (Fig. 2, green shading; a from DSW overflows in ACCESS-OM2–01 constitutes a
passive tracer is set to zero in the surface cell that in- significant improvement in the representation of Antarctic
creases with time in internal cells) reveals that these ocean dynamics in global models, making it an ideal tool to
recently ventilated shelf-sourced dense waters cascade interrogate the response of Antarctic circulation to climate
down the continental slope to the abyssal ocean along perturbations.
pathways consistent with observed AABW transports ACCESS-OM2–01 successfully simulates Antarctic
[see, e.g., Fig. 7e in Orsi et al. (1999)]. Most global water-mass properties despite its simplified representa-
ocean and climate models produce Antarctic dense tion of Antarctic ocean forcing and boundaries. Since
waters in large open ocean convective cells dominated ACCESS-OM2–01 does not incorporate a dynamic ice
by surface heat fluxes, and where other global models sheet model, glacial meltwater inputs from basal melting
successfully generate DSW through brine rejection on the and iceberg calving are combined and included in the
continental shelf, excessive mixing in overflows diverts control JRA55-do v1.3 forcing as a constant ‘‘runoff’’
DSW into intermediate depths instead of exporting them flux with magnitude and spatial distribution informed by
meltwater perturbation scenarios guided by recent patterns

of ice loss, rather than increasing the baseline runoff pattern
by a spatially invariant scale factor (e.g., Snow et al. 2016) or
employing a crude ‘‘hosing’’ where a uniform runoff rate is
applied to the entire coastline (e.g., Swingedouw et al. 2009;
Stouffer et al. 2007). Ice shelves for which significant thin-
ning was observed by Paolo et al. (2015) for the 1994–2012
period were identified and aggregated into six regions ex-
periencing similar rates of thinning; the Larsen Ice Shelves,
West Antarctic Peninsula, Amundsen and Bellingshausen
Seas, Ross Sea, Rennick Ice Shelf, and Dibble Ice Shelf
(Figs. 3a,b). The 1994–2012 observed increases in glacial
runoff rates due to thinning in these six regions (totaling a

0.008 Sv increase around Antarctica) were then amplified
by a constant scale factor to total the magnitude of the
Golledge et al. (2019) RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 at 2100 projected
increases in runoff rates for the whole of Antarctica (0.042
FIG. 2. Simulated dense water formation on the Antarctic conti-
and 0.160 Sv). These amplified runoff values were then
nental shelf and transport pathways to the abyssal ocean in translated into six regional scaling factors by which the
ACCESS-OM2–01. The surface water-mass transformation rate per baseline runoff pattern (which contains variability at the ice
unit area across s1 5 32.51 kg m23, into downwelling density classes shelf scale) was increased. The resulting runoff perturba-
(density classes experiencing time-mean volume convergence or tions are illustrated in Fig. 3, with details, including scale
water-mass ‘‘formation’’ that must be balanced by subduction at
steady state; e.g., Pellichero et al. 2018), is shown on the continental
factors, provided in Table 1. These simulations are hereafter
shelf in red shading. Green shading in the open ocean shows passive referred to as MW1.5 and MW2.8 as runoff perturbations of
age tracer values for the bottom ocean grid cell, normalized by the 0.042 and 0.160 Sv represent a scaling of the total Antarctic
simulation length. Dark green shading indicates the presence of re- runoff of approximately 1.5 and 2.8 times the baseline
cently ventilated shelf-sourced dense waters at the seabed. Black JRA55-do value. The magnitude of these meltwater per-
arrows schematically interpret the pathways along which these shelf-
sourced dense waters propagate northward as AABW. Time-
turbations is comparable to experiments conducted by
averaged output for the 10-yr control simulation is shown. Black Snow et al. (2016), who included runoff amplifications of
and gray lines are the 1000- and 4000-m isobaths respectively, between 1.3 and 2.3 times baseline values, and is smaller
which delineate the continental shelf and abyssal ocean regions. than experiments utilizing Antarctic meltwater scenarios
from DeConto and Pollard (2016) (e.g., Bronselaer et al.
Depoorter et al. (2013). ACCESS-OM2–01 does not 2018; Lago and England 2019; Schloesser et al. 2019), who
contain ice shelf cavities, and meltwater is simply input predict meltwater perturbations of approximately 0.6 and
at the surface along the coastline, defined at the ice shelf 0.2 Sv by 2100 under RCP8.5 and RCP4.5 forcing respec-
perimeter. As such, our simulations neglect dynamics tively. This methodology produces two idealized forcing
associated with circulation beneath floating ice shelves, scenarios with magnitudes considered to be conservative for
the influx of meltwater at depth, and the advection of the end of the century and a simplified spatial pattern that
calved icebergs (e.g., Jourdain et al. 2017; Martin and assumes the greatest near-future melt rates will occur in
Adcroft 2010; Mathiot et al. 2017; Schloesser et al. 2019). regions of recent observed ice shelf thinning and reduced
This omission contributes to the model tracer biases il- buttressing. Due to the simplifications of this forcing ratio-
lustrated in Fig. 1; temperature and salinity biases sim- nale and the large uncertainties associated with projections
ulated on the continental shelf in ACCESS-OM2–01 of Antarctic melt rates, we caution readers against inter-
agree well with biases attributed to the input of glacial preting the results of this study in terms of RCP4.5 and
meltwater at the surface, instead of at depth, by Mathiot RCP8.5 emissions scenarios.
et al. (2017) (see Mathiot et al. 2017, their Figs. 12b,c). The meltwater perturbations are imposed as step
changes in the Antarctic runoff rate initiated at year 0 of
b. Meltwater forcing experiments
the 10-yr experimental period, which starts in May in
Two enhanced meltwater experiments (Fig. 3) were alignment with the repeat year atmospheric forcing.
conducted where the baseline JRA55-do v1.3 Antarctic Prescribed meltwater increases are effectively damped
runoff pattern was amplified to include projected Antarctic over the experimental period by surface salt restoring
ice sheet mass loss rates at 2100 under the RCP4.5 and fluxes, since restoring fluxes increase as the model ocean
RCP8.5 scenarios. We constructed spatially variable state tends further away from the WOA13v2 reference.

FIG. 3. Summary of the control and perturbed Antarctic runoff forcing schemes. (a) Runoff per ice shelf under the control
(black), MW1.5 (blue), and MW2.8 (orange) scenarios. Ice shelves for which runoff is increased under the experimental
forcing are highlighted in red and grouped into six regions (Dibble, Rennick, Ross, Amundsen and Bellingshausen, West
Antarctic Peninsula, and Larsen) for which different scaling factors are used to amplify the control Depoorter et al. (2013)
runoff pattern. (b) Map indicating ice shelf locations. Ice shelves contributing to meltwater perturbations are in red. (c) Time
(total) (effective)
series of the total Qfw and effective Qfw Antarctic runoff over the experimental period. All seasonal variability in
(effective)
Qfw is contained in the surface salinity restoration term [see Eq. (1)]. Ice shelf abbreviations: WES, West; SHA,
Shackleton; TOT, Totten; MUS, Moscow; HOL;, Holmes; DIB, Dibble; MER, Mertz; COO, Cook; REN, Rennick; MAR,
Mariner; DRY, Drybalski; RIS, Ross Ice Shelf; WIT, Withrow; SUL, Sulzberger; NIC,Nickerson; GET, Getz; DOT, Dotson;
CRO, Crosson; THW, Thwaites; PIN, Pine Island; COS, Cosgrove; ABB, Abbott; VEN, Venable; STA, Stange; BAC, Bach;
WIL, Wilkins; GEO, George VI; WOR, Wordie; LAR, Larsen; RON, Ronne; FIL, Filchner; BRU, Brunt; RII, Riiser; FIM,
Fimbul; LAZ, Lazarev; BAU, Baudouin; PRI, Prince Harald; NE, North East; AME, Amery.
(106r0)21 converts freshwater fluxes from m3 s21 to Sv.

(effective)
A time series of the effective Antarctic runoff Qfw
is shown in Fig. 3c, computed as Due to damping by surface salinity restoring, effective
runoff anomalies averaged over the final year of the ex-
ðð
perimental period are 48% (MW1.5) and 77% (MW2.8) of
2 (106 r0 )21
(effective) (runoff ) (restore)
Qfw 5 Qfw (Fsalt /SSS) dx dy ,
C their prescribed values. Given the uncertainties inherent to
(1) Antarctic runoff projections, and since we are interested in
identifying the dynamical drivers of feedbacks to ice shelf
(runoff )
following Griffies et al. (2009), where Qfw is the total melt as opposed projecting the ocean state along a specific
runoff from the Antarctic continent (a constant value of emissions trajectory, we did not attempt to counteract the
0.087, 0.129, and 0.248 Sv for the control, MW1.5, and effect of surface salinity restoration.
MW2.8 scenarios respectively), SSS is the sea surface ab-
solute salinity (converted to kg kg21) of a given grid cell
3. Results
(kg m22 s21), C
(restore)
experiencing a salt restoring flux of Fsalt
is the region poleward of the 1000-m isobath, r0 is a ref- Under the MW1.5 and MW2.8 enhanced meltwater
erence freshwater density set to 103 kg m23, and the factor forcing schemes, Antarctic continental shelf waters
TABLE 1. Baseline and perturbed runoff from Antarctic ice shelves in six enhanced runoff regions shown in Fig. 3. Perturbation
magnitudes are determined by scaling up runoff increases inferred from thinning rates over the 1994–2012 period by Paolo et al. (2015)
[volume fluxes reported by Paolo et al. (2015) are converted to mass fluxes assuming an ice density of rice 5 0.917 kg m23]. Scale factors
(SF), shown in square brackets, are used to generate final runoff patterns, in order to retain spatial variability at the ice shelf scale in the
control JRA55-do forcing. Refer to Figs. 3a and 3b for region definitions.
Control Observed MW1.5 increase MW2.8 increase

Region runoffa (GT yr21) increaseb (GT yr21) [GT yr21 (SF)] [GT yr21 (SF)]
Dibble 22.4 11.8 19.6 [31.08] 136.8 [32.64]
Rennick 8.5 11.8 19.6 [32.13] 136.8 [35.32]
Ross 196.0 170.6 1375.5 [32.92] 11441.5 [38.35]
Amundsen 805.5 1108.2 1575.6 [31.71] 12209.2 [33.74]
Bellingshausen
West Antarctic 276.2 139.4 1209.6 [32.19] 1804.4 [35.57]
Peninsula

Larsen 55.5 125.7 1136.7 [33.46] 1524.7 [310.45]
Runoff anomaly — 1247.5 11306.6 15053.4
(GT yr21)
Runoff anomaly (Sv) — 10.008 10.042 10.160
a
Tsujino et al. (2018).
b
Paolo et al. (2015).
freshen on average by 0.23 and 0.54 g kg 21, respec- cross-slope dynamics using a categorization framework
tively, computed as the time-mean anomaly relative based on the frontal structures and water-mass charac-
to the control for the 10th year of the experiment. teristics found near the shelf break.
The freshening signal is circumpolar, despite the Cross-slope annual mean temperature and potential
concentration of prescribed runoff increases to West density profiles are used to classify stretches of the
Antarctica (see Fig. 3b), and is constrained to the Antarctic continental shelf into four categories with
continental shelf poleward of the 1000-m isobath distinct dynamics; Fresh shelf, Warm shelf, Dense shelf,
(Figs. 4b,c). This shelf freshening prompts changes in and Cool shelf (examples shown in Figs. 4d–g). The
the dynamics governing water-mass formation near Fresh, Warm, and Dense shelf categories were intro-
the Antarctic coastline and water-mass exchange duced by Thompson et al. (2018), while the Cool shelf
across the continental shelf margin in ACCESS- classification is included in the present study to account
OM2–01 as explored in the following sections. First, for a previously undocumented regime simulated in the
we present a qualitative circumpolar overview of eastern Ross Sea in ACCESS-OM2–01. The Fresh shelf
shifts in leading-order shelf break dynamics trig- case (Fig. 4d) typifies the ASF as described in section 1,
gered by the imposed freshening (section 3a). Then, where density surfaces tilt steeply downward toward the
we consider two distinct dynamical responses to pole, maintaining strong lateral gradients in subsurface
freshening that contribute to this circumpolar signal: water-mass properties and preventing along-isopycnal
the decline of DSW overturning (section 3b) and pathways for CDW transport to the shelf. We identify
the acceleration of near-Antarctic geostrophic flows the Fresh shelf regions where potential density contours
(section 3c). Finally, these dynamical responses are em- containing open ocean warm waters (u . 08C) intersect
ployed in combination to explain temperature responses to with the continental slope, and no warm waters (u .
freshening simulated on the continental shelf and slope 08C) are found poleward of the shelf break. The Dense
(section 3d). shelf classification (Fig. 4e) captures DSW overflow
sites. This regime is often associated with a V-shaped
a. Leading-order shelf break dynamics
isopycnal geometry wherein (poleward) downward
The leading-order dynamics influencing cross-slope sloping isopycnals of the ASF intersect with (equator-
transport vary substantially around the Antarctic conti- ward) downward sloping isopycnals along which DSW
nental margin at steady state, with some stretches charac- accesses the deep ocean. Here, Dense shelf sections are
terized by strong interactions between shelf and open ocean defined where isopycnal connections exist between cold
water masses (e.g., DSW overflows), and others charac- (u . 08C) shelf waters and the open ocean below 1500-m
terized by relative isolation (e.g., ASF isopycnal incrop- depth. The Warm shelf regime (Fig. 4f) describes con-
ping). Following Thompson et al. (2018), we obtain a ditions found along the West Antarctic Peninsula and
circumpolar overview of meltwater-induced shifts in Amundsen Sea; here the ASF frontal structure is weak

FIG. 4. (a) Classification of cross-slope profiles into Fresh (green), Cool (blue), Warm (red), and Dense (purple)
categories described in the main text, shown as a function of longitude. The four color bars correspond to the
Thompson et al. (2018) characterization based on observations (Obs), and ACCESS-OM2–01 output from the
control, MW1.5, and MW2.8 simulations averaged over the 10th year of the experiment. The Fresh shelf regime is
defined where s1 contours containing open ocean warm waters (u . 08C) intersect with the continental slope, and
no warm waters (u . 08C) are found poleward of the shelf break. Dense shelf sections are defined where isopycnal
connections exist between cold (u , 08C) shelf waters and the open ocean below 1500-m depth. Warm shelf regions
are defined where u . 08C water is found on the shelf, except where the Dense shelf classification is also satisfied.
The Cool shelf regime is defined where no u . 08C water is found on the shelf, despite the absence of frontal barriers
or DSW overflows at the shelf break. The control pattern does not drift over the 10-yr experimental period. (b),(c)
Maps show upper 1000-m depth mean absolute salinity anomalies averaged over the final year of the experiment.
Black contours are the 1000-m isobath. (d)–(g) Example transects from the control simulation illustrating the four
shelf break regimes. Shading is potential temperature, while contours indicate isosurfaces of potential density s1.
Transect locations are indicated in (b) and (c) by corresponding colored bars.
or absent, and CDW floods the continental shelf, unin- strong cross-slope temperature gradients are sustained
hibited by the isopycnal tilting. We classify any region (no u . 08C water on the shelf) despite the absence of a
where warm waters (u . 08C) are present on the shelf frontal barriers or DSW overflows at the shelf break.
as a Warm shelf region, except where the Dense shelf Shelf water-mass properties in the east Ross Sea resemble
classification is also satisfied. The characteristic dy- those of Fresh shelf regions in east Antarctica (Fig. 1);
namics of the Fresh, Warm, and Dense shelf regimes are however, CDW adjacent to the Ross Sea shelf is warmer
described in detail by Thompson et al. (2018). Finally, a and lighter than waters north of the shelf break in East
fourth catergorization, Cool shelf (Fig. 4g), is included Antarctica, and so no strong lateral density gradients
to account for transects in the eastern Ross Sea where persist between open ocean and shelf water masses.

FIG. 5. (a) Net offshore transport across the 1000-m isobath, cumulatively summed in s1 space from high to low density. Transports are
averaged over the 5th (dashed) and final (solid) years of the control (black), MW1.5 (blue), and MW2.8 (orange) simulations. Offshore
transports do not drift over the control simulation, so only values for the 10th year are shown. (b),(c) Age anomalies for the bottom ocean
cell, averaged over the final year of the MW1.5 and MW2.8 experiments, respectively, and normalized by the simulation length. Black lines
denote the 1000-m isobath. Open ocean normalized bottom age anomalies for the control simulation are provided in Fig. 2.
Figure 4a provides the circumpolar distribution of con- cascade down the continental slope and contribute to
tinental shelf regimes in ACCESS-OM2–01 according to abyssal overturning circulation. The density character-
the above scheme, and summarizes shifts in shelf break istics of waters exchanged between the continental shelf
dynamics triggered by the MW1.5 and MW2.8 meltwater and the open ocean are analyzed by conservatively
forcing schemes. Under control forcing, the spatial distri- binning daily averaged volume transports across the
bution of continental shelf regimes in ACCESS-OM2–01 1000-m isobath into potential density classes before
agrees well with the classification proposed by Thompson taking an annual mean and integrating time-averaged
et al. (2018) (included in Fig. 4a for reference) derived fluxes from high to low density (Fig. 5a). Under control
from an observational dataset of water-column measure- forcing, shelf waters denser than s1 5 32.53 kg m23 flow
ments (1D) and hydrographic profiles (2D). Discrepancies offshore across the 1000-m isobath at a rate of 10.6 Sv, in
between observation and model-derived classifications are agreement with observational estimates that 8.1 6 2.6 Sv
likely due to a combination of observational ambiguity of AABW precursor waters are transported offshore
(especially in regions where only 1D profiles are available) across the upper continental slope (Orsi et al. 1999,
and model bias. The spatial distribution of shelf regimes 2002). Under enhanced meltwater forcing, both the rate
alters substantially under MW1.5 and MW2.8 meltwater of net offshore transport in higher-density classes and
forcing, suggesting major shifts in the dynamics dictating the density of waters transported off the shelf decline
continental shelf water-mass properties. The most notable (Fig. 5a). By the fifth year of MW2.8 forcing (orange
trends are 1) contraction (MW1.5) and eventual elimina- dashed line in Fig. 5a) and 10th year of MW1.5 forcing
tion (MW2.8) of the Dense shelf regime, which is replaced (solid blue line, Fig. 5a) the density of waters exported
by Fresh and Cool shelf structures, 2) increasing preva- off the shelf resemble continental slope middepth and
lence of the Fresh shelf regime, and 3) extension of Warm surface waters (see, e.g., cross slope transects in Fig. 4b),
shelf properties westward into the eastern Ross Sea shelf suggesting these waters cannot cascade to the abyssal
(Fig. 4a). Overwhelmingly, the shelf becomes more iso- ocean and contribute to AABW. Figures 5b and 5c show
lated, in that a smaller fraction of the shelf has isopycnal that bottom waters along the abyssal AABW transport
connections with middepth open-ocean waters. pathways highlighted in Fig. 2 increase in age in re-
sponse to meltwater forcing, supporting a decline in the
b. Dense shelf water formation and export
transport of recently ventilated DSW to the abyssal
The declining prevalence of the Dense shelf dynami- ocean. Figures 5b and 5c also show strong negative ideal
cal regime points to a meltwater-induced slowdown of age anomalies along the West Antarctic continental
DSW formation. Within the 10-yr MW1.5 and MW2.8 shelf, which will be discussed in section 3d(3).
meltwater perturbation experiments, surface buoyancy Bottom shelf waters in DSW source regions likewise
losses from Antarctic sea ice production cease to gen- increase in age in response to freshening, particularly in
erate shelf waters of sufficient density to consistently the Ross Sea (Figs. 5b,c). This aging signal, in conjunction

FIG. 6. (a) Time series of monthly mean mixed layer depths (MLD) spatially averaged over the four continental shelf regions that
generate DSW under the control forcing. MLD is diagnosed as the depth at which potential density (s0; referenced to 0 dbar) exceeds the
surface density by 0.03 kg m23. (b) Map of regions over which spatial averages are computed in (a). (c) Surface water-mass transformation
rates integrated over the Antarctic continental shelf region (poleward of the 1000-m isobath) and averaged over the 5th (dashed) and 10th
(solid) years of the experimental period for the control (black), MW1.5 (blue), and MW2.8 (orange) simulations. Transformation rates,
which are calculated using monthly mean model output, do not drift over the control simulation, so only values for the 10th year of this run
are shown.
with a decline in winter mixed layer depths in DSW of downwelling obtained from this surface water-mass
source regions (Fig. 6a), suggests that coastal freshening transformation analysis (Fig. 6c), and the density and rate
triggers increased ocean stratification and a decrease in of DSW overflow across the 1000-m isobath derived from
full-depth convection on the shelf. Where winter con- daily model output (Fig. 5a), suggests that monthly data
vection persists on the shelf, the density of downwelling adequately characterize the surface buoyancy fluxes driving
surface waters is substantially reduced, as revealed by a DSW formation in ACCESS-OM2–01. The generation of
surface water-mass transformation calculation (Fig. 6c). DSW declines despite increasing sea ice production; time-
Surface water-mass transformation is defined as the mean sea ice formation rates on the continental shelf are 7%
volume flux into a given density class from lighter den- and 17% greater in the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations than
sity classes due to surface buoyancy forcing, and is in the control, although the drivers of this trend are unclear.
computed here as in Newsom et al. (2016). Note the Combined, these trends suggest buoyancy losses from rel-
convergence of the surface water-mass transformation atively vigorous sea ice activity may be counteracted by
rate is interpreted as the time-mean water-mass forma- freshening from glacial meltwater, and therefore fail to
tion rate in a given density class, with positive formation generate DSW.
indicating upwelling and negative formation indicating
c. Fronts and geostrophic currents
downwelling (e.g., Brambilla et al. 2008; Pellichero et al.
2018). Thus, maximum positive transport values in Fig. 6c Frontal Fresh shelf dynamics dominate the Antarctic
approximate the rate of surface process driven transfor- shelf margin in the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations
mation into downwelling density classes. Values below this (Fig. 4a), suggesting that shelf waters become increas-
maximum (higher s) provide a density range for down- ingly isolated from open ocean CDW in response to
welling waters, while values above this maximum (lower s) coastal freshening. While the classification framework
provide a density range for upwelling waters. Under melt- used in Fig. 4 reveals that ASF structures are more
water forcing both the rate of transformation into down- commonplace in the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations
welling density classes and the density of downwelling than in the control, analysis of geostrophic flows dy-
waters decline, signaling declining rates of DSW generation namically linked to the ASF reveals that frontal barriers
by surface processes and declining DSW densities. As in partitioning shelf waters from CDW also strengthen
Newsom et al. (2016), the use of monthly model output in under enhanced meltwater forcing. The subsurface lat-
surface water-mass transformation computations neglects eral density gradients and sloping isopycnals of the ASF
the contribution of higher-frequency fluctuations in surface are geostrophically balanced by the westward, vertically
heat and freshwater fluxes to the formation of water sheared Antarctic Slope Current (ASC) at the shelf
masses. However, agreement between the density and rate break, and Antarctic Coastal Current (CC) along the ice

FIG. 7. Acceleration of the ASC and CC under enhanced meltwater forcing is illustrated by anomalies in the upper 500-m depth averaged flow speed
(with respect to the control simulation) averaged over the (a) MW1.5 and (b) MW2.8 simulations. The 1000-m isobath is delineated by black contours.
(c)–(f) Full depth integrated westward transport across four cross-slope transects in Queen Maud Land, the Adélie Coast, Marie Byrd Land, and
the Antarctic Peninsula, respectively. Transect locations are indicated by thick black lines and numbering in (a). Time mean flow rates averaged over
the 10-yr control simulation are shown in black with gray shading indicating the extent of interannual variability. Annual mean flow rates are shown for
the final year of the perturbed experiments in blue (MW1.5) and orange (MW2.8). Dashed lines indicating where the transect intersects with the 1000-m
isobath, a boundary used here to partition flow associated with the CC (peak poleward of isobath) from flow associated with the ASC (peak north of
isobath). Inset values are the total westward transport of the CC (below dashed line) and ASC (above dashed line) across the transects, computed by
integrating plotted values from the coastline the the 1000-m isobath for CC transports, and from the 1000-m isobath [or coastline, in (c)] to the point
where the net zonal transport switches from westward to eastward (crossing the 0 transport line shown). Negative values indicate eastward CC transport
and there is no ASC flow (which is exclusively defined as westward flow) across the Antarctic Peninsula transect in the control simulation in (f).
shelf perimeter. Over the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations, defined as the region of net westward flow north of the
the ASC and CC accelerate (Fig. 7), as strong negative 1000-m isobath (Figs. 7c–e). Poleward of the 1000-m iso-
salinity anomalies near the coast strengthen the meridional bath, where the CC is defined, westward transport more
density gradients across the continental shelf and slope that than doubles in the MW1.5 simulation, and more than
drive the flow (Fig. 8). Depth integrated zonal transports triples in the MW2.8 experiment (Figs. 7d,e). Further,
computed across four cross-slope transects spread across coastal freshening initiates a westward ASC and CC along
East and West Antarctica show that westward ASC the Antarctic Peninsula (Fig. 7f), where proximity to the
transport increases by 44%–91% under MW1.5 forcing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) drives eastward
and by 83%–108% under MW2.8 forcing where the ASC is flow under control forcing. The strengthening of the ASF

FIG. 8. (a)–(d) Depth profiles of s1 (contours) and absolute salinity (shading) along the four cross-slope transects considered in Fig. 7.
Time-mean values for the final year of the control simulation are shown. Salinity anomalies (shading) averaged over the final year of the
(e)–(h) MW1.5 and (i)–(l) MW2.8 simulations, relative to the control simulation. Contours show time-mean (absolute) s1 values for the
final year of the experiments.
and ASC system at the Antarctic continental shelf break on the continental shelf that suggest a complex pattern of
suggests that coastal freshening can act to limit interaction positive and negative thermal feedbacks to ice shelf melt
between Antarctic shelf waters from open ocean water (Fig. 9). We conduct a heat budget analysis of the continental
masses, isolating the shelf from open ocean heat sources, shelf region and, in subsequent sections, select subdomains
while the acceleration of the CC suggests shelf waters may of the shelf in order to interpret these heterogenous ther-
become increasingly homogeneous in response to fresh- mal responses. Following Goddard et al. (2017), we com-
ening, as gradients between adjacent shelf water masses pute heat flux terms relative to a constant reference
are dampened by increasing alongshore tracer fluxes. seawater freezing temperature uf set to the minimum
freezing point found along the 1000-m isobath over the
d. Antarctic ocean temperature response
three simulations, uf 5 22.978C. This choice of reference
temperature eases the interpretation of heat budgets by
1) MEAN SHELF AND SLOPE RESPONSE
ensuring the direction of local heat and volume fluxes align
In ACCESS-OM2–01, Antarctic coastal freshening triggers where ocean temperatures drop below 08C, and represents
consistent subsurface warming of continental slope waters, yet an upper bound on the melt potential of transports as the
generates spatially and temporally variable temperature signals true value of uf varies in space and time.

FIG. 9. (a),(b) Depth-mean temperature anomalies of the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations compared with the control, averaged over the final year of
the experimental period. Inset values summarize the continental shelf heat budget, averaged over the experimental period, shown as an anomaly
relative to the control simulation. Note that the time-mean advective and surface heat fluxes into the region are 143.8 and 243.6 TW respectively for
the control simulation. Heat fluxes are computed relative to a reference temperature of uf 5 22.978C. Black contours mark the 1000-m isobath, while
green contours show a continuous approximation of the 3000-m isobath. Thick black lines partition the Ross Sea and West Antarctica continental shelf
regions considered in (d)–(g). (c) Time series of monthly mean volume-averaged temperature anomalies on the continental shelf (solid lines are for the
region poleward of the 1000 m isobath) and continental slope (dashed lines are for the region between the 1000- and 3000-m isobaths). Anomalies are
computed relative to the control simulation. Potential temperature anomalies, relative to the control run, averaged over the (d),(e) Ross Sea and (f),(g)
West Antarctica continental shelf regions delineated in (a). Volume-averaged temperature anomalies for the final year of the experimental period are
inset. When considering seasonal signals, note that the experimental period starts in May.
Under control forcing, the mean heat budget of the slope (between the 1000- and 3000-m isobaths) that
Antarctic continental shelf region is dominated by its persists over the experimental period (Figs. 9a–c). In
role as a ventilation site for open ocean water masses contrast, the net temperature response on the continental
with approximately 44 TW of ocean heat advected shelf (poleward of the 1000-m isobath) is transient warm-
poleward across the continental shelf margin, upwelled ing followed by cooling in both simulations (Fig. 9c). These
to the surface, and released to the atmosphere. Under small mean temperature trends on the shelf are the ag-
enhanced meltwater forcing, the transfer of heat from gregate of strong regional warming and cooling signals
shelf waters to the atmosphere declines as shelf waters (Figs. 9a,b). The following sections outline a detailed
become increasingly stratified (Fig. 6a) and upwelling analysis of two localized continental shelf temperature
slows (Fig. 6c). Simultaneously, decreasing water-mass signals of opposite sign that are robust across the MW1.5
modification at the continental shelf margin, associated and MW2.8 simulations; bottom intensified warming in the
with the decline of cross-slope exchanges of cold DSW Ross Sea (Figs. 9d,e) and subsurface cooling in West
and warm CDW at DSW overflow sites (Fig. 5a) and the Antarctica (Figs. 9f,g). These case studies demonstrate
strengthening of density gradients inhibiting poleward how the decline in DSW overturning, acceleration of
cross-ASF CDW transport (Figs. 7 and 8), leads to a geostrophic flows, and strengthening of frontal structures
reduction in advective heat transport to shelf waters. brought on by coastal freshening can trigger both warming
Advective heat fluxes into shelf waters and surface heat and cooling on the Antarctic continental shelf.
fluxes out of shelf waters decline in parallel to approxi-
2) ROSS SEA SHELF WARMING
mately 70% (MW1.5) and 50% (MW2.8) of their value
in the control simulation, reducing the efficacy of the We conduct a heat and volume budget analysis for the
near-Antarctic region as a ventilation site for open Ross Sea continental shelf subdomain under control and
ocean waters and triggering warming on the continental perturbed meltwater forcing (Figs. 10a–c). In the control

FIG. 10. Temperature response of the Ross Sea continental shelf region. (a)–(c) Time-mean advective (red arrows; TW) and surface (red
circles; TW) heat flux (uf 5 22.978C) in and out of the Ross Sea region under control, MW1.5, and MW2.8 meltwater forcing, respectively.
‘‘Net’’ values indicate the rate of volume averaged heat gain in the region over the 10-yr perturbed simulations. Advective fluxes across the
coast represent heat fluxes associated with meltwater. Shading shows depth mean temperature in (a) and temperature anomalies in (b) and
(c) averaged over the final year of the experimental period. Volume fluxes to the atmosphere and sea ice field are note shown. (d)–(i)
Temperature (u; shading) and potential density (s1; contours) along transects crossing the Joides Trough in the western Ross Sea in (d)–(f)
and the Little America Basin in the eastern Ross Sea in (g)–(i), averaged over the final year of the experimental period for the three
simulations. Transect locations are delineated by numbered lines in (a). Stippling in (e), (h), (f), and (l) highlights positive salinity
anomalies.
simulation, the time-mean heat budget of the Ross Sea increases by 9% relative to the control. The decline in
shelf is dictated by local DSW formation and export. surface cooling is not matched by a proportional decline in
Advective heating from the exchange of CDW and sur- cross-isobath advective heating. Cross-isobath advective
face waters with DSW at the continental margin (112.0 heating declines but remains elevated compared to surface
TW) is in near balance with surface heat losses (211.9 cooling fluxes at 17.7 TW as the exchange of cold DSW
TW), while westward coastal flows contribute a small net and warm CDW across the continental shelf margin slows.
cooling flux (20.2 TW) (Fig. 10a). Under MW1.5 fresh- This reduced heat flux is associated with a net onshore
water forcing, surface cooling roughly halves to 26.1 TW volume flux of 0.3 Sv, suggesting a lag between the shut-
as winter convection rapidly declines (Fig. 6a), and the down of DSW export and reduction of onshore CDW and
time-mean thickness of the insulating sea ice layer surface water transport. The net warming flux of 11.8 TW
introduced by this imbalance and by small heat inputs from between the Ross Sea and other DSW export regions is the
additional meltwater is partially offset by an increase in absence of a strong frontal structure along the Ross Sea shelf
advective cooling by westward alongshore flows to 20.9 break mediating cross-slope CDW exchange. Transects of
TW, as poleward cross-isobath volume fluxes are directed potential temperature and density across the Joides Trough
into the westward coastal current. The net effect in the DSW overflow site in the western Ross Sea (Figs. 10d–f)
MW1.5 simulation is heating at a mean rate of 10.9 TW, reveal that isopycnal connections between CDW and shelf
resulting in a volume averaged final year temperature waters are sustained following the shutdown of DSW for-
anomaly of 10.298C driven by warming at depth (Fig. 9d). mation and export, supporting the interpretation of cross-
MW2.8 meltwater forcing prompts a similar, though larger, isobath heat and volume flux terms that modified CDW
thermal response on the Ross Sea shelf. A sea ice thickness continues to access the shelf following convective shutdown.
anomaly of 26%, averaged over the simulation, associated In contrast, a strong ASC interacts with DSW overflows
with declining open water fractions (not shown) and a along the Adélie Coast, Prydz Bay, and Weddell Sea shelf
rapid collapse of winter convection (Fig. 6a) reduces sur- margins, such that shelf break isopycnal structures in these

face cooling to 23.1 TW. Cross-isobath advective heating regions adopt a V-shaped geometry when DSW is produced
remains comparatively high at 16.6 TW and is accompa- (see example transect from Prydz Bay in Fig. 4b), and revert
nied by a net onshore volume flux of 0.5 Sv, while heat to a frontal Fresh shelf regime following the shutdown of
fluxes from meltwater flows contribute an additional 10.6 DSW convection (Fig. 4a). In the absence of a strong ASF
TW of warming to the region. The net thermal signal moderating poleward CDW transport, the Ross Sea warms
of 14.1 TW from shelf break processes, meltwater flows rapidly following stratification. This effect is most notable in
and surface cooling is moderated by an alongshore ad- the east Ross Sea where, under control forcing, lateral gra-
vective cooling flux of 22.5 TW, such that the Ross Sea dients in temperature are sustained in the absence of a strong
shelf gains heat at a rate of 11.6 TW over the MW2.8 ASF (the Cool shelf regime; see Fig. 4). In ACCESS-OM2–
simulation. This heat gain leads to a final year volume 01, these cross-slope temperature gradients in the east Ross
averaged temperature anomaly of 10.518C. Sea are unsustainable in the absence of vigorous shelf con-
The warming signal simulated on the Ross Sea shelf in vection. In response to MW1.5 and MW2.8 forcing, con-
response to coastal freshening is greater in magnitude and current positive temperature and salinity anomalies arise at
more consistent across the MW1.5 and MW2.8 experi- the seabed (Figs. 10g–i) as CDW floods the shelf, altering
ments than temperature responses simulated in the Adélie local shelf dynamics such that they resemble Warm shelf
Coast, Prydz Bay, and Weddell Sea (Figs. 9a,b) where regions in West Antarctica. Persistent coastal freshening
DSW formation and export likewise decline (Fig. 5). We eventually acts to depress CDW isopycnals on the Ross Sea
posit that convective shutdown drives subsurface warming shelf (Fig. 10i) according to the mechanism outlined in
in these DSW source regions, but that the relative mag- section 3c, generating ASF structures that modulate shore-
nitude of positive temperature anomalies is determined by ward heat transport and prompt a secondary cooling phase.
local ASF dynamics. In the MW1.5 simulation, maximum A distinct two-stage response occurs in the MW2.8 simula-
monthly mean mixed layer depths decline rapidly on the tion; the Ross Sea east of 1728W warms at a rate of 1.0 TW in
Ross Sea shelf, reaching 57% of the control simulation in the first half of the experiment, before cooling at a rate of 0.2
the fifth year of perturbed forcing (Fig. 6a), but remain TW in the second half of the experiment as strengthening
comparatively high at .85% of control values by the fifth fronts start to overwhelm convective shutdown.
year in the Adélie, Prydz, and Weddell DSW source re-
3) WEST ANTARCTIC SHELF COOLING
gions (Fig. 6a). This stratification pattern is associated
with a temperature signal in which only the Ross Sea DSW Negative temperature anomalies simulated on the West
source region warms in response to freshening (Fig. 9a). By Antarctic shelf in response to enhanced meltwater forcing
the 5th year of the MW2.8 experiment, however, maxi- (Figs. 9a,b,f,g) are driven by the establishment of frontal
mum monthly mixed layer depths drop to less than 25% of barriers to onshore CDW transport and the redistribution
control values in the Ross, Adélie, and Prydz DSW regions of water-mass properties around the shelf by accelerating
(Fig. 6a), and all three regions experience warming by the westward geostrophic flows. Under control forcing, CDW
end of the experimental period (Fig. 9b). Maximum flows poleward of the 1000 m isobath, unencumbered by a
monthly mixed layer depths in the Weddell region, which strong ASF, and floods the West Antarctic continental shelf
does not warm significantly, decline to approximately 40% (Fig. 1). A time-mean heat budget analysis of the control
of control values but fully recover by the end of the MW2.8 simulation indicates that the bulk of these waters are cooled
experiment. The warming signal is visibly larger in the by surface processes before flowing westward into the Ross
Ross Sea than the Adélie Coast and Prydz Bay, despite Sea shelf, while a weaker flow transports heat eastward
comparable mixed layer depth trends. The distinction around the Antarctic Peninsula under the influence of the

FIG. 11. Temperature response of the West Antarctic continental shelf region. (a)–(c) Time-mean advective and surface heat flux (uf 5
22.978C) in and out of the West Antarctic shelf region under control, MW1.5, and MW2.8 meltwater forcing, respectively. ‘‘Net’’ values
indicate the rate of volume-averaged heat gain in the region over the 10-yr perturbed simulations. Volume fluxes to the atmosphere and
sea ice field are note shown. (d) Depth mean potential temperature in the West Antarctic region averaged over the 10-yr control sim-
ulation. (e)–(i) Depth mean potential temperature anomalies of the MW2.8 simulation relative to the control. Each panel shows the time
averaged anomaly of a 2-yr subset of the experimental period—years 0–2, 2–4, 4–6, 6–8, and 8–10, respectively—in order to demonstrate
the westward progression of cool anomalies with time. The final 2-yr mean depth averaged temperature anomaly of the MW1.5 simulation
is nearly identical to (f) here. Black contours delineate the 1000-m isobath; gray vertical lines mark the longitudinal boundaries of the West
Antarctic region considered in the heat budget analysis in (a)–(c).
ACC (Fig. 11a). Under MW1.5 and MW2.8 meltwater modified by cold shelf waters, and to negative temperature
forcing, the direction of mean flow around the Antarctic anomalies on the West Antarctic shelf (Figs. 11d–i). The
Peninsula reverses such that the water-mass characteristics shelf cooling signal is accompanied by negative bottom age
of the West Antarctic shelf become increasingly dominated anomalies, as relatively old modified CDW is mixed with,
by the inflow of cool Weddell Sea shelf waters as opposed and displaced by, recently ventilated Weddell Sea shelf
to warm water from the open ocean (Figs. 11b,c). In both waters (Figs. 5b,c). Accelerating flow of relatively cold, fresh
enhanced meltwater simulations, West Antarctic shelf Weddell Sea shelf waters along the West Antarctic depress
waters undergo transient warming, associated with a de- CDW isopycnals toward the seabed (Figs. 8d,h,i), initiating
cline in surface heat loss and the onset of heat transport westward ASC flows in previously ACC dominated regions
into the region from its eastern boundary, followed by (Fig. 7f) and, in places, shifting dominant dynamics toward a
persistent subsurface cooling (Figs. 9f,g) that propagates Fresh shelf regime (Fig. 4). The reduction of isopycnal
westward from the Antarctic Peninsula (Figs. 11e–i). pathways along which CDW can access the shelf prompts a
Active winter convection persists on the Weddell Sea shelf decline in poleward cross-isobath heat transport from 114
despite freshening (Fig. 6a); however, the density of these TW in the control simulation to 110.2 TW in MW1.5
downwelling waters lessens (Fig. 6c) until they can no longer and 15.3 TW in MW2.8. The cooling signal associated with
spill down the continental slope and are instead diverted this decline in cross-isobath transport is only partially com-
into westward along-shelf flow. This redirection of flow pensated by the warming signal associated with increasing
contributes to positive temperature anomalies off the shelf alongshore volume fluxes. Thus, West Antarctic shelf wa-
in the Weddell Gyre, as open ocean waters are no longer ters lose heat at a rate of 20.2 and 22.7 TW, averaged over

FIG. 12. Schematic of key circulation and temperature responses to meltwater, showing (left) key flow features simulated in the control
simulation, and (right) responses to meltwater perturbation. Excepting reduced shelf convection in the Prydz Bay region, the illustrated
responses are robust across the two forcing scenarios.
the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations respectively, and cool 3) Homogenization (remote response): Accelerating west-
by 20.048 and 20.538C, averaged over the final year of the ward coastal currents redistribute heat around the
experiments. continental shelf and homogenize shelf water-mass
characteristics. This mechanism generates both warm-
ing and cooling signals depending on local initial con-
4. Discussion and conclusions
ditions relative to remote upstream water masses.
In this study, we used a 0.18 resolution global ocean–
These key simulated responses are sketched in Fig. 12.
sea ice model to investigate the response of near-
In our MW1.5 and MW2.8 enhanced meltwater simu-
Antarctic ocean circulation to freshening by glacial
lations, we find that stratification initially dominates the
meltwater and to identify possible thermal feedbacks
mean shelf temperature response before being over-
to ice-shelf melt. On the Antarctic continental shelf,
powered by the isolation of shelf waters, such that shelf
freshening prompts spatially and temporally variable
waters experience transient warming followed by cool-
warming and cooling trends, indicating that enhanced
ing in response to freshening. Previous enhanced melt-
meltwater input can both accelerate and inhibit ice
water simulations using lower-resolution ocean models
shelf melt at different locations along the Antarctic
have diagnosed the subsurface warming effect of in-
coastline. Three meltwater-induced shifts in Antarctic
creased stratification, but have failed to resolve the shelf
shelf dynamics combine to generate this heterogeneous
break dynamics that partition additional heat between
temperature response:
the shelf and open ocean (Bronselaer et al. 2018; Fogwill
1) Stratification (warming response): Coastal freshen- et al. 2015; Golledge et al. 2019; Menviel et al. 2010;
ing stratifies the water column around Antarctica, Schloesser et al. 2019). Since heat loss to the atmosphere
slowing upward vertical heat transfer and triggering and heat uptake from cross-slope advective transport
subsurface warming. both decline substantially over the MW1.5 and MW2.8
2) Isolation (cooling response): Interaction between simulations, heat convergence due to stratification is
cool shelf waters and warm open ocean waters relayed to the open ocean. This result suggests that
declines as lateral density gradients associated with positive feedbacks to melt incorporated into ice sheet
the ASF strengthen and become increasingly circumpo- projections may be overstated when derived from low-
lar. Regions previously characterized by high levels of resolution ocean models (e.g., Golledge et al. 2019).
cross-slope water-mass exchange (Dense and Warm shelf Similar responses of heat divergence due to strength-
regimes) transition to ASF dominated dynamics (Fresh ening frontal structures and heat convergence due to
shelf regime) that isolate shelf waters from warm CDW. increased stratification were attributed to freshening by
precipitation in a high-resolution CO2 doubling experi- shelf waters cool by an average of 0.048 and 0.538C by the
ment by Goddard et al. (2017), although some details end of the MW1.5 and MW2.8 simulations, respectively. This
were obscured by the complexity of the fully coupled is a novel result that, if robust, implies the existence of a
system response. The complex interplay between the limiting feedback to the thermal forcing of West Antarctic
stratification and isolation of shelf waters highlights the ice shelves currently absent from projections of West
importance of resolving shelf break processes when diag- Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse (e.g., DeConto and Pollard
nosing near-Antarctic responses to forcing, while remote 2016). We note, however, that the simulated cooling
feedbacks generated by accelerating coastal currents stress trend follows a transient warming signal in both experi-
the importance of resolving the full circumpolar domain in ments, suggesting that ocean temperatures adjacent to
simulations. Our results also highlight the importance of West Antarctic ice shelves may still increase in the near
often misrepresented DSW dynamics to the distribution of term in response to coastal freshening. Further, we stress
ocean heat around the shelf, as the simulated thermal re- that this cooling mechanism is contingent on the diversion of
sponse to meltwater is strongly influenced by the local Weddell Sea shelf waters away from abyssal overturning

presence of (e.g., Ross Sea) or downstream proximity to into along-shelf coastal flows; therefore, this response may
(e.g., West Antarctica) a DSW formation site of declining reduce the thermal forcing of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet
efficacy. at the expense of abyssal ventilation rates.
We focused on two regional case studies that illustrate This work adds to a growing cache of simulation studies
how the three mechanisms listed above combine to produce suggesting that the formation of Antarctic dense waters
both positive and negative temperature anomalies along the and corresponding abyssal overturning circulation is sen-
Antarctic coastline. On the Ross Sea shelf, a shutdown of sitive to the freshening of Antarctic coastal waters (see
winter convection (response 1) combined with the absence Aiken and England 2008; Fogwill et al. 2015; Kirkman and
of a defined ASF structure modulating shoreward CDW Bitz 2011; Lago and England 2019; Menviel et al. 2010;
transport (weak response 2) and the presence of compara- Morrison et al. 2015; Snow et al. 2016). Within the short
tively warm waters upstream (response 3) drive warming at 10-yr experimental simulations at 2100 projected fresh-
depth in response to MW1.5 and MW2.8 meltwater forcing water forcing, the connection between Antarctic shelf
[section 3d(2)]. Ross Sea shelf waters warm by an average of waters and abyssal circulation in ACCESS-OM2–01
0.298 and 0.578C following 10 years of MW1.5 and MW2.8 collapses, suggesting that the abyssal overturning cell
forcing, respectively. Due to the minor role of the ASF in the may experience a substantial slowdown within the coming
Ross Sea in ACCESS-OM2–01, the simulated warming re- century. Although we have focused on the response of shelf
sponse aligns well with expectations based on low-resolution Antarctic continental shelf circulation, as abyssal conditions
simulations (Bronselaer et al. 2018; Fogwill et al. 2015; adjust to surface forcing at time scales that exceed our ex-
Golledge et al. 2019; Menviel et al. 2010; Schloesser et al. periment duration, the slowdown of abyssal ventilation
2019) and bulk mixed-layer models (Silvano et al. 2018) that poses a pathway to abyssal warming and steric sea level rise
omit ASF dynamics. The sensitivity of Ross Sea shelf tem- (e.g., Lago and England 2019). A novel detail within our
peratures in ACCESS-OM2–01 agrees well with the findings findings is that DSW formation is sensitive to remote
of a CO2 doubling study by Goddard et al. (2017) based on freshwater forcing on the Antarctic continental shelf. In
0.18 resolution fully coupled climate simulations; they like- ACCESS-OM2–01, freshening by meltwater sourced pri-
wise found that a weak regional ASF lead to enhanced marily from West Antarctic and Ross Sea ice shelves
warming in the Ross Sea relative to other continental shelf propagates around the continent and shuts down DSW
sectors. This increasingly robust local warming response may export from the Prydz Bay and Weddell Sea AABW source
have critical implications for sea level rise given the Ross Ice sites, thousands of kilometers downstream of the nearest
Shelf drains large portions of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet enhanced runoff location. This result suggests that if recent
(Shepherd et al. 2018) and thermal forcing at ice shelf trends of accelerating basal ice shelf melt in West Antarctica
grounding lines has been shown to accelerate basal melt by continue (Paolo et al. 2015; Rignot et al. 2004, 2011), shelf
1 m yr21 per 0.18C of ocean warming (Rignot and Jacobs water-mass properties and DSW production may be im-
2002). By contrast, surface heat loss from West Antarctic pacted in remote sectors of the Antarctic continental shelf.
shelf waters remains relatively stable in response to en- The results of the ACCESS-OM2–01 enhanced melt-
hanced meltwater forcing (weak response 1), while acceler- water experiments presented here provide a unique,
ating coastal currents flood the West Antarctic shelf with high-resolution, circumpolar view of the response of
cool, fresh Weddell Sea shelf waters (response 3). As shelf Antarctic circulation to coastal freshening that incor-
waters cool and freshen, frontal structures develop at and porates the effects of shifting dynamics at DSW over-
poleward of the shelf break, insulating ice shelves from open flow sites. However, our results carry a number of
ocean heat (response 2). Consequentially, West Antarctic caveats. As noted in section 2a, the 0.18 horizontal
resolution of ACCESS-OM2–01 is insufficient to fully on and near the continental shelf that set shelf conditions
resolve the mesoscale eddy field along the ASF. on short time scales; however, it is insufficient to capture
Modeling and observational studies have suggested adjustments in open-ocean circulation, such as shifts in
that an eddy-driven overturning circulation may act to Southern Ocean upwelling and ACC dynamics, that
locally flatten isopycnals in strongly frontal ASF re- could impact shelf properties over longer periods (e.g.,
gions and consequently minimize the lateral density Morrison et al. 2015; Stouffer et al. 2007). We also note
gradients CDW must traverse to access the shelf that the temporal nature of the response simulated here
(Hattermann et al. 2014; Nøst et al. 2011). Therefore, may be influenced by our decision to impose a stepwise
the isopycnal steepening and reductions in cross-slope forcing perturbation and should be confirmed in longer
heat transport initiated by freshwater forcing in our simulations where runoff rates are amplified gradually.
study may be exaggerated by an underrepresentation Finally, in isolating the influence of increasing meltwater
of mesoscale processes at the shelf break. Unfortunately, inputs on Antarctic ocean dynamics, our simulations omit
the horizontal resolution required to fully characterize feedbacks and interactions with changing surface tem-

the mesoscale field at the Antarctic shelf break (;1 km) peratures (e.g., Goddard et al. 2017; Snow et al. 2016) or
remains computationally challenging for circumpolar shifting westerly winds (e.g., Donat-Magnin et al. 2017;
perturbation studies. Regional simulations can be con- Goddard et al. 2017; Spence et al. 2014, 2017), which,
ducted at this fine resolution (e.g., Årthun et al. 2013; together, will influence Antarctic circulation and the
Graham et al. 2016; Hattermann et al. 2014; St-Laurent stability of the Antarctic Ice Sheet over the coming de-
et al. 2013); however, our results suggest that regional cades. Diagnosing interactions between the responses
meltwater perturbation experiments (e.g., Jourdain identified herein and other projected shifts in climate
et al. 2017) omit remote feedbacks that exert a leading- forcing is an ongoing area of research.
order influence over the shelf temperature response, The future contribution of Antarctic Ice Sheet melt to
such as interactions between Weddell Sea and West global sea level rise remains highly uncertain. Observational
Antarctic shelf waters. We are aware of one global evidence suggests that ice loss is accelerating, yet the influ-
simulation that resolves the mesoscale eddy field at the ence of this growing freshwater flux on the climate state is
ASF (LLC_4320; Stewart et al. 2018), but the short du- poorly accounted for in climate and sea level projections.
ration of this simulation (1 year) suggests that forcing We find that coastal freshening by glacial runoff can prompt
experiments at this resolution are currently unrealistic. both warming and cooling at different locations around
Future simulation studies aiming to diagnose Antarctic the Antarctic coast, adding nuance to the melt accelerating
ocean responses to climate forcing should capture the feedbacks that dominate the Antarctic ocean response
full Southern Ocean (or global) domain and work toward to freshening in low-resolution models. Our results highlight
an eddy-resolving grid. Representation of Antarctic con- the importance of representing dynamics at the shelf break
tinental shelf circulation and water-mass properties in and resolving the full circumpolar Antarctic domain when
ACCESS-OM2–01 is further limited by the omission of diagnosing feedbacks to Antarctic Ice Sheet melt.
explicit tides, ice shelf cavities, and the input of glacial Incorporating these processes into climate models, as
meltwater at depth from the model configuration. Recent high-resolution ocean and ice shelf modeling tools
simulation studies have demonstrated that tides contrib- progress, will greatly improve projections of future
ute significantly to the Antarctic continental shelf heat climate and sea level.
budget (Stewart et al. 2018) and can adjust the strength and
structure of the ASF and ASC (Flexas et al. 2015; Jourdain Acknowledgments. This research was undertaken on
et al. 2019; Stewart et al. 2019), effects not captured in the the National Computational Infrastructure (NCI) in
present study. Additionally, the omission of ice shelf cav- Canberra, Australia, which is supported by the Australian
ities and input of basal meltwater at the surface can lead to Commonwealth Government. A.K.M. was supported by an
spuriously strong stratification of shelf waters (Mathiot Australian Research Council (ARC) DECRA Fellowship
et al. 2017), an effect that may exaggerate the simulated DE170100184. A.K.M. and A.M.H. were supported by an
stratification response and accelerate the shutdown of ARC Discovery Project DP190100494. R.M. was supported
DSW convection in our experiments. by the Australian National University A. L. Hales Honours
We emphasize that this simulation study is not inten- Year Scholarship. A subset of the data used in this study
ded as a projection; instead, we have presented an ide- will be made available at doi:10.4225/41/5a2dc8543105a. We
alized forcing experiment focused on interrogating the thank the COSIMA consortium (http://cosima.org.au/) for
transient influence of increased melt on Antarctic waters. helpful discussions and technical support, particularly
The 10-yr duration of our simulation is sufficient to in- Andrew E. Kiss for his work on developing and overseeing
vestigate meltwater-induced changes in ocean dynamics the spinup of the ACCESS-OM2-01 model configuration
used. We also thank Nick R. Golledge for generously pro- ——, and E. C. Carmack, 1976: Frontal zone mixing and Antarctic
viding Antarctic runoff projections prior to publication. Bottom Water formation in the southern Weddell Sea. Deep-
Sea Res. Oceanogr. Abstr., 23, 301–317, https://doi.org/10.1016/
Finally, we thank Andrew L. Stewart and two anonymous
0011-7471(76)90872-X.
reviewers for their constructive commentary on the initial Fretwell, P., and Coauthors, 2013: Bedmap2: Improved ice bed,
manuscript. surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica. Cryosphere, 7,
375–393, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-375-2013.
Goddard, P. B., C. O. Dufour, J. Yin, S. M. Griffies, and M. Winton,
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1 AUGUST 2020 MOORMAN ET AL.

Thermal Responses to Antarctic Ice Shelf Melt in an Eddy-Rich Global

RUTH MOORMAN, ADELE K. MORRISON, AND ANDREW MCC. HOGG

(Manuscript received 15 November 2019, in final form 21 April 2020)

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1. Introduction and margin in ocean models (Stewart and Thompson

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meltwater perturbation scenarios guided by recent patterns

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(106r0)21 converts freshwater fluxes from m3 s21 to Sv.

Control Observed MW1.5 increase MW2.8 increase

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