Unit D - Electrical Principles

UNIT
270
In this unit, you will cover the following sections:
1.0 Electrical energy can be transferred and stored.

1.1 Static Electricity
1.2 Current Electricity
1.3 Electrical Safety
1.4 Cells and Batteries
2.0 Technologies can be used to transfer and control electrical

energy.
2.1 Controlling the Flow of Electrical Current
2.2 Modelling and Measuring Electricity
2.3 Analyzing and Building Electrical Circuits
3.0 Devices and systems convert energy with varying efficiencies.

3.1 Energy Forms and Transformations
3.2 Energy Transformations Involving Electrical and Mechanical
Energy
3.3 Measuring Energy Input and Output
3.4 Reducing the Energy Wasted by Devices
4.0 The use of electrical energy affects society and the environment.
4.1 Electrical Energy Sources and Alternatives
4.2 Electricity and the Environment
4.3 Electrical Technology and Society
271
Exploring
A Tesla coil
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
A Tesla coil vividly demonstrates electrical energy. This interesting device
was invented over 100 years ago by Nikola Tesla, one of the pioneers of
electricity. The Tesla coil can generate large amounts of electricity and
create spectacular discharges. Amazing to watch, it operates with enough
electricity to be very dangerous, even lethal. Tesla coils have often been
used in films for special effects, but they are also used in laboratory
studies of high voltage electricity.
Another device that you might have seen at the movies is the Jacob’s
ladder. It sometimes appears sparkling and crackling in the background as
the villain tries to use huge machines and large amounts of electricity to
take over the world.
The rising, crackling arcs of electricity in a Jacob’s ladder are caused
by electricity jumping from one piece of metal to another. When the
electricity jumps, it heats the air that it passes through. This hot air rises
and carries the electrical discharge upward. Unfortunately, this very
impressive device has limited practical use. However, both the Jacob’s
ladder and the Tesla coil dramatically illustrate an important feature of
electricity—its ability to move from place to place. Using technology, we
can generate and move electricity to where it’s needed in a wide range of
A Jacob’s ladder applications that affect all parts of our lives.
272 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Q U I C K LAB
CHARGE IT!
Purpose Materials & Equipment
To experience the nature of electrical forces • small pieces of cork or
polystyrene
Procedure • tape
Trial 1 • thread
• acetate rod or plastic
1 Attach the cork to about 15 cm of thread. Hang the cork from the end of your
drinking straw
desk by taping the opposite end of the thread to the edge.
• wool or fur
2 Rub an acetate rod or plastic drinking straw with some wool or fur. • water tap
3 Slowly bring the rod close to the hanging cork. Record you observations.
Trial 2
4 Now rub the cork on the wool or fur, and then rub the acetate rod with the wool
or fur.
5 Slowly bring the rod close to the hanging cork. Record your observations.
Trial 3
6 Turn on a water tap so that only a very thin stream of water comes out.
7 Rub the acetate rod with the wool or fur once again, and slowly bring the rod
near the stream of water. Record you observations.
Questions
8 Describe the behaviour of the piece of cork and the water in this experiment.
9 Explain your observations for each trial.
Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
While studying this unit, you will be asked to organize your thoughts
about electrical principles and technologies. Think about the following
questions while you study the science of electricity and some of the
technology that has developed from an understanding of this science. The
answers to these and other questions about electricity will help you
understand how to transfer, modify, measure, transform, and control
electrical energy.
1. How do we obtain and use electrical energy?
2. What scientific principles are involved in developing, selecting, and
using energy-consuming devices?
3. How can the principles of electricity be applied in technology to
promote efficient and effective energy use?
Exploring 273
1.0 Electrical energy can be transferred
and stored.
Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• electric charge and current
• circuits
• electrical energy storage
• energy transmission
• measures and units of
electrical energy
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• distinguish between static and
current electricity and identify
evidence of each
• assess the potential danger of
an electrical device by checking
its voltage and amperage
• distinguish between safe and
unsafe activities when dealing
with electricity
• identify electrical conductors
and insulators
• evaluate the use of different
chemicals, chemical
concentrations, and designs for
The late evening weather report warns that thunderstorms are developing
electrical storage cells
in your area. You step outside to view the skies and look for funnel
clouds. You notice a dark gray cloud, and BOOM! A bolt of lightning
strikes just down the street, the clap of thunder startling you. You decide
to stay safe and go inside to bed. In your dark room, you pull your
sweater over your head and see a shower of small sparks as the fabric
rubs over your hair. You wonder for a moment: Are the sparks you see in
the sweater related to the lightning you saw outside? Yes, they are! Both
are examples of static electricity. In this section, you’ll learn more about
static electricity and the current electricity that powers the many devices
you use in your home. You’ll also learn about electrical safety.
274 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

info BIT
1.1 Static Electricity
Thales’ Amber
You hurry down the hallway and reach for a doorknob. Zap! An electric The first person known
shock jolts you. Your friend hands you a pair of scissors. Zap! Another to have experimented
shock. You have probably heard this type of shock called “static” or with static electricity was
“static electricity.” When you feel these jolts of static electricity, you are the philosopher Thales
experiencing the same electrical force that causes lightning. This is also around 600 B.C. He
the electrical force that causes clothing to stick together and paper to stick found that rubbing
to the glass on the photocopy machine. amber, a fossilized tree
The explanation of static electricity starts with the atom. Recall that resin, caused it to attract
all substances are made of atoms, and atoms are made of much smaller some materials. The
particles. If you have studied Unit B: Matter and Chemical Change, you word electricity is from
the Greek word for
know that some particles in an atom are electrically charged. The proton
amber, elektron.
has a positive charge and the electron has a negative charge. The charges
on the particles can cause either attractive or repulsive (pushing away)
forces between the particles.
Q U I C K LAB
STATIC CHARGE
To observe the characteristics of static electricity • plastic drinking straw
• confetti or gelatin powder
Procedure • 2 balloons
1 Sprinkle some confetti or gelatin powder in a small area on your desk. Push a • Van de Graaff generator
plastic drinking straw through your hair several times and bring it close to the • thin paper strips
• tape
confetti or gelatin powder. Record your observations.
• 3 aluminum pie plates
2 Inflate two balloons and knot the ends. Rub one side of each balloon on your
• clear plastic cup
hair or clothing. Hold the balloons by the knots and bring the rubbed surfaces • polystyrene “peanuts” or
slowly together. Turn one balloon so that its rubbed surface faces away from “popcorn”
the other balloon. Again bring the balloons together. Record your observations. • metal rod and lab stand
3 If your classroom has a Van de Graaff generator (VDG), your teacher will assist
you with the following experiments. In each case, put the materials in place,
then turn on the generator, and record your observations.
a) Tape the thin paper strips to the VDG.
b) Place a stack of 3 aluminum pie plates on the VDG.
c) Place a clear plastic cup full of polystyrene “peanuts” or “popcorn” on the
VDG. Put a loose-fitting lid on top of the cup.
d) Attach a metal rod to a lab stand and place it close to the VDG.
Questions
4 Provide an explanation for any movements that you observed.
5 How could you use the VDG to make someone’s hair stand on end? Test your
hypothesis with the VDG. Did it work? Explain why or why not.
Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 275

ELECTRICAL CHARGE
If you did the QuickLab on page 275, you noticed that some of the
objects attracted each other and others repelled each other (pushed
each other away). The objects reacted to each other in these ways
because they are electrically charged.
You may have heard the phrase “opposites attract” in discussions
about people. This is definitely true for electric charges. Opposite
charges attract each other, and like charges repel each other. Figure 1.2
shows what happens when charged particles are close together.
Figure 1.1 In an atom, the protons
Most objects have equal amounts of positive and negative charge,
are in the nucleus. The electrons which makes them neutral. Sometimes an object has more of one type
orbit the nucleus. of charged particle than another. For example, an object with more
electrons than protons is negatively charged. When this happens, we
say that an object has built up a static charge. “Static” means “not
moving” or “stationary.” This type of charge does not flow like the
electrons in an electrical current. You will learn more about electrical
currents in subsection 1.2.
Charged objects cause charge separation when they are brought
close to neutral objects. Rubbing a balloon on your head transfers
electrons from your hair to the balloon. When you bring the charged
side of the balloon near a wall, the negative charge of the balloon repels
the electrons in the wall. This leaves the area of the wall closest to the
no charge balloon positive. The balloon and wall are attracted because of these
opposite charges.
Electrical Discharge
Static electricity may not flow like a current, but it does sometimes
discharge. The built-up charge on an object may be attracted to another
object and jump to that object. This is what happens when you feel a
shock as you reach for the doorknob after walking across a carpet.
When your feet move across the carpet, electrons transfer from the
carpet to your body. This excess charge of electrons in your body repels
like charges repel the electrons in the doorknob as you get close to it. The side of the
doorknob closest to you becomes positively charged. As you move
closer, the electrons in your hand are attracted to this positive charge
on the doorknob. You may feel a shock or see a spark as you reach to
touch the doorknob. The resulting spark is usually referred to as
electrical discharge.
We can summarize the behaviour of electric charges in two laws.
These laws describe what happens when two charged particles or
objects are brought close together.
unlike charges attract The Laws of Electrical Charges
Figure 1.2 Charged particles exert • Opposite charges attract each other.
force depending on their charge.
• Like charges repel each other.

ACTIVITY D-1
I N V E S T I G AT I N G S TAT I C E L E C T R I C I T Y
Inquiry
The Question
What is the effect of charged objects on each other and on neutral objects?
The Hypothesis
Reword the question in the form of a hypothesis.
Materials & Equipment
• 2 vinyl strips Procedure
• tape
1 Copy the following table into your notebook.
• ring stand
• paper towel Hanging Object Approaching Object Observations
• 2 acetate strips
Charged vinyl Charged vinyl
• beaker
• watchglass Charged acetate Charged acetate
• metre-stick Charged acetate Charged vinyl
Metre-stick Charged vinyl
Metre-stick Charged acetate
2 Tape one end of a vinyl strip to the ring stand so the strip hangs down. Rub the strip
with the paper towel to charge it. Now rub the other vinyl strip with the paper towel,
and bring it close to the suspended strip. Record your observations in your table.
3 Repeat step 2, using the two acetate strips and the paper towel. Record your
observations.
4 Bring one of the charged vinyl strips close to the suspended acetate strip. Record
your observations.
5 Place the beaker upside down on the desk or table, and place the watchglass on top
of the beaker. Balance the metre-stick so it is lying flat and centred on the
watchglass. Bring a charged vinyl strip near, but not touching, one end of the
metre-stick. Record your observations.
6 Bring a charged acetate strip near, but not touching, one end of the metre-stick.
Figure 1.3 Balance the metre stick Record your observations.
on the watchglass on top of the
beaker. Analyzing and Interpreting
7 Usually, charged vinyl is negative, and charged acetate is positive. How does this
information explain your observations?
8 Do your observations agree with the laws of electrical charges? Support your answer
with your data.
Forming Conclusions
9 Describe the effect of charged objects on each other and on neutral objects. Use your
observations in your description.
Applying and Connecting

The interaction between charged and neutral objects can lead to dangerous discharges.
For example, helicopters build up a large static charge from their blades spinning in the
air. Because of this, baskets lowered for sea rescues must touch the water before anyone
approaches them. The static discharge could knock people overboard or stop their hearts.

re SEARCH VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATORS
Scientists often study electrical discharge with a device called a Van de
Cleaning the Air Graaff generator (VDG). If you did the QuickLab earlier in this lesson, you
In the early 1900s,
may have used one of these generators. VDGs are particularly effective at
factories with large
building up static charge. They produce static build-up by using friction.
smoke stacks were
belching pollutants into Figure 1.4 shows how a VDG works. A rubber belt rubs on a piece of metal
the atmosphere. In 1907, and transfers the charge to a sphere. The charge builds up on the sphere
Frederick G. Cottrell and transfers to you when you touch the sphere.
patented a device called charge collector
the electrostatic metal sphere
precipitator. It not only
cleaned the air, but also
recovered products from
the smoke that would
otherwise pollute. Write motor-
rubber driven
a short biography of
belt pulley
Cottrell, and a brief
illustrated report on how insulating
electrostatic precipitators support
work. Begin your
information search at source of electric charge
www.pearsoned.ca/
Figure 1.4 A Van de Graaff generator uses friction to build up a static charge on its sphere.
scienceinaction.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. How does a proton differ from an electron?
2. What does it mean to be “statically charged”?
3. Explain how a Van de Graaff generator builds up a static charge.
4. a) What happens when like charges interact?
b) What happens when unlike charges interact?
Connect Your Understanding

5. You rub your feet across a floor and electrons transfer from you to the
floor. Are you now negatively or positively charged?
6. A neutral object contains no charge. Is this statement accurate? Explain.
7. Why is a neutral object attracted to a charged object?
8. You bring a negatively charged rod close to some tiny pieces of
plastic. Some of the pieces jump up to the rod, but as soon as they
make contact, they immediately fly away from the rod. Explain.
Extend Your Understanding

9. Large trucks that carry flammable liquids often have a metal wire or
chain that drags on the ground. Why? (Hint: Have you ever been
shocked when getting out of a car?)

1.2 Current Electricity
The electric eel is not really an eel, but it is definitely electric—and
dangerous. Large specimens (they grow up to 2.4 m long) can discharge
enough electricity to kill a human being. The electricity is produced by a
special organ in the tail that contains thousands of modified muscle cells
called electroplaques. Each electroplaque can produce only a small
amount of electricity. But working together, all the electroplaques in the
eel’s body can produce large amounts of electricity to help the eel survive.
The eel has no teeth and can eat only prey that isn’t moving. When a prey
animal comes close, the eel releases an electrical charge to stun it. These
electrical flows are so strong they have even been known to knock down a
horse! Figure 1.5 The electric eel
(Electrophorous electricus)
uses electricity to kill or stun
ELECTRICAL CURRENT prey, for defense, and for
communication.
The electricity of the electric eel is similar to the static charges you have
felt or the huge static charges of lightning. Unfortunately, static charges are
not useful for operating electrical devices. They build up and discharge,
but they do not flow continuously.
The steady flow of charged particles is called electrical current. This
is the type of electricity needed to operate electrical devices. Unlike static
electricity, an electrical current flows continuously, as long as two
conditions are met. First, the flow of electrical current requires an energy
source. Second, electrical current will not flow unless it has a complete
path or circuit for the charged particles to flow through.
Q U I C K LAB
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
To observe the characteristics of electrical current • 1 dry cell
• 5 wires
Procedure • 2 light bulbs
1 Using any of the materials provided, make one light bulb light up.
2 Using the dry cell, one bulb, and one wire, make one light bulb light up.
3 Using any of the materials provided, make two light bulbs light up.
4 Make two light bulbs light up so that when you unhook one bulb, the other one goes out.
5 Make two light bulbs light up so that when you unhook one bulb, the other one stays on.
Questions
6 Draw your set-up for each step from 1 to 5.
7 Write captions that explain what happened to the electricity in each step.

info BIT AMPERES
The rate at which an electrical current flows is measured in amperes (A).
The Challenge of Often called “amp” for short, the ampere is named in honour of the
Measuring Current French physicist, mathematician, and philosopher André-Marie Ampère.
The first measurements of Most electrical devices around your home have a current of less than
current were done with
15 A. For example, the current through an ordinary 60-W light bulb is
simple galvanometers.
0.5 A. Microwave ovens usually use between 5 and 8 A, and electric
They detected current by
kettles usually use 13 A. In contrast, a digital wristwatch uses a current of
using a compass needle.
A current-carrying wire only a tiny fraction of an ampere, while a generating station produces
creates a magnetic field, many thousands of amperes.
which deflects a compass A continuous flow of electrical charge can be produced by devices
needle. However, Earth’s ranging from miniature cells in watches to huge generators in power
magnetic field sometimes stations. The key problem is how to move the charge from where it is
interfered with readings. produced to where it is needed. Fortunately, there are many materials that
In 1825, Italian physicist electrical charge can move through easily. Such materials are called
Leopold Nobili invented conductors. Conduction of electricity through wires allows for the transfer
the astatic galvanometer, of electrical energy from place to place.
which greatly reduced the
effect of Earth’s
magnetism. This new high-voltage
transmission line
device provided more
sensitive measurements.
generating underground
station power wires
medium-voltage
transmission line
underground
power wires
Figure 1.6 An electric power grid transfers energy from the generating station to the users. Multiple
wires are needed at every part of the grid (including the devices you use in your home) because the
whole grid is a complete circuit.
Circuits
Figure 1.7 shows a light bulb lit by electrical current flowing through a
simple circuit. A circuit is a path that controls the flow of electricity. If
you compare electricity with water again, the water system in your house
is like an electrical circuit. The pipes and taps in the water system control
the flow of water.
In most electrical circuits, the path that the electricity flows along is
made of solid metal wires. But circuits can also include gases, other fluids,
or other substances. A circuit usually includes a conductor, an energy
Figure 1.7 Current electricity source, and a load. The load is a device to convert electrical energy to
flows continuously through a another form of energy. For example, in Figure 1.7, the light bulb is the
circuit. load. It converts electrical energy to light and heat.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND VOLTAGE
Electrical energy is the energy carried by charged particles. Voltage is a
measure of how much electrical energy each charged particle carries. The
higher the voltage is, the greater the potential energy of each particle.
Voltage is also called “potential difference.” The energy delivered by a
flow of charged particles is equal to the voltage times the total charge of
the electrons.
The unit of voltage is the volt (V), named for the Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta. For safety reasons, most of the voltages in everyday
devices are fairly low. Flashlights and portable stereos rarely use more
than 6 V, almost all cars have a 12-V electrical system, and your home and
school have 120-V wall sockets. On the other hand, industrial machinery
operates at 600 V, and major electrical transmission lines can have over
100 kV.
MEASURING VOLTAGE
The simplest way to measure voltage is with a voltmeter. Many voltmeters
have sensitive needles that can be damaged if connected improperly. Make
sure to attach the red lead to the positive terminal and the black lead to
the negative terminal.
Figure 1.8 It’s important to connect a voltmeter properly.
Some voltmeters have more than one red terminal. These are used to
change the range of voltage readings on the voltmeter. For example, the
meter could indicate either 0 to 5 V or 0 to 15 V, depending on which red
terminal is used. If your meter has several ranges, you may not be sure
which one to use. Start with the highest one and work down until you get
a clear reading.

re SEARCH You may encounter several types of voltmeters. For example, some
meters may give readings in millivolts. Each millivolt is 1/1000 of a volt
Corona Discharge (e.g., 30 mV is 0.030 V). Some meters have digital displays, which make
High-voltage the voltage values very easy to read.
transmission lines
sometimes have an eerie
blue glow. Sailors saw
this same glow around
the tips of ships’ masts
before storms and
called it St. Elmo’s fire.
Today it’s called corona
discharge. Find out
more about corona
discharge, and
summarize your
research as a magazine
article. Begin your
information search at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction. Figure 1.9 Some voltmeters have more than one range of measurement.
Figure 1.10 A
digital voltmeter
display
S K I L L PRACTICE
USING VOLTMETERS
Your teacher will provide you with cells of various sizes and shapes. Use the voltmeters
you have in your class to test and report on the voltages of the cells. Note the voltage
numbers that are written on the cells.
• Can you account for any difference between your voltage readings and the numbers on
the cells?
• Suppose you connected any two of the cells in this activity. (Connect cells by placing
positive and negative terminals together.) Can you predict what the voltage reading
would be? Use your voltmeter to see if your prediction is correct. Explain your results.

Measuring Voltage with Computers
Another method of measuring voltage is with a voltmeter connected
to a computer. With this device, you connect the terminals the same
way as for other voltmeters, but your voltage reading appears on a
computer screen.
Figure 1.11 A voltage reading

displayed on a computer screen
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is electrical energy?
2. How does current electricity differ from static electricity?
3. How would you describe voltage?
4. What are the units for measuring a) current and b) voltage?

5. You require a high-current battery to start a large tractor. While shopping
for this battery, should you be more concerned with the battery’s rating
of volts or amps? Explain.
6. A wire carrying more electrons will transfer more energy than a wire
carrying fewer electrons. Is this statement accurate? Explain.
7. Describe how electricity gets from the generating plant to an appliance
in your home.
8. Electricity flows into a hairdryer when it is plugged into a socket. If
electricity has been added to the hairdryer, why doesn’t it keep
operating for a while after being unplugged?

9. What is the reading on the voltmeter in Figure 1.12? Give your answer
in both millivolts and volts.
Figure 1.12
Voltmeter reading
for question 9

info BIT
1.3 Electrical Safety
Fulgurites
In January 1998, eastern Ontario and
Lightning can be
dangerous because it western Quebec were hit by a
discharges so much massive ice storm. In many places,
energy. Lightning strikes power lines and towers were
can actually melt sand knocked down. Such situations can
and rock when they hit be extremely dangerous because
the ground, creating power lines carry electrons at
intriguing glass-lined thousands of volts—enough to
tubes call fulgurites. seriously injure or kill anyone who
comes close to them. You should
never approach a downed power
line.
Any person coming in contact
with a power line may create an
unintended path for the electricity.
Such a path is sometimes called a
short circuit because the current
bypasses part of the normal circuit. If
a power line goes down, the
electricity goes off in the entire area
served by that power line. Without a
complete circuit, electricity can’t
flow. However, if the electricity can
Figure 1.13 Downed power lines in Quebec
find another path, such as through a during the 1998 ice storm
person’s body to the ground, then it
will take that path.
THE DANGERS OF ELECTRICAL SHOCK

To get an idea of how dangerous a current flowing through your body may
be, consider two important aspects of electricity: voltage and amperage.
High voltage is more dangerous than low voltage; for example, 50 000 V
are more likely to kill than 10 V. However, even small voltages can kill if
the shock carries a significant number of amps. The number of amps is
much more important than voltage when assessing the potential danger of
an electrical shock. If 0.001 A passed through your body, you would likely
not feel it. Current in the range of 0.015 A to 0.020 A will cause a painful
shock, and loss of muscle control. This means a person grabbing a wire at
this current level may not be able to let go. Too much electricity flowing
through the body can have extremely harmful effects, including burns and
damage to the heart. Current as low as 0.1 A can be fatal.
In Figure 1.14, a downed power line is touching the truck, but the
Figure 1.14 The driver driver is not electrocuted as long as he stays in the truck. If he must
should stay in the truck and leave, he should jump free, not step out. Stepping to the ground would
wait for help. provide a path for the electricity to flow through him to the ground.

Factors Affecting Electrical Shock
The danger of electrical shock varies, depending on the situation. The
current is greater when it can flow easily. Current does not flow easily
through insulators such as wood, rubber, and air. Other substances such
as mud and damp soil conduct electricity somewhat. Thus, you might feel
just a tingle if you touch an electrified fence on a dry day when you are
wearing running shoes. But you could get a nasty shock if you touch the
fence when you are barefoot in the rain.
PROTECTING YOURSELF FROM ELECTRICAL SHOCK

Figure 1.15 A Canadian
Every plug-in device sold in Canada must have a label listing what voltage Standards Association label
it requires and the maximum current it uses. Usually, this label is on the listing voltage and current for
back or bottom of the appliance. The higher the voltage or current, the an appliance
more harm the device can do if it malfunctions.
However, the amperage rating doesn’t have to be high for you to get a
shock. If there is a short circuit or if the insulation is damaged, you could
get a shock from the electricity before it goes through the device. So, no
matter what the current rating of the device is, you should always take
electrical safety seriously.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY POINTERS

■ Never handle electrical devices when you are wet or near water
unless they are specially designed and approved for use in wet areas.
■ Don’t use any power cord that is frayed or broken.
■ Always unplug electrical devices before looking inside or servicing
them.
■ Don’t put anything into an electrical outlet other than proper plugs
for electrical devices.
■ Don’t overload circuits by plugging in and operating too many
devices.
■ Stay away from power lines.
■ Don’t bypass safety features built into home wiring, appliances, and
other electrical devices.
■ When unplugging a device, pull on the plug, not on the electrical
cord.
■ Never remove the third prong from a three-prong plug.
PLUGS, FUSES, AND BREAKERS

The grounded three-prong plug in Figure 1.16(a) has an extra wire that
connects the device to the ground wire of the building. As you can tell by
its name, this wire leads to the ground. It provides another pathway for
electricity, just in case there is a short circuit in the device. It’s better to
have electricity travel to the ground than through an unfortunate user!

The fuses in Figure 1.16(b) and the circuit breakers in Figure 1.16(c)
interrupt a circuit when too much current is flowing through it. Fuses
contain a thin piece of metal that is specially designed to melt if too much
current passes through it. Most household circuit breakers also have a
special wire that heats up if there is too much current. Instead of melting,
the hot wire triggers a spring mechanism that turns off the switch inside
the circuit breaker. As soon as the wire has cooled, the circuit breaker can
be turned back on. Never turn a circuit breaker back on until you have
fixed the problem that caused it to switch off.
(c)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.16 Three-prong plugs (a), fuses (b), and
breakers (c) help prevent electric shocks and overloads.
Q U I C K LAB
BLOW A FUSE!
Purpose • D-cell
To observe the function of a fuse • connecting wires with alligator clips
• switch
Procedure • 15-V bulb and holder
• steel wool
1 Connect the cell, switch, wires, and bulb as shown
in Figure 1.17. Leave the switch open.
2 Remove a single strand from the steel wool.
Clip the alligator clips onto the ends of the
steel wool strand.
3 Close the switch and observe the bulb and the
strand of steel wool carefully.
Questions
4 Explain your observations.
5 Why is a fuse a safety feature in a circuit?
Use your observations to support your answer.
Figure 1.17 Set up your circuit like this one.

THE DANGER OF LIGHTNING re SEARCH
The current in a lightning strike can be as high as 30 000 A, so it’s not
surprising that it has the potential to kill. People can survive lightning Are Breakers Better?
All new houses have
strikes when the full amount of current travels through only part or over
circuit-breaker panels
the surface of their bodies, but severe injury usually results. The best way
instead of fuse panels.
to survive a lightning strike is to avoid getting hit in the first place.
Are circuit breakers safer
Lightning is a huge amount of negative charge and tends to seek the than fuses? Why do
highest point on the horizon to discharge. Therefore, avoid standing on many commercial and
hilltops or under trees, or holding objects over your industrial buildings still
head (especially metal ones) if you are out in a use fuses? Prepare a brief
thunderstorm. report comparing circuit
Because tall buildings are a natural target for breakers and fuses. Begin
strikes, lightning rods are often added to their your information search
peaks. Lightning rods are connected to the at www.pearsoned.ca/
ground with a wire. Instead of the lightning scienceinaction.
destroying the building’s roof or electrical
wiring, the discharge is conducted
harmlessly to the ground.
Figure 1.18 The metal lightning rod on the

roof is connected to the ground by a wire.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is more dangerous, current or 8. A friend has told you about plugging in a
voltage? Why? radio and putting it on the edge of the tub
2. What is the purpose of a fuse? while taking a bath. Why is it unwise to
listen to music this way?
3. What is meant by a “ground wire”?
9. Why is it a bad idea to take shelter under a
4. What is a short circuit?
tree in a thunderstorm?
5. A power line carrying a high current falls
10. You notice a friend removing the third
on a car, but the people inside are not
prong of a plug so that the plug will fit into
electrocuted. Explain.
an extension cord that has only two holes.
6. Are all electric shocks to the body Is the removal of this third prong safe?
dangerous? Explain. Explain why or why not.
7. Tall buildings often have a steel lightning
rod that is connected to the ground with a
wire. Lightning tends to strike these rods
during storms. Why are these rods added
and how do they work?

1.4 Cells and Batteries
Figure 1.19 A pacemaker is

inserted just under the skin,
near the shoulder, and
connected to the heart. An
electrochemical cell supplies
the electricity to keep the
person’s heart beating
regularly.
Some people have problems with the small electrical signal that the body
uses to control the beating of the heart. Doctors can implant a device
F called a pacemaker to help such people. The pacemaker delivers a small
amount of current at regular intervals to keep the heart beating normally.
The electricity used to operate a pacemaker comes from an
electrochemical cell that supplies a steady current. An electrochemical
D
cell is a package of chemicals designed to produce small amounts of
electricity. The electricity the cell produces comes from chemical
reactions. The tiny cells used in pacemakers are made with lithium and
C iodine and last from 5 to 12 years. Other cells, made with different
B
chemicals, are used in devices ranging from toys to cars to computers.
There are two main types of cells: dry cells and wet cells.
A
DRY CELLS
The electricity-producing cells that we use every day in flashlights and
E
portable radios are dry cells. They are called “dry” because the chemicals
are in a paste. They are also sealed so they can be used in any position
A – zinc powder and
electrolyte, where
without the chemicals leaking out. Figure 1.20 shows an example of a
electrons are released typical alkaline dry cell, used in flashlights and other devices.
B – electron collecting rod The chemical reaction in the cell releases free electrons. These
C – separating fabric electrons travel from the negative terminal of the cell, through the
D – manganese dioxide
and carbon, where electricity-using device, and back to the positive terminal of the cell.
electrons are absorbed While at first glance this cell may look complex, it is simply two different
E – negative terminal, metals in an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a paste or liquid that conducts
where electrons leave
electricity because it contains chemicals that form ions. An ion is an atom
F – positive terminal,
where electrons return or a group of atoms that has become electrically charged through the loss
or gain of electrons from one atom to another. You can learn more about
Figure 1.20 An alkaline dry cell ions in Unit B: Matter and Chemical Change.

The electrolyte reacts with the two metals, called electrodes. As a info BIT
result of this reaction, one electrode becomes positively charged, and the
other becomes negatively charged. These electrodes are connected to the Plastic Cells
cell’s terminals. In a dry cell, electrons leave from the negative electrode, One of the drawbacks of
and return to the positive electrode. cells is that they tend to
The cell shown in Figure 1.20 uses an alkaline electrolyte with zinc be heavy and rigid. One
and manganese electrodes, but many other combinations of metals and solution to this is to
electrolytes are possible. Alkaline cells have become the most common make cells out of plastic.
type of dry cell because they offer a good combination of cost, electricity Normally plastic is an
output, shelf life, reliability, and leak resistance. insulator, but substances
can be added to make
the plastic act like metal
WET CELLS
electrodes. While plastic
Another type of electrochemical cell is shown in Figure 1.21. Such cells cells are not yet as
are known as wet cells because they are wet. A wet cell uses a liquid powerful as metal-based
electrolyte that is usually an acid, such as sulfuric acid. Many of the cells, they are very light
earliest cells were wet cells, as are most cells in cars and trucks today. and flexible. They can be
Wet cells are generally cheaper and easier to make than dry cells. made as thin as a credit
However, care must be taken not to spill the liquid electrolyte, which card.
may be highly corrosive.
Each electrode in the wet cell in Figure 1.21 reacts differently with
the electrolyte. The acidic electrolyte gradually eats away the zinc
electrode. This process leaves behind electrons that give the slowly
disappearing electrode a negative charge. Eventually the zinc electrode
must be replaced. The chemical reaction between the copper electrode
and the acidic electrolyte leaves the copper with a positive charge, but
does not eat away the copper. Electrons travel along the wire from the
negative zinc electrode to the positive copper electrode. If you connected
a wire from one electrode to a light bulb and another wire from the light
zinc copper
to the other electrode, the bulb would light up. The electric current
flowing from one electrode to the other provides the energy for the light.
Car batteries like the one in Figure 1.22 are made up of wet cells.
acid
lead terminals
cover
Figure 1.21 A simple wet cell

includes two electrodes and a
cell liquid electrolyte.
connector
sulfuric
acid
electrolyte Figure 1.22 A car battery made up
of six lead-acid wet cells. Each cell
contains alternating positive and
negative metal plates (electrodes) in
individual cell made up of alternating a sulfuric acid electrolyte.
positive and negative electrodes

Q U I C K LAB
FRUIT CELLS Materials & Equipment

• straight pieces of copper
Purpose
wire (electrode)
To test the ability of fruits and vegetables to act as electrolytes • straightened paper clips
(electrode)
Procedure
• connecting wires
1 Choose one fruit or vegetable. Insert the two different electrodes into the • voltmeter
fruit about 1 cm apart. Push them down to a depth of about 2 cm, making • various fruits and
sure they remain about 1 cm apart. vegetables (e.g., lemons,
2 Use the connecting wires to connect the electrodes to the voltmeter. Record potatoes)
the reading on the voltmeter scale.
3 Predict which fruit or vegetable will produce the largest voltage. Test your
prediction by repeating steps 1 and 2 with the different fruits and vegetables.
Questions
4 What do you think would happen if you reversed the connections on the
electrodes? Explain.
5 Would it be possible to use two or more fruits linked together to produce
voltage? Draw a diagram of how you might accomplish this, and predict the
voltage results. Test your prediction by connecting several fruits to a
voltmeter.
RECHARGEABLE CELLS
The dry cells and wet cells you have read about are called primary cells.
Primary cells produce electricity from chemical reactions that cannot be
reversed. However, the chemical reactions in a rechargeable cell can be
reversed by using an external electrical source to run electricity back
through the cell. The reversed flow of electrons restores the reactants that
are used up when the cell produces electricity. We can say that the
chemicals in a rechargeable cell store electricity supplied by the external
source. Rechargeable cells are also known as secondary cells. They are
used to start cars and to operate portable electronic devices such as
notebook computers and cellular phones.
Not all reversible chemical reactions are suitable for use in
rechargeable cells. The reverse reaction must occur efficiently, so that
hundreds of recharging cycles are possible. Nickel oxide and cadmium is
one combination of chemicals often used in secondary cells. You may
have seen them advertised as Ni-Cd or Ni-Cad batteries. Applying
electricity to the rechargeable cell reforms the original reactants. This
process does not reform the electrodes perfectly, however, so even
rechargeable cells wear out in time.

ACTIVITY D-2
C H O O S I N G E L E C T R O LY T E S
Inquiry
The Question
What type of solution is the best electrolyte for a wet cell?
The Hypothesis
Form a hypothesis for this investigation based on the question. Use the terms
“manipulated variable” and “responding variable” in your hypothesis.
• two 500-mL beakers
• voltmeter or voltage sensor Procedure
• zinc and copper electrodes
1 In your notebook, make a table for recording voltages for the different solutions.
• electrode clamps
• connecting wires 2 Attach the clamps to the copper and zinc electrodes. Place the electrodes in the
• distilled water for rinsing beaker, making sure they don’t touch each other. Your set-up should resemble the
• various liquids including one in Figure 1.23.
distilled water, tap water, sugar 3 Use connecting wires to hook the electrodes up to the voltmeter. Connect the
solution, salt solution, lemon negative terminal of the voltmeter to the zinc electrode.
juice, vinegar, dilute
4 Fill the beaker with distilled water, so that the bottom halves of the electrodes are
hydrochloric acid of varying
immersed. Note the level of the liquid or mark it on the beaker. Record the voltage.
concentrations, dilute
potassium hydroxide of 5 Disconnect the electrodes and empty the beaker, then rinse them all with distilled
varying concentrations, or water.
other solutions provided by 6 Set up the beaker and electrodes again, using a different solution. Fill the beaker to
your teacher the level noted in step 4 with one of the solutions you want to test.
7 Repeat steps 4–6 until all the solutions have been tested. Each time, be sure to rinse
the beaker and electrodes with distilled water before pouring in the next solution.
8 When you have finished testing the solutions, follow your teacher’s instructions for
disposing of them.
Analyzing and Interpreting

9 Are all the liquids electrolytes? Why or why not?
10 Why do you think some substances are better electrolytes than others?
Forming Conclusions
11 Write a summary describing the type of solution that is the best electrolyte for a wet
cell. Use your data to support your conclusion.

Electrolytes are also found in the body in the form of many different dissolved ions, such
as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and chloride (Cl).
These dissolved ions serve several functions in the body. One of the most important is to
Figure 1.23 Testing electrolytes help establish voltages across the cell membranes of nerve cells. Resting nerve cells
maintain an internal voltage of about –70 mV. When these cells are stimulated, Na+ ions
rush into them, changing the voltage briefly to about 35 mV. This momentary voltage
change makes up the impulses that allow nerve cells to send messages all over the body.
Extending
A variety of substances can function as electrodes in cells. These include aluminum, iron,
carbon, tin, lead, and nickel. Design and conduct an experiment that tests different pairs
of electrodes to see which pairs produce the greatest voltage.

BATTERIES
You probably own electronic devices that require more than one dry cell.
Connecting cells together creates a battery. Most batteries are sealed into
cases with only two terminals, so many people don’t realize that batteries
contain more than one cell. For example, the rectangular battery in Figure
1.24 is a “true” battery because it contains four cells.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Alessandro Volta made the first practical battery around 1800. He piled
many copper and zinc discs on top of each other, separating them with
Figure 1.24 This 6-V battery is electrolyte-soaked paper discs. When scientists realized that connecting
made up of four 1.5-V cells.
many cells together could produce more voltage and power, innovation
soon followed. For example, in 1807, Humphry Davy, a professor in
England, filled a whole room with 2000 cells to make one massive battery.
Figure 1.25 Humphry Davy connected 2000 cells together to form one battery.
Other scientists had earlier used smaller batteries to split molecules

into their elements, a process called electrolysis. For example, they were
able to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Davy’s battery was so
powerful that he was able to separate pure metals out of molten
compounds and ores. Using electrolysis, Davy discovered potassium,
sodium, and other elements. The work of Davy and others led to a whole
new field of science: electrochemistry, the study of chemical reactions
involving electricity. Obtaining electricity from a chemical cell is just one
of the many applications of electrochemistry. Electrolysis is another.

Electrolysis
Many industrial processes use electrolysis to separate useful elements
from solutions. For example, chlorine produced by electrolysis is used to
make drinking water safe. It is also used to produce polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) products such as pipe and wire insulation.
Electrolysis of water produces the fuel for the space shuttle. The water
molecules are separated into pure hydrogen and oxygen. When these two
gases are mixed and ignited, they release a tremendous amount of energy,
making these two elements a powerful rocket fuel.
Figure 1.26 These PVC pipes

and the PVC insulation on
these wires are made with
chlorine produced by
electrolysis.
Figure 1.27 Electrolysis
produces rocket fuel by
separating water molecules
Electroplating
into the elements hydrogen
Metals such as silver and gold are popular for use in jewelry and other and oxygen.
decorative items, but they are expensive. Less expensive products can be
made by coating a cheaper metal with a thin layer of silver or gold. This
process is called electroplating. The cheaper metal is also usually stronger
than pure silver or gold. The spoon in Figure 1.28 was silver-plated.
Figure 1.29 shows how electroplating is done. The item to be coated
and a bar of the coating metal are immersed in an electrolyte, like the
electrodes in a wet cell. A source of electricity is connected between the
two metals. The flow of electricity through the electrolyte deposits atoms
from the positively charged metal onto the negatively charged one.
Electroplating is often used to protect metals from corrosion. For example,
a plating of chromium or nickel can protect iron or steel from rusting.
battery
electrons electrons
electrolyte solution
object to metal that

Figure 1.28 Some be plated metal atoms will form
(negative deposit on coating
of the electroplating negative
electrode) (positive
of this spoon has electrode electrode)
worn off, revealing
the metal
underneath the Figure 1.29 The process of electroplating. Different metals can
silver coating. be electroplated by using different electrodes and electrolytes.

re SEARCH Other Electrochemical Applications
Anodizing and electrorefining are two more examples of electrochemical
Galvanizing processes used in Canada. Anodizing is a process to coat aluminum parts
Galvanizing is the with a layer of aluminum oxide. This oxide coating is much harder than
process of applying a pure aluminum. Anodizing is used on a wide range of products including
coating of zinc onto aluminum screen doors, airplane or car parts, kitchenware, and jewellery.
metals such as iron or Electrorefining can be used to remove impurities from metal. For
steel. Using books or example, impure gold can be formed into bars that serve as an electrode
electronic resources, in an electrolytic cell. The impure bars are put into a strong acid solution
prepare a brief report (the electrolyte), along with a thin strip of pure gold. When current is
about the advantages
applied, it moves from one electrode to the other. At the same time, pure
and disadvantages of
gold dissolves from the impure electrode into the acid electrolyte. The
galvanizing. Begin your
search at
dissolved pure gold moves to the electrode made out of pure gold and is
www.pearsoned.ca/ deposited there. The other impurities and unwanted metals are left
scienceinaction. behind in the electrolyte. This process produces very pure gold.
In another application of electrochemistry, some automobile companies
use an electrochemical process to bond special paints onto car parts.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is electrolysis? Give one example of an application of electrolysis.
2. What is an electrolyte?
3. What was Alessandro Volta’s contribution to battery technology?
4. How does a rechargeable cell work?

5. Which would be a more practical source of electricity for a car: a wet
positive cell or a dry cell? Why?
insulated terminal
casing 6. Describe the components of a wet cell and explain how the cell
zinc can insulator produces electricity. Use a diagram in your answer.
(negative
electrode) 7. Dry cells are designed to keep electrons flowing. Why do they
eventually “die” (stop working)?
8. Draw a diagram of an electroplating apparatus that would coat copper
with gold. Be sure to label all parts of your apparatus.

electrolyte
paste 9. Figure 1.30 shows an older design for a dry cell, which is still widely
carbon
insulator electrode used. How does this design differ from the alkaline cell shown in
negative Figure 1.20 on page 288?
terminal
10. A car designer has proposed a new car battery. She is planning to test
Figure 1.30 Question 9— the following different electrode combinations:
older design for dry cell a) both zinc c) both copper e) both carbon
b) zinc and copper d) zinc and carbon
Will all of these combinations work? Explain why or why not.

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
Key Concept Review
1. Describe the charged particles in an atom.
2. What are electrodes? Explain their role in a dry cell.
3. What is the difference between a cell and a battery?
4. State three guidelines for electrical safety.

5. Describe how a static charge might build up on you as you walk
across a carpet.
6. Some cells are rechargeable. Others must be discarded when they run
out of energy. Explain the difference between these two cell types.
7. Fuses are designed to interrupt the flow of current. Why are they
included in a circuit?
8. Lightning is a dangerous discharge of electrons built up by friction
between air and water molecules in a cloud. Is this discharge current
electricity or static electricity? Explain the reason for your choice.
9. Static discharges are classified as electricity, but cannot provide the
energy to operate your household devices. Why?

10. Computer circuits can be damaged by static discharges. To prevent
this, technicians usually wear an anti-static strap that is connected to
the metal case of the computer. Explain how wearing such a strap
protects computer circuits.
11. A tall tree stands in a yard, towering over a one-storey house. There
are no other trees in the area. A car is parked on the street. Which
object is most likely to be struck by lightning: the tree, the house, or
the car? Explain your answer.

On
Scientific knowledge may lead to the development of new technologies.
And new technologies may lead to scientific discovery. Think about what
you learned and the activities you did in this section.
1. Describe one example from this section of how scientific knowledge
led to a new technology, which then led to scientific discoveries.
2. What would someone who wanted to invent a new type of electrical
cell need to know about electricity?
3. Describe one example of an electrical technology that is used in
scientific research today.

2.0 Technologies can be used to transfer
and control electrical energy.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• electric current
• circuits
• measures and units of
electrical energy
• electrical resistance and
Ohm’s law
Learning Outcomes
• identify electrical conductors
and resistors
• compare the resistance of
different materials Specially equipped remote-control (RC) vehicles like the ones in these
• use switches and resistors to photos protect people from risky situations. Robotic video crawlers can
control current
be sent into dangerous or hard-to-reach places to provide remote “eyes”
• predict the effects of switches,
for experts. Bomb disposal robots can help with inspection, removal,
resistors, and other devices
and disposal of suspicious packages. These sophisticated RC vehicles
• use models to describe and
relate electrical current,
can do a variety of difficult and dangerous tasks. They are powered with
resistance, and voltage electric current and controlled with the help of special circuits.
• measure voltages and When you manipulate the controls of an RC vehicle, it moves and
amperages in circuits turns. But behind these seemingly simple actions are devices that
• calculate resistance using control the flow of electric current. A small battery in the transmitter
Ohm’s law unit that you hold provides current that allows the antenna to produce
• develop, test, and troubleshoot radio waves. These radio waves travel through the air and induce a
circuit designs current in the antenna on the RC vehicle. This antenna is connected to
• draw circuit diagrams for toys, circuits. The circuits control current through wiring that leads to the
models, and household battery-powered motors inside the vehicle. These control speed, turning,
appliances
direction, and other special equipment such as limbs and video cameras.
• compare and contrast micro-
The transfer and control of electrical energy in an RC vehicle is one
electronic circuits and circuits
example of the application of electrical technologies. In this section, you
in a house
will learn about technologies for controlling electricity, how to measure
electricity, and how to analyze and build electric circuits.

info BIT
2.1 Controlling the Flow of Electrical Current
Semiconductors
Labelling a substance a
conductor or insulator
isn’t always easy. Some
substances, such as glass
and rubber, make
excellent insulators—
they don’t conduct at
all. Many metals, such as
copper and iron, are
excellent conductors.
Semiconductors are
somewhere in between.
Germanium and silicon
are two commonly used
semiconductor elements.
At high temperatures,
Figure 2.1 The controlled use of electricity creates a colourful they act like conductors.
neon display. At low temperatures,
they act like insulators.
A neon sign has several interesting applications of electrical technology.
First, electricity must travel all the way through the tube in order to make
the neon gas inside glow. Second, the sign must be equipped with a
control so it can be turned on and off. Third, the whole thing must be
contained so that people nearby aren’t accidentally electrocuted. These
tasks can all be done by controlling the flow of electric current.
A UNIQUE CIRCUIT
Neon signs usually consist of a glass tube, twisted into the desired shape.
The tube is filled with gas and metal terminals are sealed into the ends.
The metal terminals of the tube are then connected to the positive and
negative terminals of the electrical source. So the sign is a circuit, but
unlike the wire circuits you saw earlier, this circuit includes a gas as a
conductor.
Signs with more complex designs may have several different tubes,
each with its own electrical connectors. These tubes may have special
coatings or contain different gases that produce different colours. A
mixture of neon and argon provides a purple light. Helium provides
yellowish-white light.
Usually, neon gas is an insulator—it does not conduct electricity. But
when current is applied to the tube, electrons in the neon atoms are
“excited” by the added energy, and free themselves from the atoms. The
negative electrons leave behind positive neon ions. This creates a mixture
of charged particles inside the tube, which is excellent at conducting
current. As the current continues to add energy to the neon gas, some of
the electrons “fall” back into the neon ions, releasing their energy as the
orange-pink neon light we see in the sign.
Technologies Can Be Used to Transfer and Control Electrical Energy 297

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
As shown in Figure 2.2, electrons in insulators are tightly bound to the

positive nucleus of their atoms. They resist moving away from the
nucleus. In conductors, the electrons are not as tightly bound. They are
freer to move. However, a current will flow only when the conductor is
connected to an electrical source. The electrons then move toward the
positive end of the voltage source. Another way of saying this is that the
electrons move when a voltage is applied.
Figure 2.2 is a simplification to help you see how electrons generally
behave in insulators and conductors. However, the atomic structure of a
substance affects how well it conducts or insulates. In other words, some
substances are more resistant to electron flow than others. Depending on
how you want to control current, you may choose to use a substance that
is an insulator, conductor, or partial conductor.
- -
+- +- + + - + + -
- + - + -
-
+ + - +
-
+
+- + + +
+ + - - +
- -
- - + - + - + - + -
+ + -+ - + - + - + - +
(a) Insulator: The electrons (–) are bound (b) Conductor with no voltage applied: The (c) Conductor with voltage applied: The
tightly to the nuclei (+) so they resist electrons are not as tightly bound to the electrons flow toward the positive terminal
movement. nuclei. They can drift away from the nuclei of the voltage source.
but do not flow in any one direction.
Figure 2.2 Electrons in a conductor are free to move, while those in an insulator are not.
Superconductors
Metals such as silver, copper, mercury, and gold are all excellent
conductors, but they are not perfect conductors. Electrons travelling
through them encounter some resistance. This resistance varies from metal
to metal, which is why one metal is a better conductor than another.
However, it is possible for metals to superconduct. Superconductors are
perfect conductors—they have no resistance to electron flow.
Superconductivity was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes in 1911 when he brought the temperature of mercury down to near
absolute zero (273˚C) using liquid helium. At this temperature, Onnes
found that mercury was a perfect conductor, with no resistance to current
flow. Since that time, substances have been found to superconduct at
temperatures well above absolute zero. But these temperatures are still too
low for practical applications. Research into superconductivity continues.

ACTIVITY D-3
I N V E S T I G AT I N G C O N D U C T I V I T Y
Inquiry
The Question
How does the conductivity of different solutions compare?
The Hypothesis
Reword the question to form a hypothesis.
• 100-mL graduated cylinder Procedure
• 250-mL beaker
1 Design a table to record the conductivity readings of the solutions you will test.
• distilled water
• conductivity tester 2 Put 50 mL of distilled water into a 250-mL beaker.
• tap water 3 Place the metal tips of your conductivity tester in the distilled water.
• salt water 4 Record the conductivity reading of the distilled water in your table. If your
• vinegar conductivity tester is a light bulb, describe the brightness of the bulb.
• copper(II) sulfate solution
5 Repeat steps 2–4 with 50-mL samples of tap water, salt water, vinegar, copper(II)
• other solutions provided by
sulfate solution, and any other solution you wish to test. After each conductivity
your teacher
measurement, empty the beaker and rinse it with distilled water. Also wipe off the tips
of the conductivity tester. Make sure that you insert them to the same depth in each
solution.
6 When you have finished testing the solutions, follow your teacher’s instructions for
disposing of them.

7 Were there differences in conductivity among the solutions you tested? How could
you tell?
Figure 2.3 A conductivity 8 Account for the differences in conductivity among the solutions by explaining what is
tester happening in the solutions.
Forming Conclusions
9 Write a summary of your results that answers the question: How does the
conductivity of different solutions compare?

Solution conductivity is a powerful tool for studying the environment. Electrical
conductivity (EC) increases with the number of ions dissolved in water. This means that
conductivity readings can be used as indicators of water quality and the composition of
the surrounding soil. Higher EC values in water can be natural because of minerals
dissolved in the water; for example, in lakes that have limestone basins. But higher EC
levels can also signal the presence of pollutants in a watershed because pollutants are a
source of additional ions. An example is the use of salt on roads as a safety measure to
remove ice. Unfortunately when the snow and ice melt, large amounts of salty run-off
water enter lakes and streams and can be harmful to aquatic organisms. EC readings can
be used to monitor the concentration of salt and other pollutants in the water.
Extending
Design and conduct an experiment to investigate the relationship between the amount of a
dissolved solute (such as salt) and electrical conductivity.

USING CONDUCTORS, RESISTORS, AND INSULATORS
Engineers need to know how well different materials conduct electricity

so they can design devices that are both effective and safe. For example,
sometimes electricity must be used around water. This is dangerous
unless all the current-carrying wires are carefully insulated and sealed
from the surroundings.
In some applications, a type of conductor called a resistor is useful. A
resistor allows electric current to pass, but provides resistance to it. This
limits the amount of current. For any given voltage, more current flows
through a resistor with a low resistance than through one with a high
resistance. Resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for electrons to
flow through a substance. It is measured in ohms. The symbol for ohm is
Figure 2.4 This pump is
Ω, the Greek letter omega.
sealed in waterproof rubber
and plastic.
The more resistance a substance has, the more the substance gains
energy from each electron that passes through it. The energy gained by the
substance is radiated to its surroundings as either heat or light energy.
Figure 2.5 shows two examples of metal resistors that produce heat
and light.
Figure 2.5 The tungsten filament in an incandescent bulb and the element in a heater
both radiate heat and light because of resistance.
Solutions can also be resistors. The more charged particles in a

solution, the better it conducts. Distilled water is not a good conductor
because it contains only water molecules. These molecules have no
electrical charge. Tap water and water in the environment are conductors
because of the many dissolved minerals they contain. Knowing the
conductivity of a particular solution can be of practical use. For example,
you could use a simple conductivity measurement to check the purity of a
batch of distilled water. In a factory, a technician may use conductivity to
check whether a solution for an industrial process has been mixed
properly.

math Link
The more resistance a
component has, the
lower its conductivity,
and vice versa.
Resistivity (R) and
conductivity (G) are
inversely related. The
equation for this
relationship is R = 1/G.
If chemicals are added
to a sample of solution
so that its conductivity
Figure 2.6 A person taking a polygraph test doubles, what happens
to its resistivity? How
does the conductivity
The polygraph machine or “lie detector” is another application of
change if the sample is
resistance. It usually measures skin resistance, blood pressure, and
diluted so much that its
respiration. All of these change when people are under stress. Sweat is resistivity quadruples?
mostly a salt solution, so it contributes to the change in skin resistance. To
measure this change, two or more metal electrodes are attached to the skin
of the person taking the test. In theory, the person is under the most stress
when lying in response to a question. Thus, a lie should cause an increase
in conduction between the electrodes. This would show up as a peak on
the graph plotted by the polygraph machine.
Q U I C K LAB

MAKE YOUR OWN DIMMER SWITCH
• battery
Purpose • connecting wires
• bulb and socket
To control the amount of current flowing through an electrical device
• about 40 cm of 32-gauge
Procedure Nichrome wire
• board with screws (optional)
1 Connect all the materials to form a big loop, as shown in Figure 2.7.
2 Make sure the Nichrome wire is connected by the ends, making all
of the wire part of the circuit. Note the brightness of the bulb.
3 Now move the alligator clips on the Nichrome wire closer together,
so that only a small amount of the Nichrome wire is part of the
circuit. Note the brightness of the bulb.
4 Continue to observe the bulb as you slide one of the alligator clips
back and forth on the Nichrome wire.
Question
5 What happened to the brightness of the bulb when you moved the Figure 2.7 Apparatus for controlling current
alligator clips? Explain your observations.

SWITCHES AND VARIABLE RESISTORS
A switch is usually the best method for turning electricity on and off in a
circuit. Although there are thousands of kinds of switches, they all work
on the same basic principle. Look at Figure 2.9. When a switch is on, two
conductors are pressed together so that current can flow from one to the
other. When the switch is off, the conductors are separated and no current
flows. Most switches are enclosed in an insulated casing or a metal box to
prevent shocks and short circuits. The casing also keeps dust and other
contaminants out of the switch mechanism.
Sometimes you want to change the current flow gradually in a circuit,
Figure 2.8 This doorbell
rather than just turning it on or off. For example, you may have a light
button is an example of a
switch in your house that’s used to dim the lights. This type of control
momentary switch. As soon
as you release the button, the device is called a variable resistor or rheostat.
contact arm springs back and Rheostats can increase or decrease the amount of current in a circuit
opens the switch. The switch by adjusting the portion of the resistor that the current travels through.
is closed only for a moment. Examples of rheostats are volume controls on stereos and foot-operated
speed controls for sewing machines. As you turn the knob or press the
pedal, you change the amount of current flowing through the circuit.
re SEARCH C D
Discovering Electricity
Michael Faraday, Luigi
Galvani, and Joseph
Henry all made major
contributions to the
science of electricity.
Write a brief profile of
each person, describing
his life and work. Begin
your information search
at www.pearsoned.ca/ A B
Figure 2.9
scienceinaction.
(a) Both switches are closed, so the current flows through both bulbs.
C D
(b) Switch A is open, so the current

cannot flow through bulb C.
A B

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review another identical circuit, you use the metal
1. What is the difference between a conductor B wire. The metal A wire gets hot, while
and an insulator? the metal B wire does not. Explain.
2. What is a resistor? 8. A friend insists that using an electric drill
in his flooded basement is safe because, he
3. How does a switch control current flow?
says, “Water doesn’t conduct electricity.”
4. How might a polygraph machine indicate What would you say to your friend?
someone is lying?
9. You have built a fountain for your
5. Why do some substances conduct while backyard pond. How might you control the
others do not? pump speed so that the water doesn’t spray
6. Use a labelled diagram to explain how too high or too low?
electrons behave in a conductor when: 10. Wood burning is a popular
a) no voltage is applied hobby. Would a wood-
b) voltage is applied buring tool work well if its
7. You have two wires made of two different heating element had a very
metals (metal A and metal B). Both wires high resistance? Explain
are the same thickness and length. In one your answer.
circuit, you use the metal A wire. In Figure 2.10 Wood burning
Computer Network Technician

and
Careers Profiles
Figure 2.11
Computer
A computer network technician helps computers network
communicate. This job involves dealing with many technician at
computers, electronics systems, and wires. work
A computer network technician must have a good
understanding of switches and wiring. You have to run
new wires to connect computers to the network, and
you have to understand computer operating systems
in order to configure computers to the network
1. How does this job affect how much work other people do?
properly. You have to be a good troubleshooter in
order to find components that are malfunctioning in a 2. What kind of training would you need to be a computer
network. Your job might include maintaining the network technician? Is this the type of career that would
computers and wiring for a local area network (LAN) sometimes require extra training? Why or why not?
in an office. In critical networks, you also maintain 3. Does a computer network technician sound like an
redundant systems. These are special computers that interesting career? Why or why not?
can run the network if the main computer fails.

info BIT
2.2 Modelling and Measuring Electricity
Another Measure of
So far in this section, you have learned many
Electricity
Electrical charge is
different terms to describe electrical current.
measured in coulombs, Voltage, current, resistance, conductors, and
named after the French cells all describe different aspects of electron
scientist Charles A. flow. But all these terms can be confusing.
Coulomb. In the late Since electrons “flow” through conductors
1700s, Coulomb measured and resistors, a model using water can be
the electrical force that
charged objects exerted
helpful for understanding electricity.
on each other. One Like flowing water, electricity must come
coulomb is a large from a source. Like water smashing into rocks
amount of charge—it in rapids, electricity encounters resistance.
equals 6.25 billion billion The more water, the more powerful the
electrons. current in a river. The more electrons, the Figure 2.12 The flow of this
more powerful the current is in a conductor. Rocky Mountain stream is like
For both water and electricity, the source the flow of electricity.
must be constantly replenished for flow to
continue. Through the water cycle, snow is deposited on the mountain in
Figure 2.12. The melting snow keeps the stream flowing. For electricity, a
source such as a generator or cell keeps the electricity flowing from a
negatively charged terminal to a positively charged one.
If the snow all melted away, the water flow would stop. If the generator
is shut down or when the cell is used up, the electricity stops flowing.
Q U I C K LAB
FUNNEL POWER Materials & Equipment

• 2 funnels with different-size drain
Purpose holes
To build a model that represents different amounts of current and resistance • 2 equal lengths of tubing of different
in a circuit diameters to fit on the two funnels
• beaker
Procedure • water
1 Set up the ring stand, beaker, tubing, and the smaller funnel as shown • ring stand
in the cartoon. • timer
2 Have your partner start the timer as you start to pour 150 mL of water
into the funnel quickly and smoothly. When all the water is in the
beaker, stop the timer. Record the time.
3 Repeat step 2 with the larger funnel and tubing. Record the time.
Question
4 Explain how your results can serve as a model of current and
resistance.

MODELLING VOLTAGE
Unless there is a change in elevation, water doesn’t flow—it simply
sits in a pool. If you pump water up a hill, it gains gravitational
potential energy, and then flows back down. In a similar way, a cell,
battery, or generator “pumps” electrons to a point with a higher
electric potential (voltage). Electricity will not flow without a
difference in electrical potential, just as water does not flow without a
difference in gravitational potential energy.
A B C
Figure 2.13 Waterfalls can model current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit. Waterfall A has a large flow of water.
Waterfalls B and C are the same height, but B has more rocks that slow the flow. As an electrical circuit, waterfall A
would have the greatest flow of current. Waterfalls B and C would have similar voltages, but B has greater
resistance, and therefore less current flow.
The water in a garden fountain might be only a metre from the

ground, while the water in a town’s water tower might be 50 metres
from the ground. The water from the water tower has much more
gravitational potential energy and flows to the ground with greater
force. Similarly, the high-voltage electrons from a generating station
have more electrical potential energy than low-voltage electrons from
a flashlight battery.
MODELLING RESISTANCE AND CURRENT

The flow of water in pipes is another useful model of electricity.
Suppose you were using a reservoir to provide irrigation water for a
field. You have to decide what size of pipes to use to drain the
reservoir. A pipe with a small diameter might be easier to hook up.
However, the longer and thinner a pipe is, the more resistance it has
to the flow of water. A pipe with a bigger diameter has less
resistance, which allows a greater flow of water.
Similarly, the amount of resistance in a circuit affects the
electrical current. For any given voltage, current decreases if you add
resistance. As with water flow, you get the least resistance with a
short, wide path with no obstructions. The shorter and thicker the Figure 2.14 Resistance in a stream or
wire, the less resistance it creates for electrons. The flow of current pipe reduces the flow of water.
will be reduced if it has to pass through a resistor.

OHM’S LAW
German scientist Georg Simon Ohm made exciting electrical discoveries
in the early 1800s. He experimented with many different substances, and
in 1826, he was able to prove a mathematical link between voltage (V),
current (I), and resistance (R). The unit of resistance, the ohm, was named
in his honour. Ohm’s law states that as long as temperature stays the
same:
• the resistance of a conductor stays constant, and
• the current is directly proportional to the voltage applied.
In other words, if you increase the voltage in a circuit, the current also
increases.
Ohm’s law also covers changes in resistance. If the voltage stays the
same, but a resistor of greater value is used, then the current decreases.
Figure 2.15 Georg Simon
Ohm
This table shows how to use Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s Law
Quantity Symbol Unit Calculated with Ohm’s Law Measured with
volts
Voltage V V=IR voltmeter
(V)
Current I amperes V ammeter

I=—
(A) R
Resistance R ohms V ohmmeter

R=—
() I
math Link APPLYING OHM’S LAW

In a circuit where The simple math of Ohm’s law is a powerful tool for those who design or
voltage is kept analyze circuits. As long as two of the values are known, the third one can
constant, what be calculated. This means it is possible to calculate the value of an
happens to current unknown resistor, or figure out the value of resistor needed to obtain a
if resistance is particular current.
doubled?
Quadrupled?
Example
An electric stove is connected to a 240-V outlet. If the current flowing
through the stove is 20 A, what is the resistance of the heating element?
Steps to Solving the Problem Information and Solution
1. Identify known quantities. current (I) = 20 A, voltage (V) = 240 V
2. Identify the unknown quantity. resistance (R)
V
3. Use the correct formula. R =
I
V 240 V
4. Solve the problem. R = =
I 20 A
R = 12 Ω

While Ohm’s law is a good tool for circuit analysis, it’s not perfect. If the
temperature of a resistor changes, its resistance changes as well. Generally,
resistance is lowest when a conductor is cool. As the temperature increases,
resistance increases. For example, a filament in a light bulb often has 10
times its normal current flowing through it at the instant it is switched on.
This current heats the filament white hot in a fraction of a second. The huge
rise in temperature greatly increases the filament’s resistance, which reduces
the current flowing through it. As explained in subsection 2.1, this increase
in resistance causes the filament to glow. Light bulbs sometimes “blow”
when they are switched on because of the sudden temperature change and
other forces caused by the large initial current.
S K I L L PRACTICE
USING OHM’S LAW

1 A 30-V battery creates a current through a 15-Ω resistor. How much current is created?
2 A motor has an internal resistance of 40 Ω. The motor is in a circuit with a current of 4.0 A. What is the voltage?
3 A current of 625 mA runs through a bulb that is connected to 120 V. What is the resistance of the bulb?
USING TEST METERS

In subsection 1.2, you learned how a voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
The voltmeter is just one of various types of meters used to measure
electricity in a circuit. These devices use a small amount of current to move
a needle across a specially calibrated scale or to display numbers on a
digital readout. Meters are very useful, but they must be used properly to get
accurate readings and avoid damage to their sensitive mechanisms.
Voltmeters
Recall that voltage is the potential difference between two points. To
measure the potential difference across a cell, battery, resistor, or other
device in a circuit, each terminal of the device must be connected to the
appropriate positive or negative terminal of a voltmeter. Many electricians
refer to the potential difference across a resistor or device as voltage drop.
Note that meters used to measure small voltages are sometimes called
millivoltmeters.
Figure 2.16 These

voltmeters read the voltage
difference across the items in
this circuit.

Ammeters
Ammeters are used to measure electric current in amperes. Recall that
current is the rate of flow of electricity in a circuit. It is a measure of how
many electrons move past a point in a circuit each second. To measure
this flow, an ammeter must be placed so that the current flows through it.
If a circuit consists of only one continuous loop, you can insert the
ammeter between any two circuit components. Figure 2.17 shows an
ammeter connected in a simple circuit. It could be attached at another
place in the circuit and would still show the same reading. The current is
the same at every point in the loop, so the ammeter can measure it
anywhere. Meters used to measure small currents are sometimes called
galvanometers.
S K I L L PRACTICE
USING AMMETERS
Connect a battery, light bulb, and ammeter in a loop as
shown in Figure 2.17. Record the reading on the ammeter.
Now add another bulb to the loop. Record that
ammeter reading. Repeat this until you run
out of bulbs. Explain your observations.
Suppose you repeated this activity with two

electrical cells connected end to end
(positive to negative). Predict what the
ammeter readings would be. Explain your
answer. Repeat the experiment to see if
your prediction is correct. Figure 2.17 This ammeter will read the current for the circuit. The circuit shown
has only one pathway, so the current is the same everywhere in the circuit.
Multimeters
Often, meters are made with several different measuring circuits mounted
in the same case. By turning a selector switch on the front of the case, you
can set such multimeters to measure voltage, current, or resistance in a
circuit. You must be careful that you have selected the right setting for the
quantity you want to measure.
When you read a multimeter with a needle display, you must first find
the scale that corresponds to the setting on the multimeter’s selector switch.
If the needle falls between numbers on this scale, you can estimate the last
digit of your reading. For example, if the needle rests between 2 and 3 volts
on the scale, but is slightly closer to the 2, you may estimate the reading as
2.4 volts. Digital displays do not require estimates. Some digital meters even
Figure 2.18 Multimeters can allow you to select the level of precision (how many digits are displayed).
be used to measure voltage, Meters range from extremely precise instruments to simple, inexpensive
current, or resistance. testers that are accurate to only 5% of a full-scale reading.

ACTIVITY D-4
W H AT ’ S THE R E S I S TA N C E ?
Inquiry
The Question
Do different materials have different values of electrical resistance?
Procedure
1 In your notebook, set up a table for recording your data. The table should include the
following headings: Substance, Length connected (10 cm or 1 cm), Voltage (from
• D-cell and holder
step 2), Current, and Resistance. In the “Resistance” column you will calculate the
• 10-cm length of copper wire
resistance for each observation.
• 10-cm length of Nichrome wire
• 10-cm length of solid graphite 2 Use connecting wires to connect each end of a D-cell to a terminal on a voltmeter.
(pencil lead) Record the voltmeter reading in your table. Disconnect the voltmeter.
• 10-cm length of rubber tubing 3 Connect one wire from the D-cell to a terminal of an ammeter. Attach another
• optional: 10-cm lengths of connecting wire to the other terminal of the ammeter.
various other materials
4 Clip the free ends of the connecting wires onto the ends of a 10-cm length of pencil
lead. Record the reading on the ammeter.
• voltmeter
• ammeter or current sensor 5 Move the clips on the pencil lead so that they are only 1 cm apart. Record any
• ruler change in the reading on the ammeter.
• calculator 6 Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the other lengths of substances that you have.

7 Use Ohm’s law (R =V/I) to calculate the resistance for each current recorded in your
Caution!
table.
The wires may get hot.
8 Which substance had the greatest resistance? Explain any differences in resistance
among the substances.
9 What was the effect of moving the connecting wires so that the current travelled
through a shorter length of the conductor? Explain.
10 How precise were your measurements? Were there any sources of error that could
affect the accuracy of your results?
Forming Conclusions
11 Write a summary that answers the question: Do different materials have different
values of electrical resistance? Use your data to support your answer.

You have probably seen a computer plugged into a surge protector instead of directly into
a wall socket. Surge protectors protect sensitive electronic equipment from occasional
sudden increases in voltage. These devices rely on special conductors that have variable
resistance. If voltage is at normal levels, the current flows normally through the circuit.
But if voltage is too high, the resistance of the conductor drops. This allows the
potentially dangerous current to be conducted away from the normal circuit to a safety
Figure 2.19 Determining ground wire.
resistance
Extending
Alberta homes have to cope with long, cold winters. Sometimes, the water pipes of
homes will freeze causing considerable damage. If you had to construct a flexible wrap
that you could plug in and wrap around water pipes to keep them warm, what materials
would you use? Explain.

TYPES OF RESISTORS
A wide variety of resistors are made for different applications, especially
in electronics. For example, radios and televisions contain dozens of
different resistors. Resistors are available with values covering the whole
range between conductors (very low resistance) and insulators (very high
resistance).
Resistors can be made with a number of techniques and materials, but
the two most common types are wire-wound and carbon-composition. A
wire-wound resistor has a wire made of heat-resistant alloy wrapped
around an insulating core. The longer and thinner the wire, the higher the
resistance. Wire-wound resistors are available with values from 0.1 Ω up
Figure 2.20 Resistors come to 200 kΩ. The wire for a 200 kΩ resistor is very thin.
in many shapes and sizes. Carbon-composition resistors are made of carbon mixed with other
Remember that the type of
materials. The carbon mixture is moulded into a cylinder with a wire at
material affects the resistance.
each end. By varying the size and composition of the cylinder,
manufacturers produce resistances from 10 Ω to 20 MΩ. Moulded carbon
resistors are cheaper to make than wire-wound resistors, but less precise.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. How is current related to voltage in a circuit?
re SEARCH 2. How is current related to resistance in a circuit?
3. What is the difference between a galvanometer and a multimeter?
Superconductors
Superconductors may 4. What does the term “voltage drop” mean?
bring radical changes in Connect Your Understanding
electronics and power
Use the Ohm’s law table on page 306 to answer questions 5 to 9.
transmission. Find out
how superconductors 5. A bulb of 15-Ω resistance is in a circuit powered by a 3-V battery.
might change the world a) What is the current in this circuit?
of electrical technology. b) What would the current be if you changed to a 45-Ω bulb?
Prepare a multimedia
6. A digital recorder plugged into a 120-V outlet has an operating
presentation to
resistance of 10 000 Ω. How much current flows in this device?
summarize your
research. Begin your 7. An electric heater draws 10 A from a 120-V source. What is the
information search at heater’s resistance?
www.pearsoned.ca/
8. A current of 1.5 A flows through a 30-Ω resistor that is connected
scienceinaction.
across a battery. What is the battery’s voltage?
9. A current of 12 A flows through a vacuum cleaner motor that is
plugged into a 120-V source. What is the internal resistance of the
vacuum motor?

10. Use the waterfall model to explain flowing electricity. Make sure to
include the terms voltage, current, and resistance in your description.

2.3 Analyzing and Building Electrical Circuits
The toy robots in Figure 2.21 have ingenious circuits. The most
economical way to connect all the components in a circuit is in a
simple loop. But these circuits must be designed so that one
component does not depend on the others. For example, it would
be frustrating to the user if the whole device stopped working
simply because one small light bulb burnt out. With careful
attention to circuit design, engineers make sure these devices can
perform the tasks that the user wants. Figure 2.21 These toy robots are controlled by
electrical circuits.
Q U I C K LAB
FLASHLIGHT DESIGN Materials & Equipment

• dry cells
Purpose • connecting wires
To explore circuits by designing a simple flashlight • switches
• bulbs and holders
Procedure
1 Draw a diagram to show how you think the electrical circuits inside an
ordinary flashlight are set up.
2 Use cells, connecting wires, switches, and bulbs provided by your teacher
to build your own model flashlight based on the diagram you’ve made.
Question
3 Suppose you had to design an emergency flashlight with a light at each end.
How would you add the second bulb to your flashlight without making the
first bulb dimmer?
CIRCUIT DRAWINGS
Engineers and designers of electrical circuits use special symbols that load
show the components and connections clearly. These symbols make it
easier to plan and analyze a circuit before you build it. A drawing made
with these symbols is often called a schematic or schematic diagram.
Parts of a Circuit switch

conductor
Schematics can sometimes seem complicated, but all circuits have four
basic parts: sources, conductors, switching mechanisms, and loads.
• A source provides energy and a supply of electrons for the circuit.
• A conductor provides a path for current.
electrical source
• A switching mechanism controls current flow, turning it on and off,
or directing it into different parts of the circuit. Figure 2.22 The four basic
• A load converts electrical energy into some other form of energy. parts of an electrical circuit

info BIT Symbol Represents Description
conductor conducts electricity through circuit
Incredible Shrinking
cell stores electricity (large bar is positive)
Circuits
Before the 1950s, vacuum battery combination of cells
tubes were used to
control current in lamp converts electricity to light
electrical circuits. These resistor controls the amount of current in the circuit
were so bulky that early
computers filled entire switch opens and closes circuit—allows current to flow
rooms. Vacuum tubes
ammeter measures amount of current in circuit
have been replaced by
tiny components that voltmeter measures voltage across a device in a circuit
make today’s hand-held
rheostat variable resistor
computers thousands of
times more powerful than motor converts electricity to mechanical energy
the old room-sized ones.
fuse melts if current in circuit is too high
Knowing the basic electrical symbols can help you analyze existing
circuits. By studying the pathways of wires and components in a
device, you can draw a schematic for the circuit. This drawing can
make it much easier to understand where the current flows and how the
device functions.
(a)
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS EXAMPLE—BULLDOZER

A student was curious about the toy bulldozer shown in Figure 2.23(a),
so she decided to do a circuit analysis of it. She determined that the
bulldozer moves forward when its switch is moved to the left and
backward when the switch is moved to the right. In its middle position,
the switch turns the bulldozer off. A bulb on top of the bulldozer lights
up when it moves in either direction. Taking the bulldozer apart, the
student determined that it has two loads, a motor and a bulb. She also
found two 1.5-V cells that act as the source and a switching mechanism
that appears to connect the ends of four wires. She carefully followed
the conductors through the whole circuit and produced two schematics
showing the circuits for forward and backward movement of the
bulldozer. Note that, for clarity, conductors in schematic diagrams are
drawn as straight lines, even though the wire may twist and turn in the
device.
PARALLEL AND SERIES CIRCUITS

You may have noticed burned-out bulbs in decorative displays. In order
for a bulb to operate, current must travel through it. Sometimes the
(b) forward (c) backward bulbs are connected in a single string with the current running through
each bulb in turn. That means the whole string goes out if any of the
Figure 2.23 A toy bulldozer and
bulbs burns out or becomes loose in its socket. Circuits can be designed
schematics for its circuit. Arrows
show direction of current flow. to avoid this problem.

Series Circuits
The circuit in which the current passes through each bulb in turn is
called a series circuit. In a series circuit, there is only one pathway
for the current, as shown in Figure 2.24. If that pathway is
interrupted, the whole circuit cannot function. The other problem
with series circuits is that adding components increases the total
resistance of the circuit. This decreases the current. Thus, adding an
extra bulb to a series string of lights makes all the bulbs dimmer. Figure 2.24 Series circuit—there
However, series circuits do have an important use. In household is only one path for current.
circuits, switches are wired in series with other components (e.g.,
wall plugs, lights). This makes it possible to turn off all the
electricity in the circuit.
Parallel Circuits
Many sets of decorative lights are not connected in series, but in
parallel. Parallel circuits have a separate current path for each
section of the circuit (Figure 2.25). In a parallel-wired string of lights,
for example, each bulb has its own path to the current source. An
interruption or break in one pathway does not affect the rest of the
pathways in the circuit. Similarly, adding a new pathway with more Figure 2.25 Parallel circuit—each
resistors does not affect the resistance in any of the other pathways. component has its own path for
In fact, adding extra resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance current.
of the circuit. This might seem strange, but remember that adding
more paths for the current to take means less total resistance. Think
about how much less resistance there is when you drink through two
straws instead of one.
Q U I C K LAB
HOW DOES THAT TOY WORK?

To determine the circuit design of an electronic device • an electric toy vehicle or an
old or discarded electrical
Procedure device
1 With a partner, carefully take apart the toy vehicle, noting all the parts of the • basic tools
electrical circuit.
2 Draw a schematic diagram for the toy vehicle. Label the loads, conductors,
switches, and sources in your schematic. Have other students examine your toy Caution!
and see if they agree with the schematic you have drawn. Make sure your
device is not
Question plugged in.
3 Can you design your own, unique toy vehicle? Draw a labelled picture for your
toy vehicle and draw a schematic for its circuit.

ACTIVITY D-5
Problem WIRING A SECURE AND SAFE HOME

Solving Recognize a Need
Home outdoor lighting that comes on automatically makes walking safer and deters
burglars. How can you design circuitry for a home that includes an automatic exterior
light?
Materials & Equipment The Problem

You and your partner are charged with the task of designing the basic lighting circuit for
• electricity source (batteries)
the interior and exterior of a small home. The homeowner wants the circuit to include an
• battery holder
outdoor light that comes on automatically when someone approaches. Photoconductors
• bulbs
are devices that allow current to flow when they are exposed to light. Some
• switches
• photoconductor photoconductors respond to the heat radiated by people or animals. In this lab, you will
• flashlight or lamp likely have a visible-light photoconductor and use a flashlight or a lamp to mimic an
approaching person.
Criteria for Success

• Draw a schematic for a circuit that provides lighting for three rooms in a home, plus an
outdoor light that will come on automatically. Your schematic should also include a
method of controlling the electricity in the whole circuit—there must be a way to turn
off the electricity to the circuit in order to make repairs or modifications safely.
• Build a circuit that represents the home lighting system you have designed.
❍ The model circuit should have three room lights that can operate independently.
❍ The model circuit’s outdoor light should come on automatically (when tested with a
flashlight).
❍ The model circuit should have a switch that can successfully turn the electricity off
or on for the entire circuit.
Brainstorm Ideas
1 Discuss and sketch designs for your lighting system. Keep in mind the criteria for
success and convenience for the homeowner.
2 Consider the materials you have to work with. Remember that you must build what
you include in your schematic. You will have access to general electrical supplies such
as wires, bulbs, and switches. Do you have all the components you need?
3 Predict which of your designs will best meet the criteria for success.
Figure 2.26 Photoconductors
Build a Prototype
4 Assemble the materials you will need to build your circuit model and construct it.
Test and Evaluate

5 When you have built your circuit, test it to see if it meets the criteria. If you used a
visible light-activated photoconductor in your model, you can shine a light onto it to
represent a person approaching the home.
Communicate
Figure 2.27 Photoconductor
6 Have classmates examine and test your circuit. Examine the circuits your classmates
symbol
have built, and suggest an improvement for one of their designs. If someone
suggests a design improvement for your circuit, test it.

APPLICATIONS OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS re SEARCH
Diodes
Diodes are another type
of solid-state component
widely used in
microchips and other
circuits. Find out more
about diodes and how
they function.
Begin your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Summarize your research
in a poster.
Figure 2.28 A typical home has many parallel circuits.
House Wiring
Household wiring is one of many applications that use parallel circuits.
You wouldn’t want the power to your refrigerator to go off if a bulb burnt
out, would you? This could happen if you wired your lights and wall
Figure 2.29 A combination
sockets in series instead of in parallel. However, as you read earlier, you circuit. The switch in this
must use a series circuit for switches. A switch in one branch of a parallel circuit can turn all the bulbs
circuit controls only the devices in that branch. But a switch in series on or off.
with all the branches controls all of them. It is an important safety feature
to have switches wired in series because it is sometimes necessary to turn
off the electricity in part or all of a home.
Microcircuits
Conventional switches are practical and convenient for a home. But for
the tiny circuits in advanced electronics applications, transistors
must be used instead. Transistors are often referred to as solid-
state components because they are made of a solid material with
no moving parts. Most transistors are constructed with three
layers of specially treated silicon. These layers are arranged so
that a small voltage through the middle layer controls a current
between the outer layers. In this way, transistors can act as
switches.
Microcircuits (also called integrated circuits) are made
up of microscopic transistors and resistors. A microcircuit is
exactly what its name suggests: a circuit on an extremely
small scale. The latest microcircuits contain more than a
million components in a square centimetre!
Figure 2.30 A microcircuit is often called a “chip” or “microchip.”

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What are the two types of electrical circuits? Draw a diagram of each
type. Use the same components in each diagram.
2. What is a schematic? Illustrate the schematic symbols for a lamp, switch,
rheostat, motor, fuse, and ammeter.
3. What is the difference between a cell and a battery in a schematic diagram?
4. How does resistance change as you add bulbs to a series circuit? Explain
your answer.
5. What happens to all the bulbs in a parallel circuit when one bulb burns
out? Explain your answer.

6. Is the wiring in a home likely to have series or parallel circuits? Explain
your answer.
7. Examine circuits A and B in Figure 2.31.
A
a) In which circuit will the bulbs not light up when the switches are
closed?
b) What can be done to correct the problem?
B 8. What are the differences between the circuits you find in your house and
the circuits on a microchip in a computer?
Figure 2.31 Circuits for
9. Why are motors, lamps, and other resistors considered “loads” in
question 7
electrical circuits?

10. You have been asked to design a toy that looks like a dancing chicken.
The toy must have an on/off switch and a motor that operates whenever a
light shines on the toy. Draw a schematic for the toy.
11. The circuit in Figure 2.32 has four bulbs (A–D) and four switches (1–4).
Use Figure 2.32 to answer the following questions:
a) Which switch(es) should be closed to light bulbs A and D only? Explain.
b) Which switch(es) should be closed to light bulb A only? Explain.
c) Which switch(es) should be closed to light bulbs B and C only? Explain.
d) How would you operate this circuit so that you could turn all the lights
on and off with a single switch?
e) Is it possible to operate bulbs B and C independently of each other?
Explain. If not, suggest a change to the circuit that would make this
possible.
4
1 2 3
Figure 2.32 Circuit
for question 11 B
A D
C

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. Three quantities can be used to describe the flow of electricity in a
circuit. Name each quantity, the unit of measurement, and the device
used to measure it.
2. A student measures the current in a circuit as 0.50 A. The circuit has
two resistors connected in series: one is 110 Ω and the other is 130 Ω.
What is the voltage in the circuit?
3. A firetruck has a searchlight with a resistance of 60 Ω which is placed
across a 24-V battery. What is the current in this circuit?
4. A table lamp draws a current of 200 mA when it is connected to a
120-V source. What is the resistance of the table lamp?

5. You are given an unmarked resistor of unknown value. You have a
selection of electronics equipment, including connecting wires, cells,
and meters. Describe how you would determine the approximate
value of the resistor.
6. Draw a circuit schematic that contains two motors and a lamp, all
connected in parallel. Include two switches in this schematic: one to
operate the lamp and one to control the whole circuit.

7. Explain how the person drinking a milkshake through a straw in
Figure 2.33 could be used as a model for electrical current in a
resistor.
8. You find an old string of decorative lights in your grandparents’ attic.
The wiring appears safe, so you buy new bulbs for the string and
Figure 2.33 Question 7:
screw them in. But none of them work when you plug in the string. Drinking a milkshake
Explain the likely cause of this problem. through a straw
9. Draw a circuit schematic for a battery-operated, variable-speed electric
fan. What makes it possible to vary the speed of the fan?

On
The products of technology are devices, systems, and processes that meet
given needs and wants. For example, conductors, insulators, and resistors in
your home control electricity used in lights, appliances, and other devices.
1. Describe two devices or systems you read about in this section.
2. What needs or wants were these devices designed to meet?
3. Name other devices or systems that meet these same needs. Why do you
think different devices and systems are developed to meet the same
needs?

3.0 Devices and systems convert
energy with varying efficiencies.
Key Concepts
about the following key concepts:
• forms of energy
• energy transformation
• generation of electrical energy
• measures and units of electrical
energy
Learning Outcomes
• identify, describe, and interpret
examples of mechanical,
chemical, thermal, and electrical
energy
• describe evidence of energy
transfer and transformation
• identify forms of energy inputs
and outputs
• apply appropriate units,
measures, and devices in
determining and describing
quantities of electrical energy
• construct, use, and evaluate
devices for transforming
mechanical energy to electrical
energy and electrical energy to Energy is all around us in many different forms—light from lamps,
mechanical energy sound from stereos, heat from furnaces and stoves. Yet we rarely think
• evaluate modifications to about how much energy we use in a day. It has been estimated that it
electrical devices would take 2800 hours of strenuous manual labour to produce as much
• apply the concepts of energy as a typical Canadian uses daily. You would need a team of 350
conservation of energy and people working for eight hours straight to supply the energy for just one
efficiency to the analysis of person.
energy devices
In this section, you will learn about four common forms of energy—
• compare energy inputs and
chemical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal—and how they can be
outputs of a device, and
calculate its efficiency
transformed into other forms. This will help you understand and
• describe techniques for reducing measure energy inputs and outputs, and calculate the efficiency of
energy waste in common devices and systems. You will also use this knowledge when you
household devices consider ways to reduce energy wasted by household devices.

info BIT
3.1 Energy Forms and Transformations
The Joule
Englishman James Joule

(1818-1889) contributed
greatly to our
understanding of energy
by proving that both
Figure 3.1 Energy transformations make this work possible.
mechanical work and
electricity can produce
When we are exhausted we might say that we don’t have the energy to do heat and vice versa. In
any more work—we know that work requires energy. In fact, the scientific recognition of the
definition of energy is the ability to do work. importance of his
In Figure 3.1, several kinds of energy are being used to do work. The research, scientists
lawnmower’s motor is using electrical energy to spin the cutting blade, named the unit of energy
but the lawnmower will not move forward unless it is pushed. Chemical the joule (symbol J).
reactions in the muscles of the person pushing the lawnmower provide
the energy to move it across the lawn. The chemical energy from her
muscles is converted into the motion or mechanical energy of the
lawnmower. Chemical energy is also converted to thermal energy as her
muscles strain to push the lawnmower.
The photo shows examples of four common forms of energy and the
transformations that occur between them. The following chart can help
you understand these different forms of energy.
FOUR COMMON FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy Form Description
Chemical Energy The energy stored in chemicals. This is a form of potential or stored energy. This
energy is released when chemicals react.
Electrical Energy The energy of charged particles. Electrons are negatively charged. Electrical energy
is transferred when electrons travel from place to place.
Mechanical Energy The energy possessed by an object because of its motion or its potential to move.
A thrown baseball has mechanical energy because of its movement and its potential
to fall.
The total kinetic energy of all the particles in a substance. The faster a particle
Thermal Energy
moves, the more kinetic energy it has. Compare two cups holding equal amounts of
water: the one containing more thermal energy will feel warmer.
Devices and Systems Convert Energy with Varying Efficiencies 319

G I V E I T A TRY
GOING SHOPPING
Examine the photo of the shopper in Figure 3.2, and
answer the following questions:
• The shopper is using his muscles to push the grocery
cart. What energy transformation is involved?
• Thermal energy is constantly produced by chemical
reactions in our bodies. What transformation or transfer
takes place when we are in an environment that is
cooler than our bodies?
• The wheelchair is powered by a battery. What energy
transformation takes place in the wheelchair?
• What form of energy does the wheelchair have when it
is rolling?
• Suppose the battery fails and the wheelchair must be Figure 3.2 Every activity involves energy transformations.
pushed by hand. What energy transformation would

take place?
CHEMICAL ENERGY
You have probably felt weak and tired when you have gone for long
periods without a meal. This results from a lack of energy-producing
molecules in your bloodstream and cells. Chemical energy is the energy
that is found in chemicals, including food. A common molecule used for
the production of energy in humans is glucose, a type of sugar (Figure
3.3). Your cells use glucose molecules and a series of chemical reactions to
produce thermal energy to keep you warm and mechanical energy so that
you can move.
Figure 3.3 Glucose molecules are used in the production of energy for your body.

Chemical energy can be transformed to other forms of energy as well.
For example, when you use a battery-operated CD player, you are
transforming chemical energy into other forms. Recall from earlier lessons
that a dry cell contains chemicals that react to produce electrical energy.
The CD player transforms this electrical energy into mechanical and
sound energy.
Another example of a transformation involving chemical energy is the
use of explosives to demolish large buildings. These buildings must be
brought down quickly to save money and time, but they must also be
brought down safely. Carefully placed and well-timed dynamite
explosions are often the best choice for the task. The chemical energy in
the dynamite is rapidly released to provide the mechanical energy that
demolishes the building.
Figure 3.4 Part of the mechanical energy in a building demolition is transformed from the chemical
energy of explosives. Much of the energy in the demolition comes from the gravitational potential
energy of the building itself. The collapse of the support columns triggers the release of this energy.
TRANSFORMATIONS INVOLVING CHEMICAL AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY

You can use various devices to transform electricity into other forms of
energy. Depending on the electrical device, electricity can be transformed
into any form of energy you require, such as heat, light, sound, or
movement (mechanical energy).
Examples of Devices That Convert Energy from One Form to Another

Input Energy Device Output Energy
electrical toaster thermal
chemical flashlight electrical, then light and

thermal
electrical blender mechanical
chemical battery-operated clock electrical, mechanical,

sound

ACTIVITY D-6
Problem T R A N S F O R M I N G H E AT INTO ELECTRICITY

There are locations where it is impossible or inconvenient to measure temperature with an
ordinary thermometer; for example, inside a car engine or a baker’s oven. One way to
keep track of temperatures in such locations is to convert some of the heat into electricity
and then use that electricity to gauge the temperature.
• thermocouple The Problem
• beaker You have been asked to design a method of monitoring the temperature inside a kiln in a
• Bunsen burner pottery studio. The potter has built a kiln but needs a way of measuring the temperature
• heat resistant tongs or pliers inside to ensure that the pottery is fired properly. You will be testing a thermocouple, a
• ice water simple device that can convert heat to electricity.
• millivoltmeter Criteria for Success
• You must produce a sketch to show how you could use a thermocouple to measure the
temperature inside a very hot, closed environment, such as a kiln.
• You must prove that your thermocouple device is capable of converting heat into
electricity and that it will work at high temperatures.
Brainstorm Ideas
1 Discuss how to convert electricity produced by a thermocouple into a display of
temperature. Keep in mind that the system should be convenient to use and read.
Test and Evaluate

Steps 2 to 7 can be done as a teacher demonstration.
2 Use wires to connect the ends of the thermocouple to the voltmeter.
3 Light the Bunsen burner and rotate the barrel to obtain a blue flame.
4 Hold the end of the thermocouple in the beaker of ice water. Observe and record the
reading on the voltmeter.
5 Using tongs, hold the very tip of the thermocouple still in the bottom of the flame.
Observe and record the reading on the voltmeter.
6 Return the thermocouple to the ice water, again recording any reading on the
voltmeter.
7 Repeat steps 4 to 6 at least three times. Each time hold the thermocouple in a
different part of the flame, such as middle, side, or top.
Figure 3.5 Two types of
thermocouples
Communicate
8 What is the relationship between the voltage produced by the thermocouple, its
Caution! position in the flame, and temperature?
Be very careful 9 Why do you think the device used to produce electricity in this activity is called a
when working with “thermocouple”?
open flames. 10 Do your results indicate that the thermocouple will be appropriate for your design for
measuring the temperature in a kiln? Explain.

TRANSFORMATIONS BETWEEN THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY re SEARCH
A thermocouple is a device that can convert thermal energy to electrical
energy. It consists of two different metals joined together that conduct Ocean Thermal Energy
heat at slightly different rates. When the metals are heated, this difference Conversion (OTEC)
Scientists are researching
in conduction results in electricity flowing from one metal to the other.
ways to use the ocean’s
The temperature affects the amount of electricity produced, so you can
natural thermal
use a thermocouple as a thermometer.
differences to generate
Thermocouples are very useful for measuring temperatures in areas electricity. The
that are difficult to access or that are too hot for a liquid-filled glass temperature difference
thermometer. For example, some Alberta farmers hang thermocouple between the warm
cables in their grain bins. The amount of electricity the cable produces surface and cold depths
indicates whether the grain is getting too hot. This can happen if the grain can be 20˚C or more. This
is too moist. difference can be used to
Devices such as heaters and ovens do the exact opposite of a make electricity through
thermocouple. They convert electrical energy into thermal energy. Think ocean thermal energy
of the heating element in the oven. The energy of the electrical charges is conversion (OTEC). Find
transferred to the atoms of the metal that the charges flow through. The out how OTEC works. Use
labelled diagrams and
metal heats up and warms the oven. Changes in thermal energy can be
flowcharts to summarize
measured by keeping track of the temperature of the substance.
your research. Begin your
www.pearsoned.ca/
CHECK AND REFLECT scienceinaction.
Key Concept Review

1. What is energy?
2. What energy transformations take place in each of the following
devices?
• electric kettle
• battery-operated toy car
• electric blanket
• cordless telephone
3. What does a thermocouple do?
4. What is thermal energy?
5. What is the difference between mechanical and chemical energy?

6. a) What form of energy is found in sugar?
b) How is that energy used in your body?
7. A model rocket uses a flammable fuel to power its flight into the air.
What energy transformation takes place in the rocket?
8. In what way is an electric oven the opposite of a thermocouple?

9. Why is a thermocouple a good device for indicating the temperature
in a car engine?

3.2 Energy Transformations Involving Electrical
and Mechanical Energy
Motors have a place in many of the electrical devices that we use every
day. The beginnings of this important energy converter—the motor—can
be traced back to the early 1800s. In 1820, Danish scientist Hans Christian
Oersted conducted a famous demonstration in which he deflected a
Figure 3.6 Hans Christian compass needle with a current-carrying wire. A compass needle is
Oersted magnetic. If a nearby electrical current affects it, there must be some
relationship between electricity and magnetism. Oersted had discovered
that current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic field around the
wire.
info BIT
Vacuum Cleaner
Vacuum cleaners work
with the help of an
electric motor. The motor
has a fan attached. When
it spins, the blades of the
fan force air out, which
creates suction inside the
vacuum cleaner. Air from
the room forces its way
into the vacuum, carrying Figure 3.7 Electricity flowing through the wire causes the compass needle to deflect.
dirt with it.
Eleven years later, Michael Faraday constructed a device that used
electromagnetic forces to move an object. The design was crude and
produced little power, but it proved that electricity could produce
continuous motion. In Faraday’s device, a hanging wire circled around a
fixed magnet. A pool of mercury maintained the connection to the moving
wire. We now know that mercury is highly toxic, so an open container of
mercury would never be used today. Faraday also made a device in which
a magnet rotated around a fixed wire. Faraday’s devices led to the
development of the electric motors that we use.
support arm
(conducts current) rotating wire
battery mercury
magnet
Figure 3.8 Faraday’s

device

ELECTRIC MOTORS
Early experimenters found that they could make a strong electromagnet by
winding current-carrying wire into a coil (usually around an iron core).
They also found that an electromagnet will move to line up with the
magnetic field from a nearby permanent magnet. This is the same way that
two permanent magnets attract each other.
How do you keep an electromagnet spinning in a magnetic field? The
trick is to switch the direction that the current travels through the coil just
as it aligns with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. Reversing
the current reverses the polarity (the north and sounds ends) of the
electromagnet. It will then continue turning in order to align the opposite
way. Changing the polarity of the electromagnet every half turn causes the
electromagnet to be continuously pushed and pulled by the permanent
magnet.
Many electric motors use a commutator and brushes to reverse the Figure 3.9 An electromagnet
flow of electricity through the electromagnetic coil. The commutator is a is made by winding a
current-carrying wire around
split ring that breaks the flow of electricity for a moment and then
a metal core.
reverses the connection of the coil (see Figure 3.10(a)). When the contact
is broken, so is the magnetic force. But the armature continues to spin
because of its momentum. (The armature is the rotating shaft with the coil
wrapped around it.) As a result of the spinning, the commutator
reconnects with the brushes. The magnetic force on the coil keeps it
spinning continuously (Figure 3.10(b)). The brushes are usually bars of
carbon pushed against the metal commutator by springs. They make
electrical contact with the moving commutator by “brushing” against it.
Figure 3.10(a) Current flowing through

the wire coil creates a magnetic field
around the wire. This interacts with the
permanent magnets, making the coil spin.
magnet wire coil
brush
commutator
Figure 3.10(b) As the coil spins, the commutator

changes position so that its other half contacts
the other brush. This reverses the current flow at
just the right time. The magnetic force is directed
on the coil to keep it spinning.
armature

ACTIVITY D-7
Problem GET YOUR MOTOR RUNNING

A toy manufacturer has developed a motor-building kit. Before they can market it, they
need to know if their kit is suitable for both beginners and more advanced hobbyists.

• 1.5-V D-cell
• 1 m of thin enamel-coated wire
(22-28 gauge)
• paper clips
• tape
• sandpaper
• empty film canister
• circular magnet
Figure 3.11 Building a simple motor
The Problem
The toy manufacturer would like you to test the kit. They would also like you to write
instructions for users on how to alter the motor so that it will spin at different speeds and
in the opposite direction. The manufacturer has encouraged you to design your own
motor, if you wish, and write building instructions for it.

• Build a functioning electric motor with simple materials. Do your best to complete as
many of the following tasks as you can. Each level is more difficult as you go from
level 1 to level 5.
❍ Level 1: your motor shows movement
❍ Level 2: your motor can turn a half-turn to a full-turn
❍ Level 3: your motor can spin continuously
❍ Level 4: your motor can be adjusted to spin at different speeds
❍ Level 5: your motor can spin in different directions
Brainstorm Ideas
1 Before you begin, read Toolbox 3 about the problem solving process.
2 Make a sketch of what your motor will look like when it is completed. Show it to your
teacher for approval.
3 Consider the materials you have to work with. You have to build a working model that
must be easy to adjust.

Build a Prototype
4 Assemble the materials you need and construct your motor. If you wish, you may
instead build the toy manufacturer’s motor design by following steps 5 through 8.
5 Use the film canister to wrap the length of wire into a coil. Leave 5 to 6 cm of wire
free at each end of the coil. To keep your wire coil from unwinding, wrap the free
ends around the coil a few times, as shown in Figure 3.12(a).
6 Use sandpaper to remove the enamel coating from one end of the wire. Then hold the
coil on edge and sand off the enamel coating from only the bottom half of the other
end of the wire. Figure 3.12(b) shows the wire’s ends. When you are done, your wire
coil should look like the one in Figure 3.10(a). This is your motor’s armature.
Figure 3.12(a) The motor’s armature (b) The finished ends of the wire
7 Bend two paper clips so that they can support the wire coil and be attached to the
ends of the D-cell. Use tape to hold the bent paper clips in contact with the metal
ends of the cell, as shown in Figure 3.11. Attach the circular magnet to the D-cell as
shown in Figure 3.11.
8 Place the coil so that it rests on the clips. Give the coil a small push to see if it will
spin. Adjust these components to minimize friction and get the loop spinning as
smoothly as possible.
Test and Evaluate

9 When your motor is complete, test it to see if it meets some or all of the criteria for
success listed on the previous page. Make adjustments as necessary. Record what
you have done and the adjustments you have made.
Communicate
10 Explain why the coil of wire in your motor spins.
11 Did your coil spin better in one direction than another? Explain why it did or did not.
12 Suggest two ways that you could change the design of your motor to make it
function better. Make these changes and test your motor again.
13 Have your classmates examine and test your motor. Examine the motors of your
classmates and suggest modifications that could improve their designs. If someone
suggests a design improvement for your motor, test the suggestion.
14 Write clear instructions on how to build a motor like yours. Include advice on how to
make adjustments like the ones you made. Use diagrams wherever they would be
helpful. To see if your instructions are easy to follow, have another student or group
read them. Revise your instructions as necessary to make them clearer.

THE STEERING ANALOGY
The commutator’s role in helping the armature to spin continuously
can be hard to understand. Imagine trying to turn a steering wheel.
You put both hands on the wheel and turn. Can you keep turning
without letting go? You can’t because your hands must release and
return to their starting position in order to keep turning the wheel.
If you could not let go, you could only turn the wheel one-half
turn, then you’d be stuck. The same problem occurs with the motor.
Figure 3.13 Turning a steering wheel Without the split-ring commutator, the armature would turn only
is similar to the turning of the one-half turn, then it would stop, locked into place by magnetic
armature in a motor. attraction.
Q U I C K LAB
S T. L O U I S M O T O R
A St. Louis motor is designed to show how an electric motor works. Materials & Equipment
• St. Louis motor
Purpose
To identify the parts of a St. Louis motor and examine its operation
Procedure
1 Draw a diagram of the motor, identifying all the parts: wire coil, brushes,
commutator, magnets, and armature.
2 Use connecting wires and a battery to supply electricity to your motor. Start
the motor by giving it a spin. Turn off the lights in the room and observe the
commutator closely.
3 Alter the position of the magnets in the motor to move them closer, then
farther away from the armature. Carefully observe the armature.
Questions
4 Explain what you observed in step 2.
5 Explain what you observed in step 3.
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

Some motors run on direct current (DC). It’s called “direct” current
because the electricity flows in only one direction. Many devices such as
mp3 players, computers, cell phones, and calculators also use DC. The
electricity in your household circuits is alternating current (AC). It’s
called “alternating” because it flows back and forth 60 times per second.
Plug-in devices that require DC come with their own power supplies. The
power supply converts the power company’s 120-V AC to DC and
supplies the voltage that the device requires.

Transformers re SEARCH
Power companies generate AC because, with AC, they can use
transformers to change the amount of voltage with hardly any energy loss. A Wind-up Radio
Voltage change is necessary because the most efficient way to transmit This radio runs on muscle
current over long distances is at high voltage. Some transmission lines power. The crank winds a
carry current at 500 000 V. These high voltages must be reduced before spring. As the spring
the current can be used in your home. unwinds, it turns a small
Figure 3.14 shows how this is done. The current-carrying wire is generator that produces
wrapped around one side of an iron ring called a core. This is the primary electricity to run the
coil. A secondary coil is wrapped around the other side of the core. The radio. Find out why
engineers thought it
AC current flowing through the primary coil creates an alternating
would be impossible to
magnetic field. This induces a current in the secondary coil. If the number
build a wind-up radio.
of loops in the two coils is different, the voltage is transformed down
Prepare a report about
(Figure 3.14(a)) or up (Figure 3.14(b)). the radio and include a
primary coil diagram to show how it
high voltage low voltage works. Explain how this
invention is helping
people in developing
alternating countries. Begin your
current source
www.pearsoned.ca/
secondary coil scienceinaction.
iron core
Figure 3.14(a) A step-down transformer reduces voltage.
low voltage high voltage
alternating
current source
primary coil Spring-powered radio

iron core secondary coil
Figure 3.14(b) A step-up transformer increases voltage.
GENERATING ELECTRICITY
In 1831, Michael Faraday made one of the most significant electrical
discoveries: electromagnetic induction. He demonstrated that electrical
current could be generated by moving a conducting wire through a
magnetic field. Faraday moved a magnet back and forth inside a coil of
wire that was connected to a meter that could detect small electric
currents. His discovery changed the world by introducing a way to
generate a steady supply of large amounts of electricity.
The hand-held generator in Figure 3.15 moves a coil of wire past
permanent magnets. As long as you keep turning, electricity will be
produced. The faster you turn, the more current is generated. The same
principle of electromagnetic induction is used in large-scale power plants.
Massive coils of wire rotating in huge generators produce enough
electricity to power whole cities. Such generators provide the electricity Figure 3.15 Both generators have
we use every day. coils that rotate in a magnetic field.

ACTIVITY D-8 GENERATING
Experiment on your own ELECTRICITY
Before You Start

You know that electricity can be transformed into
mechanical energy by a motor. The reverse is also true.
Transforming mechanical energy into electrical energy can
be done with a generator. The generator consists of a
rotating coil, magnets, and a device to create the turning
motion. For example, the turning motion from a wind
turbine or water wheel can turn the coil. The turning of the
coil through a magnetic field creates, or induces, a voltage.
This voltage can be measured with a voltmeter. In this
experiment, you will build and modify a generator to
induce the highest possible voltage.
The Question
How can mechanical energy be converted to electrical
energy?
Design and Conduct Your Experiment

1 In your group, brainstorm the materials and
equipment you will need to build your generator. Figure 3.16 Building a generator
2 List any safety concerns that you need to consider.

3 Develop a plan to build your generator. Show your 9 Compare your results with those of your classmates.
plan to your teacher for approval. Were your results similar? If there were differences,
4 Build your generator. explain them.
5 Test your generator to see if it can produce a voltage. 10 Compare your experimental procedure with your
You may want to read Toolbox 3 on problem solving to classmates’ procedures. Identify some strengths and
help you improve your design. Remember you will weaknesses of the different ways of collecting and
probably need to make several modifications to your displaying data.
design before it works. 11 Are there any questions or problems that came up
6 Once your generator is working, create a hypothesis during your experiment that would take more
about the effect of modifying your generator to create investigation to answer? Outline how you would
a higher voltage. design an experiment to look into these questions or
7 Modify your generator. problems.
8 Compare your results with your hypothesis. Was your

hypothesis correct? If not, how would you explain
your experimental results?

GENERATING DC AND AC
A DC generator is structurally the same as a DC motor like the one in
Figure 3.10—the spinning armature produces electricity. If you run
electricity through a DC generator, it will spin like a motor.
An AC generator is slightly different. The central axle of an AC
generator has a loop of wire that is attached to two slip rings. Recall that
when a wire moves in a magnetic field, current is
generated in the wire. Examine Figure 3.17 carefully. You
can see that as the axle and loop of wire turn, one side of magnet
the loop moves up, and the other side moves down
through the magnetic field. When the wire moves up
between the magnets, current flows one way in the wire.
But when the wire moves down, the current moves in slip
the other direction. This is how the current switches rings
back and forth in the wire with each complete turn of the
loop.
The slip rings attached to the wire loop ends conduct
the alternating current to the circuit through brushes.
brushes
The brush and slip ring arrangement allows the whole
loop to spin freely. In large AC generators, such as those Figure 3.17 The central axle of an AC generator has
in a power station, many loops of wire are wrapped a loop of wire that is attached to two slip rings.
around an iron axle-core.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review 8. Suppose a classmate constructed an electric
1. What is meant by the term “polarity”? motor with a solid commutator. That is, the
commutator has no split. This solid
2. Use words and a drawing to describe how
commutator is in constant contact with the
to construct a simple electromagnet.
motor brushes. Would this motor design
3. Explain the function of the permanent work? Explain why or why not.
magnets in an electric motor.
4. Describe Faraday’s contributions to the
development of the motor and the 9. You are lost with a group of friends in the
generator. deep woods. You notice that the group
leader is determining direction with a
Connect Your Understanding compass that is taped to the top of his
5. A generator stores electric current. Explain flashlight. Explain why this is a concern.
why you agree or disagree with this 10. A motor and a generator are the same
statement. thing. Explain why you agree or disagree
6. How are electricity and magnetism related? with this statement.
7. The permanent magnets of a motor are
replaced with more powerful ones. What
effect do you think this would have on
motor rotation? Explain.

3.3 Measuring Energy Input and Output
We use energy in every aspect of our daily lives—driving to work or
school, heating our homes, preparing our food, watching television.
Sometimes, we can choose which kind of energy we will use. For
example, we could use electricity, gasoline, natural gas, propane, or
hydrogen to power a vehicle. But how do we know which is best? To
determine that, we need to measure the types and amounts of energy
going into and coming out of the devices we use.
POWER
Power is the rate at which a device converts energy. The unit of power is
the watt (W), named for the Scottish inventor and engineer, James Watt. A
watt is equal to one joule per second. The faster a device converts energy,
the greater its power rating.
Figure 3.18 Cars powered by For an electrical device, the power is the current multiplied by the
batteries (top) and hydrogen voltage. Mathematically, the relationship between power (P), current (I),
(bottom) and voltage (V) is P = I V (watts = amperes volts). Think of our model
using waterfalls. The power of a waterfall is equal to the amount of water
flowing times the difference in potential energy between the top of the
falls and the bottom. This is just like current flow times potential drop in
a circuit.
Example
info BIT A hair dryer has a power rating of 1000 W. It is plugged into a 120-V
outlet. What is the current flowing through the hair dryer?
Garbage In… Energy
Out! Steps to Solving the Problem Information and Solution
Some cities burn garbage
to generate electricity. 1. Identify known quantities. power (P) = 1000 W, voltage (V) = 120 V
Tokyo has a waste-to-
2. Identify the unknown quantity. current (I)
energy plant that burns
1800 t (tonnes) of 3. Use the correct formula. I = P/V
garbage a day to produce
4. Solve the problem. I = P/V = 1000 W/120 V
50 MW (megawatts) of
electrical power. I = 8.33 A
Most small appliances in your home

have a power rating of 1500 W or less. An
electric stove might have a power rating of
7000 W, while the rating for a calculator
could be only 0.4 mW.
Figure 3.19 You may be able to determine a product’s power

rating from its label.

ENERGY
You can use the power rating of a device to determine the amount of
energy the device uses. Recall that power is the rate at which a device
converts energy. You can find the amount of energy converted by multiplying
this rate by the length of time the device operates. The energy consumption
of an electrical device is its input power multiplied by the time the device is
used: E = P t. Recall that energy is measured in joules (watts seconds).
Example
A microwave oven has a power rating of 800 W. If you cook a roast in this
oven for 30 min at high, how many joules of electrical energy are
converted into heat by the microwave?
Steps to Solving the Problem Information and Solution
1. Identify known quantities. power (P) = 800 W , time (t) = 30 min
2. Identify the unknown quantity. energy (E)
3. Use the correct formula. E=Pt
4. Solve the problem. E = P t = 800 W 30 min

E = 800 J/s 30 min 60 s/min
E = 1 440 000 J = 1.4 MJ
Kilowatt Hours
It doesn’t take common electrical devices long to consume a large number
of joules. For this reason, the kilowatt hour is often used as a unit for
energy. The energy calculation is the same, except that hours are
substituted for seconds, and kilowatts (kW) are substituted for watts.
For the microwave oven in our example, the calculation would be
E = 0.8 kW 0.5 h = 0.4 kWh.
Figure 3.20 An energy bill
Electricity meters measure the energy used in kilowatt hours. The for a household shows the
electric company then bills you for every kilowatt hour used. This cost amount of electricity used in
can add up—a Canadian family’s energy bill can be over $100 a month. kilowatt hours.
S K I L L PRACTICE
POWER PRACTICE
Use a list from your teacher or use electrical devices at On some items, you may find voltage and current listed
home to look at power ratings. Be careful! Unplug an instead of power. In these cases, calculate the power
electrical device before you handle it. Look at items rating of the device.
such as light bulbs, curling irons, coffee makers, and
Estimate the amount of time that each device is used in
clock radios. Record as many ratings as you can in a
a month in your home or in a typical home, then
chart.
calculate the amount of energy it consumes.

ACTIVITY D-9
Problem CIRCUIT ASSESSMENT

You have been approached by a couple who have just purchased a small, old recreational
vehicle (RV). The RV has a few electrical components they would like to test. The couple
want a tutorial on how to measure voltage, current, and power in a circuit. When you ask
the couple whether the RV is wired in series or in parallel, they aren’t sure.
• cells or batteries The Problem
• cell holders Build model series and parallel circuits to show how to assess the following:
• motors
• voltage across each item in a circuit
• bulbs and holders
• current in each branch of a circuit
• switches
• power usage by each component
• voltmeters and ammeters, or Criteria for Success
multimeters • You must build an operating example of a series and a parallel circuit. Each circuit
should have three components in addition to a voltage source. You can reuse
components from one circuit when building the next.
• You must test all components in each circuit for voltage drops. You must also measure
the current in each circuit. Keep in mind that you must check each branch in the parallel
circuit. (Review section 1.2 for proper use of voltmeters and section 2.2 for proper use
of ammeters.) You must calculate the power used by all load components in each
circuit.
• You must report your results in tables and graphs that clearly illustrate the difference
between the two circuits you have analyzed. (See Toolbox 7 for information on graphing.)
Brainstorm Ideas
1 You will be working in teams. As a team, brainstorm possible approaches to solving
the problem and providing the required analysis. Once you have decided on the best
procedure, proceed to the next step.
Build a Prototype
2 Draw a schematic for the series and the parallel circuits you will build. Note on your
drawings where you will be connecting your voltmeter and ammeter. Make a rough
Figure 3.21 Materials you plan of the table(s) and graph(s) you will use to report your results and calculations.
could use to demonstrate Show your design to your teacher for approval.
circuit analysis
3 Assemble your materials and build your circuits.
Test and Evaluate

4 Test your circuits to ensure they are working. Then use meters to take the
measurements you have designated in your sketches. Record all voltage readings,
current readings, and power calculations, and present them in a table. Draw the
graph(s) to compare your results for the two circuits.
Communicate
5 How did the power used by the components in the two circuits compare? Can you
explain any differences?
6 Look at the circuits and results produced by classmates. Are their results similar to
yours? If they are different, can you explain why?
7 Suggest one improvement to your procedure.

Figure 3.22 Even a water system dissipates energy because of friction.
ENERGY DISSIPATION
Scientists have found that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy
info BIT
does not just appear or disappear—it can only be transformed from one
Heat from Lighting
form to another. This fundamental principle is known as the law of
The heat from lights is
conservation of energy. However, we usually find that the output energy
not always wasted.
of a device or system is smaller than the input energy, sometimes much During the winter, the
smaller. heat from lighting helps
Most often, the missing energy is lost or dissipated as heat. For keep buildings warm. In
example, when you heat a beaker of water on a hot plate, the hot plate fact, some office
transfers some heat to the surrounding air instead of to the water. The hot buildings with extra
plate also radiates heat to any other objects nearby, including you. All insulation and specially
heating devices lose some heat to their surroundings. designed ventilation
Mechanical systems also dissipate energy to their surroundings. systems can capture
However, their heat losses may be less obvious than those in heating enough heat from
devices. Suppose you were using an electric motor to pump water from a lighting that they don’t
need furnaces.
well or river to irrigate a crop. You might find that the motor used 100 kJ
of electrical energy for every 75 kJ of work done raising water up to the
field. The other 25 kJ of energy is “missing.”
Let’s examine your pumping system. You can hear it running, so a bit
of mechanical energy is being dissipated as sound. If the motor has been
running for a while, it will be warm, perhaps even too hot to touch
comfortably. Current flowing through the wires in a motor always
produces some heat, and the friction between the moving parts generates
heat as well. There is also friction between the moving parts in the pump
and between the water and the walls of the pipe. The heat generated by
this friction warms the water and pipe slightly, then dissipates into the
surroundings. All of the “missing” input energy has been transformed into
energy you cannot use.
In fact, all mechanical systems dissipate some energy, so their usable
output energy is always less than their input energy.

UNDERSTANDING EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a device is the ratio of the useful energy that comes out
of a device to the total energy that went in. The more input energy that a
device converts into useable output energy, the more efficient the device
is. Efficiency is usually calculated as a percent:
joules of useful output

percent efficiency = 100
joules of input energy
For example, let’s look at the input and output energies of an ordinary
incandescent light bulb, as shown in Figure 3.23. The percent efficiency
of an incandescent light bulb is 5 J/100 J 100 = 5. In other words, only
5% of the energy used by the bulb becomes light energy. Light bulbs
transform the remaining 95% of their input energy into heat, which is
often wasted. This heat is put to use in toy ovens where a single light bulb
is used to bake a small cake.
5 J light energy
100 J electric energy 95 J heat
Figure 3.23 Most of the energy transformed by a light bulb is wasted.
S K I L L PRACTICE
COMPARING INPUT AND OUTPUT ENERGIES

This table lists energy measurements from experiments on energy-converting devices.
For each device, calculate the percent of its input energy that it converts to useful output
energy. Which device is the most efficient? Which is the least efficient? What do you
think causes the difference between the most and the least efficient?
Device Input Energy Useful Output Energy

Gasoline-powered sport 675 kJ 81 kJ
utility vehicle
Gasoline-electric hybrid 675 kJ 195 kJ
vehicle
Mid-efficiency natural-gas 110 MJ 85 MJ
furnace
Electric baseboard heater 9.5 kJ 9.5 kJ
Alkaline dry cell 84.52 kJ 74.38 kJ
Fluorescent light 12.5 kJ 2.75 kJ
Incandescent light 780 J 31 J

ACTIVITY D-10
Problem KETTLE EFFICIENCY

In the world of advertising, products are promoted in a variety of ways to convince
consumers to buy them. Sometimes claims that products can do certain things may seem
false or exaggerated. A manufacturer can claim that its product is very efficient, but how
can you be sure that their claim is true?
• electric kettle The Problem
• timer
A consumer-product magazine wishes to determine if the efficiency claims for a particular
• thermometer
electric kettle are true. You have been hired by the editor of the magazine to test the
• 500-mL beaker
efficiency of the kettle.
• graduated cylinder

• Design a procedure that will measure the amount of electrical energy consumed by the
kettle while heating water (energy input).
• Design a procedure that will measure the amount of energy gained by the water (energy
output).
Note: The amount of energy gained by water can be calculated using the following
formula. For water, 1 mL = 1 g.
E = mass of water in grams 4.19 change in temperature in °C = energy in joules
• Carry out your procedure and calculate the efficiency of the electric kettle.
Brainstorm Ideas
1 Write out the steps of a procedure and calculations you will perform that will allow you
to successfully determine the efficiency of the kettle. (Hint: Do not allow the kettle to
boil the water—it is very difficult to measure the heat gained by steam that has
escaped.)
2 Have your procedure approved by the teacher.
Test and Evaluate

3 Conduct your procedure.
Figure 3.24 Determining the
efficiency of an electric kettle 4 Record all the data you have collected and use it to calculate the efficiency of the
kettle.
5 If your teacher has supplied other water-heating devices (such as a coffee maker or
Caution! hot plate), use your procedure to calculate the efficiency of these devices as well.
Hot water and 6 List possible sources of error in your measurements. Estimate how accurate your
steam can burn. calculations are.
Communicate
7 Report your efficiency results for the kettle (and any other devices you tested).
Compare your results with those obtained by others in the class.
8 Would you make any changes to your procedure to increase the reliability of your
results? Explain your answer.
9 Could your procedure be safely altered to determine the efficiency of other heating
devices not meant for heating water, such as a blow dryer? Explain.

COMPARING EFFICIENCIES
By comparing efficiencies of devices, we can judge both their energy cost
and their environmental impact. For example, fluorescent lights are about
four times more efficient than incandescent lights. Although fluorescent
tubes also produce more heat than light, they transform about 20% of
their input energy into light. Thus, they require much less energy to
produce the same amount of light as incandescent bulbs.
Arc-discharge lamps are even more efficient. they produce light by
passing an electric arc through a vapour of a metal such as mercury or
sodium. Most cities use these high-efficiency lamps for streetlights.
Figure 3.25 In a fluorescent New technologies are also improving the efficiency of motor vehicles.
tube, an arc through mercury Hybrid gasoline-electric cars can be twice as efficient as gasoline-powered
vapour produces ultraviolet
vehicles. The hybrid uses a smaller gasoline engine and an electric motor
(UV) light. The tube’s
fluorescent coating absorbs
that provides extra power when needed. Sometimes the electric motor
the UV light and re-emits it powers the car by itself. It even operates as a generator when the car is
as visible light. slowing down, producing electricity to recharge the batteries.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is the difference between energy and power?
re SEARCH
2. What energy conversions take place in an electric motor?
Halogen Lamps 3. What is the law of conservation of energy?
Halogen lamps produce
4. A vehicle is only 15% efficient. What happened to the other 85%?
about 50% more light
than ordinary 5. Compare the energy efficiency of incandescent and fluorescent bulbs.
incandescent bulbs
using the same amount Connect Your Understanding
of power. Find out more 6. You bake a potato in a 1200-W toaster oven for 25 min. How many
about halogen lamps. joules of electricity did the toaster oven use? How many kilowatt
What are their hours did it use?
advantages and
7. A colour TV draws 1.5 A when connected to a 120-V outlet. What is
disadvantages? Write a
the power rating of the TV set?
brief report providing
advice to buyers of 8. A diesel truck produces 47.5 kJ of useful output energy from 125 kJ of
these lamps. Begin your diesel fuel. What is the truck’s efficiency?
search at 9. A small tractor is 12% efficient at producing useful output from input
www.pearsoned.ca/
fuel. How many joules of input fuel energy will this tractor need to
scienceinaction.
produce 1000 J of useful output?

10. Explain the advantage of operating a motor vehicle that is 20%
efficient instead of one that is 10% efficient.
11. Two identical resistors connected in series use a total of 2 W of power.
How much power would these resistors use if they were connected in
parallel?

info BIT
3.4 Reducing the Energy Wasted by Devices
Overdrying
Millions of dollars of
energy are wasted each
year running clothes
dryers to heat clothes
that are already dry.
Overdrying does nothing
for your clothes.
Overdrying creates static
“cling” and contributes
to shrinking and fabric
damage. The solution?
Cut down on drying
time. Your clothes and
electric bill will look a lot
Figure 3.26 An energy-efficient washing machine is designed to wash more clothes with less water. better!
Having to do laundry is a real drag. Spending your afternoon washing,

drying, and folding laundry is bad enough, but how about paying too
much for it, too? Appliances such as washing machines and dryers are
designed for specific tasks and most perform them well. However,
appliance designers did not always consider energy consumption. The
washer in Figure 3.26 is a new design that uses much less energy than
traditional washers. The energy-efficient design uses less electricity,
washes more clothes per load, and uses less water. This reduces the
energy needed to pump and heat water for laundry.
Every bit of electrical energy that flows into your home costs money.
The energy that you use must be generated somewhere, and all generation
and transmission methods affect the environment in some way. Lower
energy demand means fewer power plants need to be built. This would
avoid greater impact on the environment and major construction costs.
These are good reasons to reduce energy consumption whenever possible.
G I V E I T A TRY
SHOPPING FOR APPLIANCES

All large appliances sold in Canada must have an EnerGuide label that clearly states
how much energy that appliance will use in a month of average use. This amount
might not accurately represent how you will use the machine. However, it does
allow you to compare the energy consumption of different brands and models.
Go to an appliance store and compare EnerGuide labels on electrical appliances

such as refrigerators and dishwashers. Find out which models and brands use the
most energy and which use the least.

LIMITS TO EFFICIENCY
Although it is possible for an electric heater to be 100% efficient in
converting electricity to heat, devices that convert electricity to other
forms of energy can never be 100% efficient. Any sort of movement
generates a certain amount of thermal energy that is not useful output.
Moving parts create friction within a system. Consider the many moving
parts and points of friction in a typical combustion engine. Figure 3.27
shows just a few. This friction is one cause of energy loss in these engines.
The largest energy losses result from hot exhaust and heat transferred to
the cooling system.
Electric motors, like the one in Figure 3.28, have few moving parts. In
some motors, the armature is the only moving part. Also, it is easy to put
bearings at each end of the armature shaft to minimize the friction
between the spinning shaft and the rest of the motor.
piston
cam shaft
cylinder
Figure 3.27 The pistons in a combustion engine move inside cylinders and create friction (indicated
in red) as they stroke back-and-forth. Many other moving components in the engine create friction.
Lubricants and component design can minimize the friction in these engines.
bearings
armature
Figure 3.28 An electric motor has few moving parts and much less friction than a
combustion engine.

ACTIVITY D-11
Decision W H AT C A N W E D O TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY?

Making The Issue
Our day-to-day lives involve the use of many energy-converting devices. In what ways can
you increase efficiency and reduce the amount of energy that you use?
Figure 3.29 These labels can help you choose energy-efficient devices.
Background Information
Many energy choices are available to us in our daily lives. When choosing appliances,
vehicles, or heating systems, we can look for more energy-efficient designs. Older
equipment can be maintained, adjusted, modified, or replaced to increase efficiency. Don’t
forget to consider the energy it takes to make the changes you desire. For example,
replacing a complete computer system for a gain in efficiency of 1% may not save energy
because of the energy it takes to make a new computer.
1 Brainstorm a list of different ways you could increase the efficiency of the devices
that you use daily. Also consider your purchase options when choosing new devices.
2 Research the energy savings impact of the items on your list.
Analyze and Evaluate

3 Choose the changes you would implement for maximum energy savings. Explain
your reasons for the choices you have made.
4 Present your findings and recommendations for changes in a report to your
classmates.
5 Compare your efficiency change recommendations with those of your classmates.
6 Are there any other changes you would recommend to Albertans as a group to
increase the efficiency of energy usage?

re SEARCH INCREASING EFFICIENCY
Increasing the efficiency of a device depends on its purpose. Many
Cooking Tips devices are made to convert electrical to mechanical energy, where the
You can considerably
worst energy waste “offender” is friction. The easiest way to increase
reduce the amount of
efficiency in these devices is to decrease friction as much as possible, for
energy wasted in the
kitchen by changing the example, by using improved bearings and lubricants.
way you use appliances. In devices where heat is produced, the major concern is heat loss from
Research energy use for the system. Heat that escapes is waste heat which is not performing its
food preparation, and task. Adding more insulation around the oven in a stove reduces the
make a poster of amount of heat escaping through the walls of the oven, so you will need
“cooking tips” that can less energy to keep the oven hot. Similarly, improving the insulation in
help reduce energy use the sides of the refrigerator reduces the amount of heat that transfers into
in the kitchen. Begin the fridge. You need less energy to keep the fridge cold.
your information search
at www.pearsoned.ca/ thinn
scienceinaction. fibeerglass th
hick
insuulation po
olystyrene
in
nsulation
Figure 3.30 In the last

low-efficciency
25 years, refrigerator efficiency compresssor
has increased approximately motor
higgh-efficiency
300%. The energy used to run co
ompressor
a mini-refrigerator in the 1970s motor
can run a full-size refrigerator
today. 1970s mini-refrigerator Today's full-size refrigerator
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Give two reasons for reducing energy waste.
2. What is the purpose of the EnerGuide label on appliances?
3. How can a more efficient appliance benefit the environment?
4. Why are electric motors more efficient than combustion engines?

5. What causes most energy loss in devices designed to produce
mechanical energy? What can be done to avoid it?
6. Is it always a good idea to discard low-efficiency devices? Explain
your answer.
7. Explain how you might change the design of a typical gasoline-
powered lawn mower to increase its efficiency.

8. An electric-assist bicycle has a rechargeable battery and electric motor
that can be used instead of pedalling. What type of design features and
maintenance suggestions would you recommend to keep an electric-
assist bicycle operating at peak efficiency?

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. You overhear someone say, “An electric heater does the opposite of a
thermocouple.” Is this an accurate statement? Explain your answer.
2. What is the function of the brushes in an electric motor?
3. What is the function of the permanent magnets in an electric motor?
4. What energy transformations take place in the following devices: a
dishwasher, a DVD player, a stereo speaker, and a hot-glue gun?

5. Two sisters own stereos. Joleen has a 40-W mini-system. Julianna has a
large 120-W system. Is it possible for Julianna’s system to use less
energy in a month than Joleen’s? Explain your answer.
6. A computer plugged into a 120-V outlet draws 3.0 A of current. How
much power is the computer using?
7. A chemical laser in a research laboratory can fire for 10 s with a power
of up to 10 MW. What is the maximum energy this laser would use
when it fires?
8. A 330-W hot plate produces 38 kJ of thermal energy while operating
for 2 min. What is the efficiency of this device?

9. You have designed and built an electric golf cart, but it goes only
halfway around the course before running out of power. Describe
modifications you could make to improve the range of your golf cart.
10. Your brother replaces the electric razor he purchased last year with a
new, more energy-efficient model in order to save on his power bill.
What does energy-efficient mean? Was this razor a wise purchase?

On
The goal of technology is to provide solutions to practical problems. One
of the practical problems with using electrical technologies is how to
improve efficiencies. Think about what you learned in this section.
1. Give two examples of practical problems related to efficiency that you
read about in this section.
2. How were technologies used to solve these problems?
3. What knowledge from a related scientific field would a scientist or
engineer need to develop these technologies?

4.0 The use of electrical energy affects
society and the environment.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• energy transformation
• generation of electrical energy
• energy storage
• renewable and nonrenewable
energy
Learning Outcomes
• identify and evaluate alternative
sources of electrical energy,
including oil, gas, coal,
biomass, wind, waves, and
batteries
• describe the by-products of
electrical generation and their
impacts on the environment
• identify example uses of
electrical technologies and
evaluate technologies in terms
of benefits and impacts The world has a huge appetite for electrical power, but how do we meet
• identify concerns regarding this growing demand? Technology is not a limitation in generating large
conservation of energy amounts of power or in getting it to where it is needed. A power-plant
resources generator like the one above can produce up to a million kilowatts of
• apply the concept of electrical power.
conservation of energy The total output of all the electrical generators in Canada is more
• evaluate means for improving than 100 million kilowatts. All the world’s power-generating facilities
the sustainability of energy use together produce about 3 billion kilowatts. Every second, enough
electrical energy is produced to light a 100-W bulb for 951 years. In this
section, you will learn more about the generation of electricity from
different energy sources. You will also learn about the impact that
electrical generation can have on the environment. You will consider
how to balance the benefits of using electricity with the need to conserve
energy resources.

info BIT
4.1 Electrical Energy Sources and Alternatives
Packed with Energy!
Worldwide, about 65% of all electric power is generated by burning oil, Coal contains a great
coal, or natural gas. These fuels are often called fossil fuels because they deal of stored energy.
formed from the decomposition of prehistoric plants and animals. Burning a single
Most of the fossil fuel used in power plants is coal. Coal is a kilogram of Alberta coal
reasonable choice in areas like Alberta that have large and easy-to- will produce about 27 MJ
excavate deposits. However, mining coal or tapping deposits of oil or of thermal energy. That’s
natural gas is only the first step toward generating electricity from enough to boil about a
fossil fuels. third of a bathtub full of
water.
USING HEAT TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY
How do we use coal to turn a generator? The coal is powdered, then
blown into a combustion chamber and burned to release heat, as shown in
Figure 4.1. The heat boils water and superheats the resulting steam to a
high temperature and pressure. This high-pressure steam drives a large
turbine. The turbine is a long shaft with many fan blades. Steam striking
the blades turns the turbine. The turbine shaft rotates large electromagnetic
coils in the generator to produce electricity. Oil or natural gas can be
burned in the combustion chamber instead of coal.
coal in
combustion cooling tower
chamber
condenser
water
exhaust steam
superheated steam
turbine generator transformer
Figure 4.1 Coal-fired generating plant
Burning fossil fuels is not the only way to provide heat for a steam-
powered generator. In Ontario, the United States, and parts of Europe,
nuclear reactors are used extensively to produce steam in power plants. In
a nuclear reactor, atoms of a heavy element, usually uranium, are split in
a chain reaction. This splitting, known as nuclear fission, releases an
enormous amount of energy.
The Use of Electrical Energy Affects Society and the Environment 345
Heat from Earth’s core can also be used to generate electricity. In
several places in the world, hot water and steam naturally come to the
surface after having been heated by hot rock within Earth’s crust. This is
called geothermal energy. The steam is channelled through pipes and
used to drive turbines. In some applications, water is injected back into
the ground to take full advantage of the hot geothermal energy source.
Another interesting source of fuel is biomass. Biomass could
accurately be described as garbage, but it’s a particular type of garbage.
Most cities and towns bury their biodegradable waste in landfills. When it
decomposes, it produces combustible gases that can be collected and used
Figure 4.2 Geothermal as fuel for steam-driven generators. Yard clippings, dead trees, unused
energy heats this hot spring. crops, and food-based garbage can also be burned to produce steam.
Some industrial processes, such as glass manufacturing, use very high
temperature furnaces. The waste heat from the manufacturing process can
be used to produce steam. This steam can then be used to drive a turbine
to generate electricity. Fuel is burned in the manufacturing process to
produce the heat in the first place, but no new fuel is needed to produce
the electricity. Making double use of energy in this way is called
cogeneration.
USING WATER POWER TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY

About 20% of the world’s electricity is generated by hydro-electric power
plants. These plants capture the energy of falling water. Some hydro-
electric plants, like the ones at Niagara Falls, use the flow from a
waterfall, but most use a dam built across a river to store water in a
reservoir. Water is directed through a channel called a penstock to a large
paddle-covered turbine. The rushing water spins the turbine, which is
connected to a generator in the same way as a steam-driven turbine.
generator
transformer
water flow
penstock
turbine
Figure 4.3 Hydro-electric plant

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Tides
Moving water from tides can also power turbines that run generators.
Tidal power stations operate rather simply. When the tide comes in, the
water is trapped in a reservoir and then let out past turbines. There are
not many tidal power stations in the world because of the difficulty of
finding suitable locations. One is located in Nova Scotia at the mouth of
the Annapolis River. It takes advantage of the large tides in the Bay of
Fundy. Waves can be used to generate electricity too. In one type of wave-
power generating station, the up-and-down movement of the water drives
a piston connected to a generator.
Wind Figure 4.4 Windmills used to

Wind energy can be harnessed to turn a shaft. For centuries, windmills generate electricity at Cowley,
used sails on the ends of shafts to provide power to grind grain and pump Alberta
water. Modern windmills use more efficient designs with propeller-
shaped blades. The amount of electricity a single windmill can generate is
limited, but a number of wind-powered generators can be connected
together in “wind farms” to produce larger amounts of electrical energy.
Sunlight
In 1839, French scientist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel soaked
two metal plates in an electricity-conducting solution. When
he exposed one of the plates to sunlight, he was able to detect
a small voltage. Becquerel had discovered the photovoltaic
effect and invented the first solar cell. Unfortunately, the
voltage from his invention was too small to be useful as a
source of power. In the 1950s, scientists began using silicon to
make solar cells. Silicon-based solar cells are much more
efficient at producing current. It is now common to find solar
modules (several cells connected together) and arrays (several
modules) used to power everything from calculators to Figure 4.5 The
spacecraft. International Space
Station uses 2500 m2
of solar cells to
generate its electricity.
sunlight
A Protective cover glass

A
B Antireflective coating to let light in and trap it
B
C C Metal contact grid to collect electrons for circuit
D D Silicon layer to release electrons
E
E Silicon layer to absorb electrons
F F Metal contact grid to collect electrons from circuit
e- Figure 4.6 A solar cell consists of several layers. At the heart of the cell are
two specially treated silicon layers that create current when in sunlight.
Batteries
Batteries are a convenient source of electricity for portable devices.
However, large banks of batteries are rarely used because they are
expensive and bulky. For example, an alkaline D-cell would light a 100-W
light bulb for about 15 min. You would need a room full of batteries to run
all the appliances in your house. Obviously, batteries are not practical for
lighting whole cities.
Rechargeable batteries are widely used to provide backup power for
emergency lights and computer systems. However, these batteries produce
electricity only after they have been charged using electricity from an
external source. Since rechargeable batteries are never 100% efficient, they
actually use more electricity than they produce.
Recently, much research has been done to develop fuel cells. A fuel
cell generates electricity directly from a chemical reaction with a fuel such
as hydrogen. The hydrogen comes from sources such as gasoline or
alcohol. More fuel is added as electricity is produced, so the cell is not
used up as an ordinary cell would be. Larger fuel cells can be used to
power electric vehicles. Smaller ones are being developed for use with
portable devices such as laptop computers.
G I V E I T A TRY
ENERGY NEWS
Now that you’ve learned a bit about Earth’s energy sources, it’s time to dig deeper. All
energy sources have advantages and disadvantages. Your task as a reporter is to find
out more about two energy sources, and compare them. Compare any two of the
following:
• wind • natural gas
• nuclear • fuel cells
• geothermal • coal SOLAR
WAVES
• waves • tidal WIND
FUEL CELLS
• solar • biomass
GEOTHERMAL
Use your library or the Internet to find out more. If possible, interview an expert. On NUCLEA
R
the Internet, begin your search at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction. GAS
• Compare as many factors as possible. For example, you could consider availability, COAL
TIDAL
cost, sustainability, environmental impact, applications (what the source can be
used for), and safety.
• Prepare your findings in a report. In the spirit of “alternative” energy sources,

consider alternative methods for presenting your report. You might design a poster,
Web page, or a multi-media presentation. You could write an essay or make a
videotape.

ACTIVITY D-12
Problem HARNESS THE WIND

You have been contracted to design and build a windmill. It will be used in an exposed
area that is windy all the time, although the strength of the wind varies. There are low
winds lasting for several days but also periods of intense wind. Your client wants to use
these winds to generate electricity.
• a fan to test your windmill The Problem
• small electric motor with pulley
You must design a windmill that operates well in both low and high winds.
• galvanometer Criteria for Success
(or milli-ammeter)
You must build a working model that meets the following criteria:
• materials to build your model
• Your model must be free-standing, although it can be anchored to the surface it sits on
(for example, taped to a desk).
• The turning shaft of your windmill must be attached to the armature of a small electric
motor so that when the windmill shaft turns, the motor armature turns. Although not
specifically designed for the task, the electric motor will serve as a direct current
generator.
• Your windmill must produce a detectable current. This can be determined by connecting
the galvanometer to the leads of the generator (small motor).
• Your windmill must function in a stable manner when tested with a fan held at different
distances to mimic low and high winds. Your teacher may give you more detailed
criteria for testing with a specific fan.
Brainstorm Ideas
1 With your team, brainstorm possible solutions. Once you have several solutions,
choose the one you think will work the best to meet the criteria above. You may want
to read Toolbox 3 to help you with the problem-solving process.
Build a Prototype
2 Create a plan of how you will build your windmill. Include a diagram and a list of the
materials that you will need. Show your plan to your teacher for approval.
Figure 4.7 Designing a windmill
3 Assemble your materials and build your windmill. Remember that you may need to
modify or change your design as your windmill progresses. Make sure to note any
changes on the original design you submitted to your teacher.
Test and Evaluate

4 When you have built your windmill, test it to see if it meets the Criteria for Success.
Identify any practical problems with your device. You may need to make changes to
correct problems, and then repeat the tests.
Communicate
5 How well did your windmill function under varying wind conditions? If your windmill
functioned better under one wind condition, explain why.
6 Evaluate your design for the factors listed below. For each factor, describe how well
you think your device would work if it were built to full size.
a) reliability b) safety c) current generating efficiency
re SEARCH RENEWABLE AND NONRENEWABLE ENERGY
Fusion Alberta has substantial coal reserves, enough to last over two hundred
Fusion reactions occur in years at current rates of consumption. However, coal is a nonrenewable
the Sun and provide all the resource—it cannot be replaced as it is used up. Alberta’s other fossil fuel
energy for life on Earth. resources are also nonrenewable. Crude oil (petroleum), and natural gas
Scientists are investigating will eventually run out. When the supplies of these fossil fuels are gone,
the potential of fusion as they are gone forever.
a limitless, pollution-free In contrast, renewable resources can be renewed or replenished
source of energy. Find out naturally in relatively short periods of time. Some are continually
more about fusion. Make replenished. Wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy, geothermal energy,
a chart comparing fusion and biomass are resources that naturally renew themselves, so they can
with the nuclear energy last forever. If tree harvesting is managed carefully, replanting can ensure
we use today. Start your
that wood supplies for energy can last indefinitely. However, if wood is
used faster than trees can be grown, then the renewable resource cannot
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
meet energy needs indefinitely.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Describe the turbine’s role in an electric generator.
2. Is it correct to say that the majority of the world’s electrical demands
are met with hydro-electric generators? Explain why or why not.
3. What is the difference between a renewable and a nonrenewable
resource?
4. Look at Figure 4.6 on page 347. Describe how a solar cell produces
electricity.
5. What is cogeneration? Give one example.

6. How can a river be used to produce electricity?
7. What do nuclear power plants and coal-fired power plants have in
common?
8. What is biomass? How can it be used to create electricity?
9. Make a chart summarizing how tides, geothermal sources, sunlight, and
wind can be used to produce energy.

10. Why don’t power stations use batteries to generate electricity?
11. Residents of a remote community decide to use wood as their primary
energy source. All the trees nearby are cut down and stockpiled for
use in home heating and heating the boiler of the community’s
electrical generator.
a) Is the community’s energy source guaranteed to last indefinitely?
Explain.
b) What recommendations would you make to ensure that this
community has a reliable long-term energy supply?

4.2 Electricity and the Environment
Every method of generating electricity affects the environment. Some
methods create undesirable by-products. These by-products have negative
effects on human health and the environment.
AIR POLLUTION
The burning of fossil fuels results in the release into the atmosphere of
many problem-causing substances. For example, when coal burns, it
leaves behind a powdery ash. Some of this ash is carried up the
smokestack of the power plant and escapes into the atmosphere. This
airborne ash is often referred to as fly ash. In Canada, air pollution
produced by coal-burning plants has been reduced over the last 30 years
by improved methods of cleaning the coal and capturing the fly ash.
However, considerable amounts of fly ash still escape. This is a concern
because the fly ash contains small amounts of mercury, a poisonous metal
that can damage the nervous system.
Many other molecules are released into the air when coal is burned.
Some of the most harmful are sulfur dioxide (SO2(g)), nitrogen oxides Figure 4.8 Burning fossil
(NOx(g)), and carbon dioxide (CO2(g)). Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain and fuels produces air pollution.
contributes to air pollution. Nitrogen oxides are major causes of air
pollution. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been identified as a
cause of global warming, which leads to climate change. You can learn
more about these chemicals and their effects in Unit C: Environmental
Chemistry.
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Much of the coal used in power plants comes from strip mines.
Strip-mining techniques are used when deposits are near the surface.
Bulldozers clear the soil, and sometimes explosives are used to help clear
any rock above the deposit. Large scoops collect the coal and load it into
trucks that take the coal away for further processing. This type of mining
removes all plants and animals from large areas of land. Although the
land can be reclaimed by replacing the soil, the original natural
environment usually is not fully restored.
Oil and gas wells can also affect the area surrounding them. Some
deposits contain poisonous gases. Measures must be taken to prevent the
release of these gases into the environment. Concentrations of chemicals
in the environment around wells and plants are monitored for safety.
In electricity generation, steam turbines often release a great deal of
warm water into nearby lakes and rivers. The resulting increase in water
temperature alters the local freshwater ecology and can sometimes kill
fish.
Figure 4.9 Strip-mining coal
info BIT The mines and refineries that produce fuel for nuclear reactors can
also damage the environment. The reactors create radioactive wastes that
remain dangerous for thousands of years. Hydro-electric plants produce
Nuclear Waste Storage
Radioactive waste from
no pollutants, but their dams flood many hectares of land and alter the
nuclear power plants ecosystems of rivers. Wind farms and solar cell arrays require large tracts
requires long-term of land to generate practical amounts of energy. Also, the process for
storage. Canada’s plans making solar cells creates some chemical pollution. The steam from
for storing this waste geothermal plants produces a small amount of pollution. Generators using
include placing tidal or wave energy may disrupt the habitat for fish and other marine life.
corrosion-resistant However, the “green” sources of energy—especially wind, tide, and
containers in vaults deep geothermal—harm the environment much less than fossil fuels do.
within the Canadian
Shield. These vaults will CONSERVING ENERGY AND NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
be 500 to 1000 m deep
and will likely be in We know that reserves of oil and gas are decreasing, but it is likely that
Ontario. nonrenewable fossil-fuel supplies will last for your lifetime. So why
bother trying to conserve energy? If demand for energy decreases, there is
a lower demand for the resources that fuel electrical generating plants.
Those pollution-producing plants that are already in operation would not
need to operate at full capacity and may even be able to cease operation.
The obvious benefit is less pollution, which is a good reason to try to use
less electricity whenever possible. When your actions lead to a lower
demand for natural resources, you are practising energy conservation.
You may not have to worry about fossil fuels running out in your
lifetime. However, even temporary shortages can cause hardship and big
price jumps. When fuel prices skyrocket, poorer countries cannot afford
the energy they need.
Suppose you want to conserve fossil fuels and reduce pollution. You
consider buying an electric car instead of one with a gasoline engine, but
you know you have to look at more than just engine efficiency. Electric
cars reduce the need for gasoline, which comes from oil. Burning less
gasoline conserves oil reserves and reduces pollution. The electric car,
however, must get electricity from somewhere for its rechargeable
batteries. If a coal-fired plant supplies this electricity, you may not be
saving fossil fuels or reducing pollution overall. However, if a hydro-
electric plant or windmill farm supplies the electricity, fossil fuels will be
conserved and pollution will decrease. Both personal and societal
decisions must be taken into account when considering conservation.
Figure 4.10 Does an electric

vehicle conserve energy
resources?

A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Conserving energy means moving toward sustainability. Sustainability re SEARCH
means using resources at a rate that can be maintained indefinitely. If we
do not achieve sustainable energy use, future generations may not be able Acid Mine Drainage
to support themselves. A sustainable approach sometimes requires a The environmental
different way of developing resources. In the past, mineral and effects of using coal start
hydrocarbon deposits were used up as quickly as possible to earn money with its removal from the
and satisfy consumer demand. We need to use our resources in a way that ground. The water that
makes them available over a longer period. Sustainability may also mean flows through mines and
no longer using nonrenewable resources because they cannot be coal storage areas can
maintained indefinitely. become acidic. It may
also contain dissolved
We may never be able to achieve complete sustainability, but the
metals. Research acid
decisions we make personally and as a society can move us closer to this
mine drainage. Prepare a
goal. An example of a personal decision would be to take public
brief report on its
transportation rather than driving your own vehicle. This saves fuel and environmental effects
reduces pollution. Decisions made with sustainability in mind sometimes and what is being done
involve compromise—a bus may not be as convenient as your own car. to reduce those effects.
An example of a societal decision related to sustainability is the use of Start your search at
low wattage street lights. Some cities have installed these lights to reduce www.pearsoned.ca/
electricity consumption and light pollution. In this case, the drawback is scienceinaction.
that streets may not be as brightly lit.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review b) choosing a new refrigerator that is high
1. How can oil wells affect the environment? efficiency
c) carpooling with friends to drive to work
2. Do nuclear power plants produce by-
d) replacing the incandescent bulbs in your
products? If so, are they harmful?
home with compact fluorescent bulbs
3. What is fly ash? Why is it an environmental
concern? Extend Your Understanding
4. Explain why you agree or disagree with the 8. A friend brags to you about her new electric
following statement. “Green” sources of car that uses rechargeable batteries as an
energy such as solar and wind power have energy source. She says, “My new car
no environmental impact. doesn’t have an internal combustion
engine, so no fossil fuels are needed to
Connect Your Understanding provide energy for it.” Is this an accurate
5. What is the difference between energy statement? Explain your answer.
conservation and energy sustainability? 9. In 1906, many steam-powered cars were on
6. Does replacing the soil removed by strip- the roads. The record for the fastest steam
mining restore the environment? Explain car was approximately 206 km/h. A British
your answer. team is now working to build a modern
7. Explain how each of the following actions steam car that it hopes will travel over 300
affect energy sustainability: km/h. While this car will be fast, will it
a) replacing a coal-fired power plant with conserve energy? Explain.
several fields of solar arrays
info BIT
4.3 Electrical Technology and Society
Less Luggage
A business traveller used
to have to carry a cellular
telephone, an organizer,
and a laptop computer.
Now digital wireless
technologies let people
on the road phone their
offices and clients,
manage their contact
information and
appointments, and
connect to the Internet,
all with a device small
enough to fit in a pocket!
Figure 4.11 Electrical technology lets us

communicate at the speed of light.
In 1844, the first electrical communication took place with the help of
Samuel Morse’s invention, the telegraph, shown in Figure 4.11. Morse
developed a code of dots and dashes (short and long electrical signals) to
send messages down wires from one city to another. Today, electrical
technologies continue to make fast and efficient communication possible.
With the rapid development of personal computers in the 1980s and the
Internet in the 1990s, we now have the ability to collect and transmit vast
amounts of information.
BENEFITS OF ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGIES

It would be a major understatement to say that electrical technologies
have improved our standard of living. Most electrical devices and
inventions came out of a desire for speed or convenience. Consider, for
example, how the task of doing laundry has changed. Before the invention
of the modern washing machine, it could take a whole day of hard work
to complete the washing for an average family. Now, machines do the
washing, rinsing, and drying, freeing people to do other things. In a
similar way, many electronic devices help us to complete a variety of tasks
more quickly and efficiently, and give us more time for other activities.

G I V E I T A TRY
NUMBER RACE
You will compare the time taken to do a calculation without and with a calculator.
Write an arithmetic problem requiring the addition and subtraction of 10 three-

digit numbers. Trade your problem with someone else, then time each other on
how long it takes to do the calculations the good old-fashioned way—by hand.
Now time each other doing the calculations using an electronic calculator.
• In what way is an electronic device better for doing calculations? In what way
is it worse?
• Design a similar test for processing words instead of numbers.
DRAWBACKS OF ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGIES

More technology means that more resources are needed to manufacture
and operate devices. This can make sustainability more difficult to
achieve. And as technology progresses, it leaves behind obsolete devices.
These devices are usually discarded as waste, so they add to problems
with solid waste disposal. Some technologies may also be too expensive
for developing countries to adopt. This can have the effect of isolating
people and excluding them from the benefits of technological
advancement.
COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION
If you are looking for a device that has brought radical changes in speed
and convenience, look no further than the computer. Computers have
revolutionized the way we accomplish many tasks, including writing,
calculations, and communication. Computers convert all information—
even audio and video signals—into numbers and then perform
calculations with the numbers. Computers use binary numbers, that is,
numbers with just ones and zeroes. These numbers correspond to the on
and off states of the millions of tiny transistors in the microcircuits.
Because the data is converted to strings of digits, this method of storing
and transmitting information is often referred to as a digital technology.
info BIT
Programming Pioneer
By 1952, Grace Hopper (1906-1992) had developed a working compiler, a program that translates
English words into the special codes needed to run computers. Such compilers are the key to all
the high-level computer languages we use today. Hopper also co-authored COBOL, a widely
used programming language for businesses. The term “computer bug” originated in 1951 when
Hopper found a moth jamming a relay in one of the first large-scale computers.
ELECTRICITY AND COMPUTERS
Different techniques can be used to store and transmit information, but all
of them take advantage of electrical current in one way or another. For
example, a compact disc (CD) player scans a CD with a laser. Tiny pits
stamped into the surface of the shiny disc cause the laser light to be
reflected in pulses. A photodetector converts the light pulses into
electrical pulses. This produces a digital signal with exactly the same
sequence of ones and zeroes as the master recording used to make the CD.
Figure 4.12 Compact

discs (CDs) and
computer hard drives
both store digital
information, although in
different ways.
A hard drive in a computer also uses pulses of electricity to record

and transmit information. In a hard drive, a highly polished aluminum or
glass disk coated with a thin layer of magnetic material rotates at speeds
of up to 300 km/h. Electrical pulses are sent to an arm with read/write
heads. These tiny electromagnetic coils magnetize spots on the spinning
disk. When a head reads the disk, the magnetized spots induce pulses of
current in the electromagnetic coil. This reproduces the ones and zeroes
in the original signal. When the heads are writing, they respond to
electrical signals from the computer’s processor. When the heads read the
disk, the hard drive sends an electrical signal to the processor. Electrical
signals control all the functions of a computer, including the images on
the screen and the sounds from the speakers. If these electrical signals can
control your computer, could signals also be sent to control a remote
computer? Such signals are the key to networking and the Internet.

Servers and other The local server can Local server computers allow
computers can send connect quickly through computers to connect to each
information to each other special cables to other other and the Internet. These
via satellites and receivers. servers around the world. servers also store many files that
the other computers can access.
Internet signals can be sent by A home computer can connect Groups of computers that are
radio signals, allowing wireless to the Internet through an connected together can share
connections to the Internet. Internet service provider. information in a network and
also connect to the Internet,
which is a huge global network.
Figure 4.13 Electrical signals sent between computers around the world make internetworking possible.
ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION
There is little doubt that electronic storage of information is a huge benefit

to society. Information is cheaper to store, easier to find, and much more
compact. For example, a single digital video disc (DVD) can store more
information than a whole set of encyclopedias. Electronic media can store
audio and video, as well as text, which often makes information easier to
understand and more entertaining. Hard drives in personal computers
make storage and retrieval of large amounts of information fast and
convenient. Thousands of hard drives in servers connected to the Internet
all around the world put huge amounts of information at your fingertips.
But there are some concerns about the explosion of information and
electronic technology. One issue is access to technology. Some countries
are too poor to establish the infrastructure necessary to connect computers
and transmit information.
Another issue is privacy. Data transmission is not always secure. Files,
such as financial and personal information, sometimes fall into the wrong
hands. “Hackers” attempt to break into networks either to steal
information or to cause damage for the sake of challenge, or for no reason
at all.
re SEARCH Can you trust all the information that you find over the Internet? With
huge volumes of information stored worldwide, some of it will be wrong
Encryption or misleading. Most people have good intentions, but some will post
Ever since the transfer “facts” that they have not checked properly. Others may deliberately send
of information became out wrong information.
possible, people have Another concern is “information overload.” With greater and greater
been developing ways capacity to store information, it becomes increasingly more difficult to
to protect it. Such find the particular piece of information that you need.
protection is especially Search engines were developed to help sort through the vast amount of
important for the transfer unorganized information on the Internet. A search engine is an application
of financial information that searches the Internet for keywords or phrases that you enter in a query
such as credit-card field. Internet sites that match your keywords are then reported back to you.
numbers over the
However, search engines work in different ways and may not be as
Internet. Find out more
helpful as you might expect. For example, some search engines report
about encryption. Use an
example to show how
only results from sites on the Internet that have been manually entered in
encryption is done and a database. Useful sites that have not been entered in the database are not
how it is used. Start your reported. Other search engines report only the most-visited sites on the
information search at Internet; that is, the most popular sites. Because of this, a more useful, less
www.pearsoned.ca/ popular site may be overlooked. This explains why using different search
scienceinaction. engines may provide different results for the same keywords or phrases
that you are searching for.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Name two benefits of electrical technologies.
2. What is special about a “binary” number?
3. Explain some of the drawbacks of information technology.
4. a) In what form is computer information stored?
b) In what form is it transmitted?

5. Why could more technology make sustainability more difficult?
6. Explain how it is possible for your home computer to connect to and
retrieve information from a computer in another country.
7. How is an Internet server computer different from a home computer?
How is it the same?

8. What does electricity have to do with the storage of information on a
computer?
9. A classmate explains to you that his mother is treating her own
medical condition with health advice she found while using the
Internet. What, if any, concerns might you have about this?

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. What is sustainability? Give one example.
2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using coal as an energy
source.
3. Briefly describe geothermal and tidal methods of generating electricity.
4. Describe some of the ways that computers can connect with each other.
5. Why are coal, natural gas, and oil referred to as “fossil” fuels?

6. Use a Venn diagram to compare the generation of electricity using coal with
hydro-electricity generation. How are they similar? How are they different?
7. A group of Alberta farmers forms a co-operative group and builds a factory
that turns grain into alcohol as a fuel for generators and cars. Would this
energy source be renewable or nonrenewable? Explain.
8. Do advances in computer technology benefit everyone in the world
equally? Explain your answer.

9. A nuclear power plant provides energy using a radioactive source, so a
turbine is not needed. Explain why you agree or disagree with this
statement.
10. You notice your neighbour replacing her exterior house lights with lower
watt bulbs. Would you describe this as “conservation” or “sustainability”?
11. Cars today include electronic systems that control much of their operation.
Identify one benefit and one drawback to the use of these electronic
systems.

On
Technological problems can often be resolved with more than one solution.
The different solutions may involve a variety of designs, processes, and
materials. Think about what you learned in this section.
1. Give one example that you encountered of a problem that had more than
one solution.
2. Was one solution better than the others? Why or why not?
3. If you did Activity D-12 Problem Solving: Harness the Wind, how did you
know when you had a solution that would work?
U NIT S UMMARY: E LECTRICAL P RINCIPLES AND T ECHNOLOGIES
Key Concepts Section Summaries
1.0 1.0 Electrical energy can be transferred and stored.

• electric charge and current • There are two types of electricity: static and current. Static is electrically charged
• circuits particles at rest. Current is flowing electrically charged particles.
• electrical energy storage • Voltage is a measure of how much electrical energy each charged particle carries.
• energy transmission Current is the rate at which charged particles flow.
• measures and units of • Electricity can be dangerous, so safety should always be a concern.
electrical energy • Electricity can be produced through chemical reactions and stored in different types of
cells. Cells can be combined to form batteries.
2.0 2.0 Technologies can be used to transfer and control electrical energy.
• electric current • Different substances provide various levels of resistance to electric current. Electricity
• circuits flows more easily in conductors than in insulators.
• energy transmission • The amount of electrical resistance is measured in ohms. Voltage is measured in volts.
• measures and units of Current is measured in amperes.
electrical energy • Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the
• electrical resistance and voltage applied to it.
Ohm’s law • Meters are used to measure electricity. Voltmeters measure voltage. Ammeters
measure current. Ohmmeters measure resistance. Multimeters measure all three.
• Series circuits provide a single pathway for current. Parallel circuits provide multiple
pathways for current.
3.0 3.0 Devices and systems convert energy with varying efficiencies.
• forms of energy • Energy exists in different forms, such as chemical, thermal, mechanical, and electrical
• energy transformation energy.
• generation of electrical • Energy can be transformed from one form into another. For example, a thermocouple
energy can change thermal energy into electrical energy.
• energy transmission • Electric motors transform electrical energy to mechanical energy.
• measures and units of • Power is the rate at which a device converts energy. It is calculated by multiplying
electrical energy current by voltage. Energy is calculated by multiplying power by time.
• Input energy and usable output energy can be compared to determine the efficiency of
an energy-converting device.
• Reducing the amount of energy wasted by devices that convert energy increases their
efficiency.
4.0 4.0 The use of electrical energy affects society and the environment.
• energy transformation • A variety of alternative energy sources can be used to generate electrical energy. These
• energy transmission include fossil fuels, nuclear energy, geothermal energy, biomass, hydro-electricity,
• generation of electrical tides, wind power, and solar energy.
energy • Energy sources are either renewable or nonrenewable.
• energy storage • Electrical generation can produce by-products and effects that harm the environment.
• renewable and nonrenewable • Energy and nonrenewable resources can be conserved through choices that reduce
energy consumption.
• Sustainability means using resources at a rate that can be maintained indefinitely.

S C I E N C E W O R L D
y
a
se d
S t u
Three Gorges Dam

The Issue Go Further
In 1994, the Chinese government began a massive project Now it’s your turn. Use the following resources to help you
on the Yangtze River called the Three Gorges Dam. The learn more.
project is designed to provide electricity to large areas of • Look on the Web: Use the Internet to find out about the
rural China, where many people live in poverty without Three Gorges Dam. Begin your search at
electricity. It will also control flooding. The Yangtze often www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction.
overflows and floods large areas of northern and central • Ask the Experts: Many engineers and archeologists are
China. In the 20th century, such flooding killed over available through question-and-answer sites on the
300 000 people. When it is completed in 2009, this dam Internet. A local energy council or government agency
will be one of the largest in the world. may also be able to give you information.
• When complete, the dam will be 2.3 km across and • Look It Up in Newspapers and Magazines: Check for
185 m tall. It will create a lake about 600 km long and articles about this issue in newspapers and magazines.
200 m deep.
• The dam will require 27 million cubic metres of concrete. Analyze and Address the Issue
That’s enough concrete to cover 4000 football fields to a Use the information you have gathered to analyze the costs
depth of one metre! and benefits of the Three Gorges Dam project. Write a brief
• The dam will produce over 18 GW (gigawatts) of power. report stating your conclusion about whether the project
Many people in other countries and in China do not think should be completed. Support your conclusion with your
the dam should be built. The chart below gives two research data.
different viewpoints about the project.
Should China Complete the Three Gorges Dam?
Yes No
The dam may be able to stop The dam presents an even worse
devastating flooding. The dam’s flooding danger if it fails. Millions of
control mechanisms may be able to people live downstream of the dam. A
save lives by managing water levels. failure of the dam would be
catastrophic.
The dam would produce much The dam requires almost 2 million
needed electricity. The poor of rural people to be uprooted and relocated.
China do not even have refrigerators. The reservoir will flood thousands of
Electricity would provide the possibility farms and villages.
of modern conveniences.
Electricity would provide the means The dam’s reservoir will submerge
for modernization. Rural China has many priceless artifacts and natural
few of the advantages of even the treasures. Over a thousand
smallest Western communities. With archeological sites will be ruined.
electrical power, rural Chinese can
begin to modernize their economy.
Science World 361

PROJECT
BUILDING AN ELECTRICAL DEVICE
Getting Started
Designing an electrical device offers many opportunities to
discover answers for yourself. In this activity, you will plan
how to build an electrical device that performs a particular
function. Then you will build and modify a prototype. Using
your choice of materials and what you have learned about
electrical circuits, you will design a device or model of your
own choice.
Your Goal
Demonstrate your understanding of electrical circuitry and
energy conversions by using your imagination to pick a
device or model to build. It can be any device that uses
electricity to perform a task. Your goal will be to build the
device that can successfully performs the task(s) of your
choice. For example, consider building one of the
following: Steps to Success
• a reversible escalator with an emergency switch 1 With your group, brainstorm ideas for solutions to the
• a model electrically wired home, with special features problem. Sketch ideas as you come up with them.
such a pressure-sensitive welcome mat light 2 Decide what equipment you will need. Are there
• a model animal kennel with doors that open materials you can collect from home? Ask your
electrically teacher for help with any of the materials that you
• a rescue truck that moves and has a ladder that can be cannot collect yourself.
raised or lowered 3 Carefully consider safety before you begin to construct
• a switch-operated animal feeder that allows you to your prototype. Show your teacher your final plan for
release food remotely approval, and then begin building your device.
4 When you have built your device, test to see if it
What You Need to Know meets your goals. After your test, you may need to
This project involves designing electrical circuits. Review make some changes and repeat the tests.
what you have learned about electrical circuits and 5 Look at your classmates’ devices. Make a quick sketch
converting electrical energy into different forms. Recall of one of their designs and of a modification to
how to supply current to a circuit and then control the improve it. Discuss this modification with your
current so that the circuit performs the task you desire. For classmates.
your design to work, you will have to combine these
concepts successfully. Before you begin, you may want to How Did It Go?
review Toolbox 3 to help you with problem solving as you 6 Now that you have planned and constructed your
develop your device. You may also want to consult Toolbox device, write an evaluation of your approach to solving
13 to review the electrical symbols you need to use in your this problem. Did it work well? What would you do
circuit diagrams. differently and why?

U N I T R E V I E W : ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Unit Vocabulary 2.0
1. Create a concept map that shows how each 7. A friend replaces a cord on a kettle with a
of the following terms are connected. Use new one much thinner than the original.
the word electricity as your starting word. When the kettle is plugged in, the new cord
energy resistance gets much hotter than the old one did.
batteries series Explain why.
motor efficiency 8. Dimmer switches are convenient ways of
current cells controlling the amount of light in a room.
insulator mechanical energy Describe how a dimmer switch works.
power voltage
9. Use Ohm’s law to solve the following
electrolyte conductor
problems:
generator parallel
a) What voltage is applied to a 5.0-Ω resistor
if the current is 1.5 A?
b) A voltage of 80 V is applied across a 20-Ω
Key Concept Review resistor. What is the current through the
resistor?
1.0 c) The current running through a starter
motor in a car is 240 A. If this motor is
2. How can a Van de Graaff generator help in connected to a 12-V battery, what is the
the study of electrical charge? resistance of the motor?
3. Describe an electric power grid. What is its 10. Use electrical symbols to draw a series
purpose? circuit with a four-cell battery, a motor, and
4. Consider two negative charges that are fixed two bulbs. Draw a parallel circuit using the
in position (A and B below). What would same components. Describe the difference in
happen if a movable negative charge were current flowing through the two circuits.
placed at point C? Explain.
3.0
A
11. What do the terms “work” and “energy”
C
mean?
12. What is the role of the commutator in an
electric motor?
B
13. Would it make more sense for an electric
company to charge by the joule or by the
watt? Explain.
5. What is a short circuit? Is it dangerous?
Explain.
6. Explain how an electrical wet cell functions.
Unit Review 363

UNIT REVIEW: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGIES
14. Solve the following power problems: 24. Describe the advantages and disadvantages
a) The current running through a coffee of transmitting information electronically.
maker connected to a 120-V source is
8.0 A. What is the power rating of this
device? Connect Your Understanding
b) A 120-W motor draws 1.2 A of current.
25. Explain why a cow that touches an electric
What is the voltage across the motor?
c) A 5000-W dryer is connected to a 240-V fence gets a mild shock, but a bird sitting on
source. What is the current flowing the same wire doesn’t feel any electricity at
through the dryer? all.
26. A classmate would like to connect multiple
15. How much energy does a 100-W light bulb
use in an hour? motors together in a circuit. But every time a
motor is added, an undesirable side effect
16. A 500-W hot plate adds 250 kJ of energy to a occurs—all of them spin a little slower.
container of water while heating for Discuss possible solutions and explain how
10 min. How efficient is this heating they would correct the problem.
process?
27. You receive a nasty shock from a kettle with
17. Use the example of a gasoline-powered car a frayed cord, and your arm temporarily
to explain the concepts of input energy, feels numb. Is this numb feeling caused by
output energy, and efficiency. current or voltage? Explain.
18. Describe three methods for reducing the
amount of energy wasted in the home.
4.0 28. Does a decision to conserve a resource mean
that the resource now becomes sustainable?
19. Could a thermal generating plant be effective Explain.
without a turbine? Explain. 29. Does it make any sense to spend more
20. What is meant by a “non-thermal” method money for a more efficient appliance?
of generating electricity? Describe an Explain.
example of such a method. 30. Thinking that a loose electrical cable has
21. Discuss the positive and negative aspects of been turned off, a construction worker tries
generating electricity with coal, nuclear to move it. The voltage contracts the
power, and wind power. worker’s muscles, so they cannot let go of
the wire. A wooden pole and a copper pipe
22. Describe the difference between renewable
are nearby. Could you use either of them to
and nonrenewable energy sources. Give two
nudge the victim away from the live wire?
examples of each.
Explain.
23. If current world oil reserves will last longer
than your lifetime, why should you bother
to conserve energy?
364 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies Project

Practise Your Skills Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
31. This graph shows the relationship between On
voltage and current that emerged in tests for
In this unit, you have investigated science and
a particular resistor. Does this resistor work
technology related to electrical principles and
according to Ohm’s law? Explain.
technologies. Consider the following questions.
36. Reread the three questions on page 273
about science and technology related to
electrical principles and technologies. Use a
creative way to show your understanding of
current
one of these questions.
37. Describe an example of how an advance in
science led to the development of a useful
new technology.
voltage 38. Describe how the development of electrical
technologies affects and is affected by the
32. Construct a graph similar to the one above. environment.
Draw two lines that would represent the
relationship between current and voltage for
two resistors of different values. Write a
short summary statement explaining the
lines you have drawn.
Self Assessment
33. List two questions about elecctricity-related
issues that you’d like to explore further.
34. How could you improve the results of your
work in the problem solving and inquiry
activities you did in this unit?
35. How could you improve your work in group
situations?
Unit Review 365

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UNIT

1.0 Electrical energy can be transferred and stored.

2.0 Technologies can be used to transfer and control electrical

3.0 Devices and systems convert energy with varying efficiencies.

272 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

274 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 275

unlike charges attract The Laws of Electrical Charges

276 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Applying and Connecting

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 277

CHECK AND REFLECT

Connect Your Understanding

Extend Your Understanding

278 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 279

280 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Figure 1.8 It’s important to connect a voltmeter properly.

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 281

282 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Figure 1.11 A voltage reading

CHECK AND REFLECT

Connect Your Understanding

Extend Your Understanding

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 283

THE DANGERS OF ELECTRICAL SHOCK

284 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

PROTECTING YOURSELF FROM ELECTRICAL SHOCK

ELECTRICAL SAFETY POINTERS

PLUGS, FUSES, AND BREAKERS

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 285

Figure 1.17 Set up your circuit like this one.

286 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Figure 1.18 The metal lightning rod on the

CHECK AND REFLECT

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 287

Figure 1.19 A pacemaker is

288 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Figure 1.21 A simple wet cell

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 289

FRUIT CELLS Materials & Equipment

290 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Analyzing and Interpreting

Applying and Connecting

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 291

Other scientists had earlier used smaller batteries to split molecules

292 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Figure 1.26 These PVC pipes

object to metal that

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 293

CHECK AND REFLECT

Connect Your Understanding

Extend Your Understanding

294 Unit D: Electrical Principles and Technologies

Connect Your Understanding

Extend Your Understanding

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Electrical Energy Can Be Transferred and Stored 295