Ryerson University

Department of Civil Engineering

CV 8314 : Analysis, Design and Construction of Tall Buildings

Week 2

Loading on Tall Building

Loading calculation/combinations
Code comparison
Wind load Analysis
Wind and its effects on Tall Building
Wind/cyclone induced damage and prevention
Wind tunnel modeling
Pedestrian wind studies: Motion perception
UBC and ASCE 7-02 based wind analysis of tall building
Wind induced drift and acceleration in tall building and Human comfort

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng

Loading for Tall Building

• Gravity Loading
– Comparison of Live Load Magnitudes
– Methods of Live Load Reduction
– Impact Gravity Loading

• Construction Loading

• Wind Loading
– Simple Static Approach
– Dynamic Methods

• Seismic Loading
– Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
– Modal Analysis Procedure
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 2

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 Loading for Tall Building
Effect of loads in a tall building is very different from a low-rise
building.
• Gravity loads
– Accumulation of gravity loads over a large number of stories
produces very high column and shear wall loads.
– Maximum gravity loads can be approximated from previous
buildings.
• Wind loads
– Wind loads act over large building surfaces with much higher
intensities and with a longer moment arm about the base.
– Wind loads are random, difficult to measure and even more
difficult to predict.
• Seismic loads
– In seismic zones, the inertial loads due to earthquake
derived from ground shaking may exceed wind loads.
– Therefore, inertial loading has dominant influence upon the
building’s shape and K.M. cost.
Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 3

Loading for Tall Building

• Probabilistic theory has helped to rationalize
approaches to estimating wind & seismic loading.
• There are a variety of approaches to the
estimation of loading in different Codes of
Practice, and most are empirical.
• Codes are hard to compare with each other
because their rational basis differ, primarily due to
local experiences.
• Take for example: UBC,ACI,ASCE, IBC, NBCC,
OBC, Eurocode etc.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 4

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 Loading calculation/determination
• Dead load is calculated from designed member
sizes that generates only minor inaccuracies.
• Live load is specified as a uniformly distributed
load, according to the use of the space.
– Magnitudes of live load specified in the Codes (UBC,
FBC,ACI, NBCC) are estimates based on a
combination of experience and the results of field
surveys.
– The differences between live load magnitudes in the
Codes of different countries indicate a lack of
consistency sufficient to raise raise questions about
their accuracy.
• Live load reductions may be allowed to account
for the improbability of total loading being
applied simultaneously over larger areas.
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 5

Loading calculation/determination
• Dead load calculation
– Dead loads are calculated via the tributary areas to the supporting
beams and slabs.
– Preliminary member sizes and the material unit weights are used to
estimate dead load. Later, actual sizes and unit weights are used to
provide accurate loads during refined design process.
• Live load Calculation
– Live loads are assumptions - intensities are chosen with the intended
use in mind, such as offices, residential, corridors, garages, etc.
– Different codes show a lack of uniformity - an indication of lack of
accuracy of Codes. Some consider these intensities as conservative
whereas others pointed out that some intensities are underestimating
the real values.
Impact load Calculation
– Impact loading as a gravity live load is assumed to impose a load -
2 x of the static load at point of application (from mechanics of
materials theory).
– For example, an elevator accelerating upwards or brought to rest on
its way down will impose impact load on cable support & system.
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 6

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Impact load Calculation: NBCC, OBC : Impact load factor

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 7

Typical Live Load Comparison (Codes)

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 8

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 NBCC and
OBC Live load

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 9

Live load calculation methods

• The rationale behind live load reduction:
– although at some time a small area may be subjected
to full intensity of live load, it is improbable that the
whole area will be subjected simultaneously to the full
live load.
• It is reasonable to design the girders and columns
supporting a large area for less than the full live load.
• Different methods of live load reduction allow for the
girders, columns, and walls to be designed for a reduced
proportion of the live load.
– An upper limit is usually placed on the reduction in
order to retain an adequate margin of safety.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 10

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 Live load calculation methods
• Simple percentages may
be specified for the
reductions
• For example, the
supporting members may
be designed for:
– 100% of the live load on
the roof,
– 85% of that on the top
floor, and
– further reductions of 5% for
each successive floor
down to a minimum of 50%
of the live load.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 11

Live load reduction

• A tributary area formula may More sophisticated formula may
be given, allowing a more define the maximum reduction in
refined definition of the terms of the dead-to-live load ratio.
reduction, with the limit built
into the formula. For example, it may be specified that
• For example, the supporting the maximum percentage reduction
members may be designed for shall not exceed: 100( D + L)
a live load equal to the basic 4.33L
live load multiplied by a factor,
10 where D and L are intensities of dead
0.3 + load and live load, respectively.
A
where A is the accumulated This particular limit is intended to
area in square feet ensure that if the full live load should
occur over the full tributary area, the
element would not be be stressed to
the yield point.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 12

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 Live load reduction (NBCC and OBC)

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 13

Construction Loads
• Construction loads are often the
most severe loads that a building
has to withstand during its life-
cycle.
• More failures occur in buildings
under construction than that are
complete.
• Typically, the construction load to
be supported is the weight of the
floor forms and a newly placed
slab, which in total may equal twice
the floor dead load.
• Climbing cranes are another form
of construction loads.
• Some countries or states have
recognized the construction
sequence dangers, and require
high rise projects to use a special This formwork collapse lead to the
structural engineer, called a destruction of one bay of the Westin Hotel
“threshold inspector”, to supervise slab in Charlotte, NC during construction
and approve the construction (13 Aug 2001).
process till the structure is finished.
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 14

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 Load Combinations and the factors
AISC’’s Manual of Steel Construction (Third Edition) provides the
following load combinations: choose the one that provides the
largest loads:

• 1.4 D
• 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
• 1.2 D + 1.6 L (1.2 D + 1.6 L (Lr or S or R) + (0.5 L or 0.8 W)
• 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 L + 0.5 ( (Lr or S or R)
• 1.2 D ±1.0 E + 0.5 L + 0.2 S
• 0.9 D ± (1.6 W or 1.0 E)

Flexure without axial load = 0.90

Axial tension and axial tension with flexure = 0.90
Axial compression with flexure (with spiral reinforcement) = 0.75
Axial compression with flexure (with ties) = 0.70
Shear and torsion = 0.85
Compression buckling = 0.85
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 15

AISC Load Combinations and the factors

Example: The axial forces on a building column from the code-specified
loads have been calculated as 200 kips of dead load, 150 kips
(reduced) floor live load, 25 kips from the roof (Lr or S or R), 100 kips
from wind, and 40 kips from earthquake. Determine the required
strength of the column.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 16

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 NBCC load combinations

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 17

Wind loading
• Wind load affects the design of buildings 10 stories and
higher.
• Increased understanding of gust forces and their dynamic
interaction with high-rise has lead to several methods of
analysis:
– The Uniform Building Code is a Static method that assumes the
building to be a fixed rigid body in the wind. This method is
appropriate for mid-sized buildings, that are not particularly slender
nor susceptible to vibrations under high winds.
– ASCE-7 (Static method): also known as “Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures”. This method differentiates
between the building as a whole and the individual structural
components and cladding.
– Dynamic Method: used for very tall buildings (greater than 400 feet,
or 120 m), or slender (H/D > 5), or highly susceptible to vibrations
under wind loads (sensitive to wind-excited oscillations).
– Wind tunnel experimental method

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 18

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 Wind loading

• Hundreds of windows were

blown out at the JPMorgan
Chase Tower in Houston, the
tallest building in Texas
(Hurricane IKE, Sept, 2008)

Wind Effects on Cladding

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 19

The Static Approach: UBC Method

• UBC method reduces all the dynamics into an equivalent
“static” loading, taking into account the effects of
gusting/extreme local pressures over the faces of the
building, the effects of location and the importance of the
building to the community.
• The design wind pressure “p” is obtained from formula:
p = Ce Cq qs I where
Ce a coefficient that accounts for the combined effects of
height, exposure and gusting;
Cq a coefficient that allowing for higher pressures for wall
and roof elements; for example, Cq has a value of 1.4
when using the projected area method of calculating
the wind loading for structures over 40 ft in height,
whereas it has a local value of 2.0 at wall corners.
qs wind stagnation pressure for a minimum basic 50-year
wind speed at a height of 30 ft above ground, as given
for different regions of the United States in a wind
speed contour map.
I importance factor taken as 1.15 for post-disaster
buildings K.M.
andAnwar
1.00 for all
Hossain, PhD,other
PEng, buildings.
Ryerson University 20

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Calculation of qs: wind stagnation pressure

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 21

NBCC and OBC procedure for Wind pressure

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 22

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 NBCC and OBC procedure for Wind pressure

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 23

Wind Tunnel Experimental Method

• Building models are constructed to scales from 1/100 to

1/1000 depending on the size of building and wind
tunnel, with 1/400 being the most common.
• Tall buildings exhibit a combination of shear and bending
behaviour which represented by a rigid model with a
flexurally sprung base.
• It is not necessary for the model to represent the
distribution of mass in the building, but only its moment
of inertia about the base.
• Wind pressure measurements are made by flush surface
pressure taps on the faces of the models, and pressure
transducers are used to obtain the localized pressures
on the cladding.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 24

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 Wind Tunnel Tests Objectives
• Determine the design lateral loads.
• Predict the response of the building under the influence of wind loading.
• Establish the boundary layer profile and turbulence intensities.
• Find the intensity and duration of extreme winds.
• Find the influence upon and from nearby existing and proposed buildings.
• Find the drag, vortex shedding and wind separation from the building surface.
• Find the building’s dynamic response.
• Find the loads on cladding and glass.
• Find the near-zone effects (that is, the stability of vehicles and pedestrians).
• Establish what is the motion tolerance (occupant’s discomfort).
• Determine the buffeting created to downstream structures.
• Determine the possible damage to structures from flying gravel.
• Determine the increase potential of moisture penetration.
• Determine the effect of snow accumulation.
• Determine the effect upon the structure from pollution.
• Find the most favorable shape that minimizes:
– The intensity and scale of the pressure fluctuations on exterior panels and glass.
– The floor-by-floor shear forces.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 25

Wind tunnel test models

• Three basic types of wind-tunnel test
models are commonly used:
– Rigid pressure model (PM)
– Rigid high-frequency base balance model (H-
FBBM)
– Aero-elastic model (AM)

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 26

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 Wind tunnel test models
Rigid pressure model (PM)
• Primary purpose is to obtain cladding design pressures, the test
data can be used to get floor by floor shear in main wind-force-
resisting frame (WFRF).
• Models can be made of plexiglass, Lucite, perspex etc with scale
of 1:300 and 1:500 range.

Model of a 600 m tall building tested to determine wind loadings at different parts
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
of the structure, resonance andUniversity
Ryerson the effects upon its surroundings 27

Wind Tunnel Tests

• At left is a rigid model of the scaled buildings surrounding the

pressure model (between the engineers). Notice the round table that
supports the cluster. It is used to rotate the models in order to study
different angles of incidence for the wind. At right is a close-up of the
model with many pressure ports visible on each surface (Rowan,
Williams, Davis and Irwin, Inc.).
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 28

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 Wind tunnel test models
Aero-elastic model (AM)
• Rigid: to determine a more accurate design wind load and to
predict building oscillations to get an idea of the degree of
occupant sensitivity to building motions. Aero-elastic model
mounted on gimbals and on flexible steel can be used where
damping is simulated by using dashpots.
• Flexible Model: to simulate the multimode behavior of
complex shape flexible building by using model with several
lumped masses interconnected with elastic columns.
• Both rigid and flexible model predicts building acceleration
and human comfort. In wind-tunnel tests, accelerations are
measured directly by accelerometers. Maximum acceleration
in upper floors should not exceed 2% of g for a 10-year return
period storm. Peak acceleration is predicted by:

ax, ay, az are predicted from wind tunnel test.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 29

Rigid aero-
aero-elastic models

Gimbal model Flexible steel bar Simulating torsion

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 30

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 Wind Tunnel Tests

• At left is shown a rigid aero-elastic model from RWDI, and to the right of it is
the diagram showing the gimbal assembly below the table to rotate the
model. A typical scale for these models is 1:400 for a 50-story building. The
model is rotated and measured at 10°to 20°angle intervals, and may have
500 to 800 tiny pressure taps. The results of these pressure measurements
is shown as isobars the extreme right figure, which is also shown as the
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
block pressure diagram. Ryerson University 31

Wind tunnel test models

• High-Frequency Base Force Balance Model (H-FBBM)
– provides an alternative, economical and time-efficient
method of for aero-elastic models.
– Two basic types:
• Flexible support model: the outer shell of the model is connected
to a flexible metal cantilever bar. Accelerometers and strain
gauges are fitted into the model, and the aerodynamic forces are
derived from the acceleration and strain measurements.
• Force balance model: a simple foam model of the building is
mounted on a five-component, high-sensitivity force balance that
measures bending moments and shear forces in two orthogonal
directions and torsion about a vertical axis.
• floor-by-floor lateral loads and the expected acceleration at top
floors are deduced from the test results

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 32

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 Wind tunnel test models

Flexible aero-elastic H-FBBM flexible model H-FBBM force balance

model model
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 33

Pedestrian wind studies: Motion perception

• A sheet of air moving over

the earth's surface is
reluctant to rise when it
meets an obstacle such as a
tall building. If the topography
is suitable, it prefers to flow
around the building rather
than over it.
• Wind driven in two directions
(deflecting upward and
spiraling to the ground)
creates a so-called standing
vortex or mini tornado at
sidewalk level.

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 34

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Pedestrian wind studies: Motion perception

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 35

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 36

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 Pedestrian wind studies: Motion perception
• Pedestrians who walk
past tall, smooth-
skinned skyscrapers
are subjected to “Mary
poppins syndrone”,
referring to the
tendency of the wind to
lift the pedestrian
literally off his or her
feet.
• Another effect, known
as the “Marilyn
Monroe effect” refers
to the billowing action of
women's skirts in the
turbulence of wind
around and in the Marilyn Monroe effect
vicinity of a building.
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 37

Pedestrian wind studies: Motion perception

• Model studies can provide reliable estimates of

pedestrian-level wind conditions based on
considerations of both safety and comfort.
• From pedestrian-level wind speed measurements
taken at specific locations of the model,
acceptance criteria can be established.
• For example, the occurrence once a week of a
mean speed of 15 mph (6.1 m/s) is considered
acceptable for walking during the summer,
whereas only 10 mph (4.47 m/s) is considered
acceptable during winter months.
K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,
Ryerson University 38

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 Wind Tunnel Laboratories in North America.

• Cermak, Peterka and Peterson (CPP Wind).1415 Blue Spruce Drive

#3, Fort Collins, Colorado 80524Attention: Mr. Leighton Cochran.
Telephone 970-221-3371 / www.cppwind.com

• Rowan, Williams, Davis and Irwin, Inc. (RWDI).650 Woodlawn Road

West, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1K 1B8.Attention: Dr. Peter Irwin.
Telephone 519-823-1311 / www.rwdi.com

• Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory.University of Western

Ontario, Faculty of Engineering, London, Ontario, Canada N6A
5B9.Attention: Mr. Erik Ito. Telephone: 519-661-3338 /
www.blwtl.uwo.ca

K.M. Anwar Hossain, PhD, PEng,

Ryerson University 39

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