iirs

SAR Remote Sensing

(Microwave Remote Sensing)
“Synthetic Aperture Radar”

Shashi Kumar
[email protected]
LISS-4 (Linear Imaging Self- RISAT-1 (Radar Imaging
Scanning Sensor-4 Satellite 1)

Doon Valley
 Microwaves and optical data are fundamentally different
oMicrowaves are primarily sensitive to structure and water content
oOptical data are reflectance spectra obtained from sunlight and is primarily
sensitive to the illumination characteristics and molecular components of the
region being imaged.
IRS-R2 LISSIV

RISAT-1, FRS-1
 SAHARA REGION WAS
NOT ALWAYS THE DRY
DESERT IT IS TODAY
Figure shows a rather dramatic case
of how the early SIR-A radar,
operating at the L-band, was able to
peer underneath the sand of the
Sahara to reveal previously
unmapped drainage channels from
an earlier, wetter geologic era. This
vegetation and surface penetration
capability has been applied in the
field of archeology as well.
https://www.nap.edu/read/21729/chapter/6#86
,http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/history/index_timeline.htm.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation
consists of an electrical field(E)
which varies in magnitude in a
direction perpendicular to the
direction in which the radiation
is traveling, and a magnetic
field (M) oriented at right
angles to the electrical field.
Both these fields travel at the
speed of light (c).
 Wavelength and Frequency

The wavelength is the length of one wave

cycle, which can be measured as the
distance between successive wave crests.
Wavelength is usually represented by the
Greek letter lambda (λ).
Wavelength and frequency are related by
the following formula:
Microwave Bands
Radar Bands Commonly Used For Sensing
BAND WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY
(cm) GHz (109 Cycles/sec)

Ka 0.75 - 1.1 26.5 - 40

K 1.1 - 1.67 18 - 26.5
Ku 1.67 - 2.4 12.5 - 18
X 2.4 - 3.8 8 - 12.5
C 3.8 - 7.5 4-8
S 7.5 - 15 2-4
L 15 - 30 1-2
P 30 - 100 0.3 - 1
 Microwave Sensors
Passive microwave sensor:- A passive microwave sensor detects the
naturally emitted microwave energy within its field of view. This
emitted energy is related to the temperature and moisture properties
of the emitting object or surface. Passive microwave sensors are
typically radiometers .
Applications of passive microwave remote sensing include
meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography.
The microwave energy recorded by a passive sensor can be emitted
by the atmosphere (1), reflected from the surface (2), emitted from
the surface (3), or transmitted from the subsurface (4).
 Active Microwave Sensors
Active microwave sensors provide their own source of
microwave radiation to illuminate the target. Active microwave
sensors are generally divided into two distinct categories:
imaging and non-imaging.
The most common form of imaging active microwave sensors is
RADAR. RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And
Ranging.
The sensor transmits a microwave (radio) signal towards the
target and detects the backscattered portion of the signal.
 contd

Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and

scatterometers. In most cases these are profiling devices which
take measurements in one linear dimension, as opposed to the
two-dimensional representation of imaging sensors.
Radar altimetry is used on aircraft for altitude determination and
on aircraft and satellites for topographic mapping and sea
surface height estimation.
Scatterometers are also generally non-imaging sensors and are
used to make precise quantitative measurements of the amount
of energy backscattered from targets.
SAR Versus Other Earth Observation Instruments
 SAR Satellites
RISAT-1: April 2012: C-band
Radarsat 1: 1995: C-band
Radarsat 2: 2007: C-band (Quad-pol)
ERS 1: 1991-2000 :C-band
ERS 2: 1995 :C-band
JERS : 1992-98 : L-band
ENVISAT: 2002: C-band
ALOS: 2006: L-band (Quad-pol)
TerraSAR-X: 2007: X-band (Quad-pol)
TanDEM-X: 2010: X-band (Quad-pol)
Sentinel-1A: 2014: C-band
Sentinel-1B: 2016: C-band
RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM): 2019: C-band
COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS SAR BANDS
Wavelengt
Band Frequency Spaceborne SAR Systems Typical Applications/Strengths
h (cm)
High penetration, detection of targets concealed
43.2-438 by foliage or camouflage, buried object,
P-band 68.5-69.4 BIOMASS
MHz archaeological, estimates of biomass, map forest
disturbances.
SEASAT, JERS-1, ALOS Good penetration, land
1215-
PALSAR, ALOS-2 PALSAR- applications – forestry,
L-band 1300 23.1-24.7
2, SAOCOM-1A/1B, NISAR- environmental monitoring,
MHz
L, Tandem-L agriculture, geology, hydrology.
ALMAZ-1, HJ-1c, Ship detection, ice mapping, oil
3.1-3.3 KONDOR-E, NovaSAR-1, spill detection, flood mapping,
S-band 9.1-9.7
GHz NISAR-S forestry mapping, crop
classification.
ERS-1/2, Envisat ASAR, Sensitive to ocean features, ship
5.25-5.57
C-band 5.4-5.7 Radarsat-1/2, RCM, RISAT- detection sea ice surveillance, oil
GHz
1/1-A, Sentinel 1A/B spill monitoring.
TerraSAR-X/TanDEM-X,
Sensitive to surface roughness,
COSMO-SkyMed, IGS-
9.5-9.8 high resolution applications,
X-band 3.1-3.2 1B/3B, TecSAR, RISAT-2,
GHz topographic mapping, flood
PAZ, KOMPSAT-5, SAR-
mapping.
Lupe, ICEYE constellation
Source: https://research.csiro.au/cceo/novasar/novasar-introduction/satellite-specifications-capabilities/sar-overview/
 Indian SAR Earth Observation Satellites
Sensor Operation Band
RISAT-2 April 20, 2009 X-Band,
RISAT-1 April 26, 2012 C-Band, Hybrid/Dual
RISAT-2B May 22, 2019 X-Band
RISAT-2BR1 Dec 11, 2019 X-Band
RISAT-1A Launch scheduled C-Band, Hybrid Polarimetry
(*Source:http://database.eohandbook.com/database/missionsummary.aspx?missionID=712,
in 2020* Date: 23.01.2020, The CEOS Database)

NISAR Launch scheduled L-band & S-band

(*Source:http://database.eohandbook.com/database/missionsummary.asp
NASA-ISRO SAR in 2022* x?missionID=642, Date: 23.01.2020, The CEOS Database)

Mission
 Band
Sensor Operation (Polarization) Comments Institution, Country

First civilian SAR satellite, operation for

Seasat 1978 L (HH) only ca. three months NASA/JPL, USA
1991–2000/ European Remote Sensing Satellites(first
ERS-1/2 1995–2011 C (VV) European SAR satellites) ESA, Europe

Japanese Earth Resource Satellite (first

J-ERS-1 1992–1998 L (HH) Japanese SAR satellite) JAXA, Japan
Shuttle imaging radar mission, NASA/JPL, USA,DLR,
April and L & C (quad) first demonstration of spaceborne Germany
SIR-C/ X-SAR October 1994 X (VV) multi-frequency SAR ASI, Italy
First Canadian SAR satellite, swath width
of up to 500 km with ScanSar imaging
Radarsat-1 1995–today C (HH) mode CSA, Canada
C (HH+VV) and X Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, first NASA/JPL, USA, DLR,
SRTM Feb. 2000 (VV) spaceborne interferometric SAR Germany, ASI, Italy
 Band Institution,
Sensor Operation (Polarization) Comments Country
ENVISAT/ First SAR satellite with Transmit/Receive module
ASAR 2002–2012 C (dual) technology, swath width up to 400 km ESA, Europe
ALOS/ Advanced Land Observing Satellite (Daichi),
PALSAR 2006–2011 L (quad) swath width up to 360 km JAXA, Japan
TerraSar-X/ 2007–today First bi-static radar in space, resolution up to 1 m, DLR/Astrium,
TanDem-X 2010–today X (quad) global topography available by end of 2014 Germany
Resolution up to: 1 m # 3 m (azimuth # range),
Radarsat-2 2007–today C (quad) swath width up to 500 km CSA, Canada
COSMO- 2007– 2010– Constellation of four satellites, up to 1 m
SkyMed-1/4 today X (dual) resolution ASI/MiD, Italy
Follow-on satellite (Risat-1a) to be launched in
RISAT-1 2012–today C (quad) 2016, RISAT-3 (L-band) in development ISRO, India

Constellation of four satellites, first satellite CRESDA/CAST/

HJ-1C 2012–today S (VV) launched in 2012 NRSCC, China
 Band Institution,
Sensor Operation (Polarization) Comments Country
Korea Multi-Purpose Satellite 5,
Kompsat-5 2013 X (dual) resolution up to 1 m KARI, Korea
Constellation with TerraSar-X and
PAZ 2018 X (quad) TanDem-X planned CDTI, Spain
Resolution up to: 1 m # 3 m
(azimuth # range), swath width up to
ALOS-2 2014 L (quad) 490 km JAXA, Japan
Constellation of two satellites, swath
Sentinel-1a/1b 2014/2016 C (dual) width up to 400 km ESA, Europe
Radarsat
Constella- tion- Constellation of three satellites,
1/2/3 2019 C (quad) swath width up to 500 km CSA, Canada
Constellation of two satellites, fully CONAE,
Saocom-1/2 2018/2020 L (quad) polarimetric Argentina
 Radar Geometry
The incidence angle is the
angle between the radar pulse
of EMR and a line
perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface where it makes
contact. When the terrain is
flat, the incidence angle is the
complement ( 90 - γ) of the
depression angle (γ).
Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource
Perspective, 2nd Edition
John R. Jensen; Pearson
 Contd…

Van Zyl, J.
and Kim, Y.
2010
Incidence Angle and Local Incidence Angle
Synthetic Aperture Radar
Ground Swath Width

φi= Mean Incidencenc Angle

 SAR Resolution

•Azimuth Resolution- Azimuth resolution describes the

ability of an imaging radar to separate two closely
spaced scatterers in the direction parallel to the motion
vector of the sensor.
•Range Resolution- For the radar to be able to distinguish
two closely spaced elements, their echoes must
necessarily be received at different times.
Azimuth and Range Resolution
 Range Resolution

Range resolution is the minimum range difference for which two point
targets are recognized as two, rather than being grouped together as
one target.
A well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum
efficiency, should be able to distinguish targets separated by one-half
the pulse width time τ.

http://www.radartutorial.eu/01.basics/rb18.en.html
Contd…
 Slant Range / Ground Range

The figure shows two types of

radar data display:
- slant range image, in which
distances are measured
between the antenna and the
target.
- ground range image, in
which distances are measured
between the platform ground
track and the target,
 SAR DATA
SAR data consist of high-
resolution reflected returns of
radar-frequency energy from
terrain that has been illuminated
by a directed beam of pulses
generated by the sensor. The
radar returns from the terrain are
mainly determined by the
physical characteristics of the
surface features (such as surface
roughness, geometric structure,
and orientation), the electrical
characteristics (dielectric
constant, moisture content, and
conductivity), and the radar
frequency of the sensor.
TerraSAR-x Vishakhapattanam
 Radar Polarisation
• Un-polarized energy vibrates in all possible directions
perpendicular to the direction of travel.
• Radar antennas send and receive polarized energy. This
means that the pulse of energy is filtered so that its
electrical wave vibrations are only in a single plane that is
perpendicular to the direction of travel. The pulse of
electromagnetic energy sent out by the antenna may be
vertically or horizontally polarized.
Polarisations
 SAR Modes
Stripmap Spotlight Scan Mode
 Geometric Distortions in RADAR
Foreshortening
When the radar beam reaches the
base of a tall feature tilted towards
the radar (e.g. a mountain) before it
reaches the top foreshortening will
occur. the slope (A to B) will
appear compressed and the length
of the slope will be represented
incorrectly (A' to B').
 CONTD…

The figure shows a

radar image of steep
mountainous terrain
with severe
foreshortening effects.
The foreshortened
slopes appear as bright
features on the image.
 Layover
Layover occurs when the radar
beam reaches the top of a tall feature
(B) before it reaches the base (A). The
return signal from the top of the feature
will be received before the signal from
the bottom. As a result, the top of the
feature is displaced towards the radar
from its true position on the ground,
and "lays over" the base of the feature
(B‘ to A')
 CONTD…

Layover effects on a
radar image look very
similar to effects due to
foreshortening. Layover
displacement is greatest
at short range, where the
look angle is smaller.
 Shadow

• Both foreshortening and layover

result in radar shadow. Radar
shadow occurs when the radar
beam is not able to illuminate the
ground surface. Shadows occur in
the down range dimension (i.e.
towards the far range), behind
vertical features or slopes with
steep sides.
 CONTD…

Radar shadow effects

 Measurement of Object Height
Shadows
The simplest method of measuring object height is to
observe the length, L,of the shadow of the object by the
SAR and calculate the object height from the known SAR
altitude, H and ground range, R,:
Specular Versus Diffuse Reflectance
 Surface roughness
There is a relationship between the wavelength of the radar (λ),
the depression angle (γ), and the local height of objects (h in
cm) found within the resolution cell being illuminated by
microwave energy. It is called the modified Rayleigh criteria
and can be used to predict what the earth's surface will look
like in a radar image if we know the surface roughness
characteristics and the radar system parameters (λ, γ, h)
mentioned.
 Smooth and Rough “Rayleigh Criteria”
The area with smooth surface roughness sends back very little
backscatter toward the antenna, i.e. it acts like a specular reflecting
surface where most of the energy bounces off the terrain away from the
antenna. The small amount of back-scattered energy returned to the
antenna is recorded and shows up as a dark area on the radar image.
The quantitative expression of the smooth criteria is:
 Smooth and Rough “Rayleigh Criteria”
The area with smooth surface roughness sends back very little backscatter toward
the antenna, i.e. it acts like a specular reflecting surface where most of the energy
bounces off the terrain away from the antenna. The small amount of back-scattered
energy returned to the antenna is recorded and shows up as a dark area on the radar
image. The quantitative expression of the smooth criteria is:

A bright return is expected if the modified

Rayleigh rough criteria are used:
Peake and Oliver's modified Rayleigh criterion
Radar Backscatter and Incidence Angle
 Local Incidence Angle

http://www.unescap.org/idd/events/2012-Application-of-space-technology-to-enhance-the-activities-of-TC/Basic-Principle-of-Synthetic-Aperture-Radar-Eisuke-Koisumi.pdf
Radar Return as a Function of
Geometric Properties of Object
 Interaction of EM Wave with Soil

• Dry Soil: Some of the incident radar energy is able

to penetrate into the soil surface, resulting in less
backscattered intensity.

• Wet Soil: The large difference in electrical properties

between water and air results in higher backscattered
radar intensity.

• Flooded Soil: Radar is specularly reflected off the

water surface, resulting in low backscattered intensity.
The flooded area appears dark in the SAR image.
http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/~research/tutorial/sar_int.htm
 Volume Scattering

• Volume scattering is related to multiple scattering processes within a

medium, such as the vegetation canopy of a corn field or a forest.
• The intensity of volume scattering depends on the physical properties
of the volume (variations in dielectric constant, in particular) and the
characteristics of the radar (wavelength, polarization and incident
angle
Response of a Pine Forest Stand To X-, C- and L-
band Microwave Energy
 Complex SAR Image
SAR image pixel is associated
with a small area of the Earth’s
surface (called a resolution
cell). Each pixel gives a
complex number that carries
amplitude and phase
information about the
microwave field backscattered
by all the scatterers (rocks,
vegetation, buildings etc.)
within the corresponding
resolution cell projected on the
ground.
(0.587161,-0.356258)
RADARSAT-2 SLC data for San Francisco area (HH Channel)
 Speckle

A SAR resolution cell generally contains a large number of scatterers and

in comparison to the wavelength this resolution cell appears very large.
The returned echo from scatterers is coherently summed to obtain the
phase and brightness of the resolution cell. Sometimes due to a very
strong reflector at a particular alignment or due to the coherent sum of all
the various responses (due to large number of scattereres), the resolution
cell shows a brightness value which is much higher than the actual
brightness caused by the object. This unexpected bright value of
resolution cell appears as speckle on SAR image.
 SAR Data Format

• Raw Data
• SLC Data
• Multi-look Data
• Geocoded Data
• Polarimetric Data
 Books on Microwave Remote Sensing
•F.T. Ulaby, R.K. Moore and A.K. Fung, Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive,
Volume 1 Microwave Remote Sensing and Fundamentals, Addison- Wesley, Reading Mass.,
1981.
•F.T. Ulaby, R.K. Moore and A.K. Fung, Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive,
Volume 2 Radar Remote Sensing and Surface Scattering and Emission Theory, Addison-Wesley,
Reading Mass., 1982.
•F.T. Ulaby, R.K. Moore and A.K. Fung, Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive,
Volume 3 Volume Scattering and Emission Theory, Advanced Systems and Applications,
Addison-Wesley, Reading Mass., 1986.
•F.T. Ulaby and C. Elachi Radar Polarimetry for Geoscience Applications, Artech House,
Norwood Mass., 1990.
•Roger J. Sullivan Radar foundations for imaging and advanced concepts SciTech Publishing
Inc. 2004.
 CONTD…

•I.H. Woodhouse, Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing, Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton,
Florida, 2006.
•F.M. Henderson and A.J. Lewis (Eds), Principles and Applications of Imaging Radar, Manual of
Remote Sensing, 3rd ed, Volume 2, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1998.
•D. Massonnet and J-C Souyris, Imaging with Synthetic Aperture Radar, EPFL Taylor and
Francis, Boca Raton, Florida, 2008.
•H. Mott, Remote Sensing with Polarimetric Radar, IEEE Press John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken,
N.J., 2007.
•M.I. Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 2001.
•G.T. Ruck, D.E. Barrick, W.D. Stuart and C.K. Krichbaum, Radar Cross Section Handbook,
Plenum, N.Y., 1970
•J-S Lee and E. Pottier, Polarimetric Radar Imaging: From Basics to Applications, CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, Florida, 2009.
•J.A. Richards, Remote Sensing with Imaging Radar, Signals and Communication Technology,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009
Thank You