Mathematics

Sets
Defining A Set – Elements Of A Set
A set is a group of items (in most cases) of the same kind. The items in a set are called the elements
or members of a set. A set is well-defined when all its members can be listed.
Examples of well-defined sets
1. A = the set of even numbers between 1 and 15
= {even numbers between 1 and 15}
= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
2. B = the set of multiples of 5 between 8 and 28
= {multiples of 5 between 8 and 28}
= {10, 15, 20, 25}
Note:
1. a set may be denoted by a capital letter (as shown above)
2. {} means ‘the set of’
Example of elements of a set
From example 1 above,
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
Therefore: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 are all elements of set A.
That is: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 Є A (Where the symbol Є means ‘is an element of’).
The number of elements in set A is 7.
That is, n(A) = 7
Where n(A) means ‘the number of elements in set A’.
 Defining A Set – Elements Of A Set
A set is a group of items (in most cases) of the same kind. The items in a set are called the elements
or members of a set. A set is well-defined when all its members can be listed.
Examples of well-defined sets
1. A = the set of even numbers between 1 and 15
= {even numbers between 1 and 15}
= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
2. B = the set of multiples of 5 between 8 and 28
= {multiples of 5 between 8 and 28}
= {10, 15, 20, 25}
Note:
1. a set may be denoted by a capital letter (as shown above)
2. {} means ‘the set of’
Example of elements of a set
From example 1 above,
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
Therefore: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 are all elements of set A.
That is: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 Є A (Where the symbol Є means ‘is an element of’).
The number of elements in set A is 7.
That is, n(A) = 7
Where n(A) means ‘the number of elements in set A’.
 Equal And Equivalent Sets

Two sets are equal if they both have the same members.
Example
If, F = {20, 60, 80}
And, G = {80, 60, 20}
Then, F=G, that is both sets are equal.
Note: The order in which the members of a set are written does not matter.
Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements.
Example
If, F = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
And, G = {10, 12, 18, 20, 22}
Then, n(F)= n(G)= 5, that is, sets F and G are equivalent.

. Empty Set
An empty set is a set which has no members.
Example
If, H = {the number of dinosaurs on earth}
Then, H is an empty set.
That is, H = {}
Note: An empty set is denoted by the symbol {}
 Subsets
A set N is a subset of a set X, if all the elements of N are contained in/members of the larger set X.
Example
If, X = {3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13}
And, N = {5, 11, 13}
Then, N is a subset of X.
That is, N ⊂ X (where ⊂ means ‘is a subset of’).
Number of Subsets
If, M = {a, b, c}
Then, the subsets of M are:
{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}, {}
Therefore, the number of subsets, S = 8
And the formula, S = 2n
Where,
S is the number of sets
And, n is the number of elements of the set
Is the formula used to calculate the number of subsets of a given set.
So from above, M = {a, b, c}
S = 2n
= 23
=2x2x2
=8
Note: Every set is a subset of itself, and the empty set is a subset of all sets.

Universal Set
This is the set from which all the elements being examined are members. The universal set is
denoted by the symbol U.
Example
Using set builder notation, where {x:..} means ‘the set of all x such that’,
If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6…}
Then U = {x: x≥ 0, x Є W}
That is, the universal set, U = W, the set of whole numbers.
 Complement
The complement of a set B, written B’, is the set of all the members of the universal set, which are not
elements of the set B.
Example
If, U = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
And, B = {5, 11, 17, 19}
Then, B’ = {3, 7, 9, 13, 15}
Where, B’ is “the complement of B”.
Example- Using Venn diagram
Sets are represented by a drawing called a Venn diagram, in which a rectangle is used to represent a
universal set, U, and circles inside the rectangle, used to represent subsets.

Using the example above, below is a Venn diagram showing B’.

 Intersection Of Sets

The intersection of two sets is the listing of elements that are in both sets.
The Venn diagram below shows A ∩ B, where ∩ means ‘intersect’.

Example
If, U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
B = {2, 10, 12, 14}

Then, A intersect B, A ∩ B = {10, 12}

Note: A ∩ B’ = {4, 6, 8} and, A’ ∩ B = {2, 14}
 Union Of Sets
The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements that are in A or B, or both. The Venn diagram
below shows A ⋃ B.

Example
If, U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
B = {2, 10, 12, 14}

Then, A union B, A ⋃ B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

Note:
(A ⋃ B)’ = {16}
And,
(A ⋃ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
A’ ⋃ B’ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 14, 16}
And,
A’ ⋃ B’ = (A ∩ B)’
 Number Of Elements In Named Subsets

When determining the number of elements in named subsets of two intersecting sets, given the
number of elements in some of the other subsets, it is wise to firstly:
- Decide what letters you will use to represent the subsets.
- List the given information of elements.
- Use a Venn diagram and or formulae to solve for the elements in question.
Example 1
In a class of 35 students, 25 studied Mathematics, 30 studied English Language and 20 students
studied both Mathematics and English language. Determine the number of students who studied:
(a) Mathematics only
(b) English Language only.
Let, M = {students who studied mathematics}
E = {students who studied English language)
Given information:
n(M) = 25
n(E) = 30
n(M ∩ E) = 20
From the given information, it can be deduced that,
n(U) = n(M ⋃ E) = 35
Using a Venn diagram:

Using Formulae:
(a) Number of students who studied Mathematics only
n(M ∩ E’) / n(M only) = n(M) – n(M ∩ E)
= 25 – 20
=5
(b)Number of students who studied English language only
n(M’ ∩ E) / n(E only) = n(E) – n(M ∩ E)
= 30 – 20
= 10
Example 2
At a youth club of 40 members, 25 like football, 20 like cricket and 5 like neither football nor cricket.
Determine the number of members who like:
(a) both football and cricket
(b) football only
(c) cricket only.
Let, F = {members who like football}
C = {members who like cricket}
Given information:
n(U) = 40
n(F) = 25
n(C) = 20
n(F ⋃ C)’ = 5
Let x represent the number of members who like both football and cricket, that is,
n(F ∩ C) = x
Then, the number of members who like football only is represented by,
n(F ∩ C’) = 25 –x
Also, the number of members who like cricket only is represented by,
n(C ∩ F’ ) = 20 –x
Using a Venn diagram:

Solving:
(a) Members who like both football and cricket
n(U) = 25 – x + x + 20 – x + 5
since n(U) = 40, then
40 = 25 – x + x + 20 – x + 5
40 = 25 + 20 + 5 –x + x – x
40 = 50 – x
x = 50 – 40
x = 10
that is, x= 10 members
(b) Members who like football only
n(F ∩ C’) = 25 –x members
= 25 – 10
= 15
(c) Members who like cricket only
n(F’ ∩ C) = 20 –x members
= 20 – 10
= 10
 Sets Quiz #1
Question 1
Describe the shaded region (lined region) in each Venn diagram below, using set notation only.
Example:

Solutions:
(a)        (A U B)’
This notation means, the compliment of A U B. In this case, compliment (‘) means everything outside
of the sets A and B.
(b)        A ∩ B
This notation means, A intersect B. That is the section that is common to both A and B.
Question 2
(a) Use the Venn diagram above to determine how many elements are in each of the following sets.
(i)         (A ∩ B)’                       (ii)        (A U B)’
(b) Determine which set notation is the same as:
(i)         (A ∩ B)’                       (ii)        (A U B)’
Solutions:
(a)        (i)         (A ∩ B)’ = 18 + 16 + 24
= 58
(ii)        (A U B)’ = 24
(b)        (i)         A’ U B’

Which is the same as (A ∩ B)’.

(ii)        A’ ∩ B’
A’ ∩ B’ above, is the same as (A U B)’.
Questions 3
A water park has 300 visitors on a certain day. Of that 300,
70 went on the ‘Jamaica Bobsled’ slide only
2x went on the ‘Lightning Bolt’ slide only
80 went on neither slide
x went on both slides
(i) Create a Venn diagram to illustrate the information.
(ii) Calculate the number of visitors who went on the ‘Lightning Bolt’ slide only.
Solutions:
(i)

(ii)
Question 4
A survey is conducted with 39 students, as to what activities they part-take in over the Christmas
Holidays. It was found that:
15 had Family dinners
18 went to parties
x did both
3x did neither
(i) Calculate the value of x.
Solution:
Relations, Functions and Graphs

Relations
The equation, y= 5x+2, is a relation. A relation is defined as a set of ordered pairs that abides to a
specific rule.
So with the equation, y= 5x+ 2, the specific rule that applies to it is:
When, x = 3
y = 5(3) + 2
y = 15 + 2
y = 17
That is the ordered pair in this case is, x =3 , y = 17 i.e. (3, 17)
Note: y = 5x+ 2 , is the same as, x → 5x+ 2
Where, x → 5x+ 2 reads ‘x is mapped to 5x+ 2’.
Relations can be showed using arrow diagrams. The following arrow diagram shows the relation
between, x and y values for the equation, y = 5x+ 2.

Note: The y values in the arrow diagram above, were obtained by substituting the respective x values
in the equation, y =5x + 2, for x.
 Functions
A function is a relation in which each member of the domain (this is the set of x values) is mapped to
only one member of the range (this is the set of y values), that is, a one to one mapping. A function is
also defined in terms of a many to one mapping; this is where more than one x values in a domain
are mapped to only one y value in a range.
Example of a One to One mapping
Using the equation, f(x) =5x + 2
Where, f(x) means ‘the function of x is 5x + 2’
And, y = f(x).

Recall the y values are obtained by substituting the domain values for x in the equation.
That is, when x = 1
y = 5(1) + 2
y=7
Example of a Many to One mapping
Using the equation, f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 2
Note: The x values are obtained by substituting the y values in the equation for f(x), that is, when y=
-1, x= -1.78 or 0.28.
 Relation Vs Function
The difference between a function and a relation is that for a function each domain value (x value)
should be matched to one and only one range value (y value), while for a relation the domain value
can be matched to more than one range value. This difference is shown using an arrow diagram
below, for the relation:
y = 2 ± √ x, for x = 4, 9, 16

Note:    The y values in the arrow diagram above, were obtained by substituting the respective x
values in the equation, y = 2 ± √ x, for x.
 Linear Functions
Linear functions are those of the form, f(x) = ax + c, where, a and c are integers, and linear means a
straight line.
Recall that, y = f(x)
Therefore,  y = ax + c
Where, y is the dependent variable
                                a is the coefficient of x
                                x is the independent variable
                                c is the constant term.
Note also that, y = mx + c, equation of a line
Therefore,          y = ax + c = mx + c
                 Where, m is the gradient of the line (ratio of the vertical rise over the horizontal run)
                                c is the point at which the line intercepts the y axis.
Having stated the form of linear functions, below is an example of how to draw linear functions.
Example
Draw the graph of the linear function, f(x) = 3x + 2, for the domain -2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Method 1
Substitute the values given for x in the domain (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2), in the function, solving for the
respective f(x)/ y values.
Given,                   f(x) = 3x + 2
Then,                    f(-2) = 3(-2) + 2 = -6 + 2 = -4
                                f(-1) = 3(-1) + 2 = -3 + 2 = -1
                                f(0) = 3(0) + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2
                                f(1) = 3(1) + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5
                                f(2) = 3(2) + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8
Therefore, the set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the linear function are:
 {(-2, -4), (-1, -1), (0, 2), (1, 5), (2, 8)}
Method 2
This method involves finding the x and y intercepts, that is the point at which the graph crosses the x
and y axis. A linear function written in its correct form, that is, f(x) = mx + c, states the y intercept, c
[in (x, y) form is (0, c)]. So, to find the x intercept, substitute 0 for y in the function and solve for x.
Given,                   f(x) = 3x + 2
Y intercept (point of intersection on the y axis) is, (0, 2)
X intercept (point of intersection on the x axis) is, y = f(x)
                                y = 3x + 2
                                0 = 3x +2              (substituting 0 for y)
                                3x = -2
                                x = -2/3 or -0.66
                That is, x intercept is (-0.66, 0)
Using the x and y intercepts, (-0.66, 0) and (0, 2), the graph is plotted below.
 Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions are those of the form, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
Where,                 a, b and c are all integers
And,      f(x) or y is the dependent variable
a is the coefficient of x2
b is the coefficient of x
c is the y intercept
x is the independent variable
Example
Draw the graph of the quadratic function, f(x) = x2 – 2x -3, for the domain -2 ≤ x ≤ 4.
Solution:
The set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the graph representing the quadratic
function, parabola (a smooth curve), are found by substituting the values given for x in the domain (-
2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3), in the function, solving for the respective f(x)/ y values.
Given,                   f(x) = x2 – 2x – 3
Then,                    f(-2) = (-2)2 – 2(-2) -3 = 4 + 4 – 3 = 5
f(-1) = (-1)2 – 2(-1) – 3 = 1 + 2 -3 = 0
f(0) = (0)2 – 2(0) – 3 = 0 – 0 – 3 = -3
f(1) = (1)2 – 2(1) – 3 = 1 -2 – 3 = -4
f(2) = (2)2 – 2(2) – 3 = 4 – 4 – 3 = -3
f(3) = (3)2 – 2(3) – 3= 9 – 6 – 3 = 0
f(4) = (4)2 – 2(4) – 3 = 16 – 8 – 3 = 5
Therefore the set of (x, y) values are: {(-2, 5), (-1, 0), (0, -3), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, 0), (4, 5)}

Equation Of A Line
Given the graph of the line
In this instance, the graph of a line is given and the question requires finding the equation of the line.
Example

Find the equation of the line above.

Solution:
The equation of a straight line is, y = mx + c
Recall, c is the y intercept (the point at which the graph crosses the y axis), which is the point (0, 2)
That is, c = 2
Now substituting the (x, y) coordinates of any of the other four points on the graph, along with the
value for c (2) in the equation, solve for m.
That is,  using the point (1, 5), substituting 1 for x, 5 for y, and 2 for c
Yields,                   y = mx + c
                                5 = m (1) + 2
                                5 = m + 2
                                m = 5 – 2
                                m = 3
Therefore the equation of the straight line is:
                                Y = 3x + 2
Given the co-ordinates of two points on the line
If co-ordinates of two points on the line are given, and the question requires using those points to
find the equation of the line, use one of the methods below.
Example
The points, M (-3, -5) and N (5, 3) lie on a straight line L2 . Find the particular equation of the line.
Method 1
Substitute the co-ordinates of the points in two different equations, subtracting one equation from
the other in solving for m and c.
Using the equation of a straight line:
                                y = mx + c
                Substituting (-3, -5) for x and y respectively
                                -5 = m (-3) + c
                                -5 = -3m + c ——- eq (1)
                Substituting (5, 3) for x and y respectively
                                3 = m (5) + c
                                3 = 5m + c ——– eq (2)
                eq (2) – eq (1)
                                3 – (-5) = 5m – (-3m) + c – c
                                3 + 5 = 5m + 3m
                                8 = 8m
                                m = 1
                Substituting m = 1 in eq (1)
                                -5 = -3(1) + c
                                -5 = -3 + c
                                c = -5 + 3
                                c = -2
Hence the equation of L2 is:
                                y = mx + c
                                y = (1) x + (-2)
                                y = x – 2
Method 2
Use the co-ordinates of the two points to find the gradient of the line (m), then using m and one of
the points to substitute in the equation of a line to find c and hence the equation of the line L 2 .
Gradient,             m = y2 – y1/ x2 – x1
                Recall, M (-3, -5) N (5, 3)
                                m = 3 – (-5)/ 5 – (-3)
                                m = 3 + 5 / 5 + 3
                                m = 8 / 8
                                m = 1
Using, m = 1 and N (5, 3) to substitute in the equation of a line:
                                y = mx + c
                                3 = 1 (5) + c
                                3 = 5 + c
                                c = 3 – 5
                                c = -2
Therefore, the equation of L2 is:
                                y = x – 2
Given the gradient and one point on the line
Substitute the given quantities into the equation of a line, solving for c, and hence the equation of the
line L2.
Given, m = 1
                N (5, 3)
Then,                    y = mx + c
                                3 = 1(5) + c
                                3 = 5 + c
                                c = -2
Therefore the equation of L2 is:
                                y = x – 2
Note:    The above is the same as Method 2 (with gradient given).
 Bar Charts
A Bar chart is a series of rectangular bars of the same width, drawn vertically or horizontally, with an
equal space between them, with the height of each bar being a depiction of the data it is representing.
Example
The table below lists several models of Blackberry cellular phones and the amount of each that an
electronic store has in stock. Draw a vertical and horizontal bar chart to represent the data.
Blackberry Phones Stock
Amount
Blackberry Curve 75
8310
Blackberry Curve 100
8320
Blackberry Pearl 50
8100
Blackberry Bold 200
9650
Blackberry Bold 150
9000
Blackberry Curve 125
8520
 Pie Charts
A Pie chart is a circular diagram divided into sectors, with the size of each sector representing the
magnitude of data it is depicting. Each sector of a pie chart can either be displayed in percentages
(note all sectors must add up to 100%) or as an angle (note all sectors must add up to 360 o).
Example
The table below lists some of the most popular football clubs and the number of students at a given
institution that supports each. Use a Pie chart to represent the information given in the table.
Football Clubs Number of Students
Chelsea 50
Manchester 200
United
Barcelona 350
Real Madrid 150
Inter Milan 25
Arsenal 100
Liverpool 40
AC Milan 75

 
The Pie Chart above depicts each sector as percentages. To calculate the percentages for each sector
use the formula below:
% of a sector      =             Number of students                       x              100
                                                Total number of students
So, to calculate the percentage of Chelsea fans:
% of Chelsea fans            =             50           x              100
                                                              990
% of Chelsea fans            =             5%
For Pie charts which depicts each sector as angles, the angles for each sector is found using the
formula below:
Angle of a sector              =             Number of students                       x              360
                                                                Total number of students                           
So, to calculate the angle of the Chelsea sector:
Angle of Chelsea sector                                =             50           x              360
                                                                                                990
Angle of Chelsea sector                                =             18o
Note:    In most cases the questions set on Pie charts require those drawn depicting sectors in
percentages.
 Line Graphs
Line graphs are mostly used in depicting trends, and as such, values are in most cases plotted against
time. A line graph is drawn by connecting a line to consecutive values, with a circle/point made at
each value being depicted.
Example
The table below lists the amount of Toyota motor vehicles produced in the month of April over the
period 2000- 2010.
Year Number of Toyota Motor Vehicles Produced
2000 220,382
2001 260,879
2002 213,546
2003 238,890
2004 227,678
2005 245,376
2006 240,224
2007 224,100
2008 258,100
2009 248,024
2010 249,123

 
 Histograms
A histogram is quite similar to Bar charts in that they both have rectangular bars. However, with
Histograms the bars can be of different widths, there are no spaces between each (as there is a
standard scale on the horizontal axis i.e 1, 2 etc) and the bars must be vertical. The height of each
bar is equal to the frequency which it represents.
Example
The table below lists the number of goals Chelsea scored in the first 6 matches of the 2009/2010
Barclays English Premier League Season.
Match # 1 2 3 4 5 6
Goals Scored 2 3 2 3 2 3

Previous | Next 
 Frequency Polygon
A Frequency Polygon is an alternative to histograms, as it also used in representing the frequency of
an event. It is a line graph, joining consecutive points.
Note: If drawn over a Histogram, each point on the frequency polygon is the mid-point of the top of
each respective bar.
Example
The table below displays the results of a survey of 70 persons, providing their favourite number from
the list 1-9.
Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequenc 0 5 9 14 20 10 7 5 0
y
 Relations, Functions And Graphs Quiz #1
Question 1
Draw the graph of the following relations using suitable scales.
(i) x = 4                                    (iii) y = -5
(ii) x = 2.5                               (iv) y = 6
Solutions:
(i)

(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

Question 2
Draw the graphs of the linear functions:
(i) f(x) = 2x + 3
(ii) f(x) = 6x
for the domain -1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Solutions:
(i) Substitute the values given for x in the domain (-1, 0, 1, 2), in the function, solving for the
respective f(x)/y values.
Given,             f(x) = 2x + 3
f(-1) = 2(-1) + 3 = -2 + 3 = 1
f(0) = 2(0) + 3 = 0 + 3 = 3
f(1) = 2(1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
f(2) = 2(2) + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7
Therefore, the set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the linear function are:
{(-1, 1), (0, 3), (1, 5), (2, 7)}.

(ii) Substitute the values given for x in the domain (-1, 0, 1, 2), in the function, solving for the
respective f(x)/y values.
Given,             f(x) = 6x
f(-1) = 6(-1) = -6
f(0) = 6(0) = 0
f(1) = 6(1) = 6
f(2) = 6(2) = 12
Therefore, the set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the linear function are:
{(-1, -6), (0, 0), (1, 6), (2, 12)}.

Question 3
Find the equation of the line which passes through the points A (2, 4) and B (8, 10).
Solution:
Using the equation of a straight line:
y = mx + c
Substituting (2, 4) for x and y respectively
4 = m(2) + c
4 = 2m + c —- eq(1)
Substituting (8, 10) for x and y respectively
10 = m(8) + c
10 = 8m + c—- eq(2)
eq(2) – eq(1)
10 – 4 = 8m – 2m + c – c
6 = 6m
m=1
Substituting m = 1 in eq(1)
4 = 2m + c
4 = 2(1) + c
4=2+c
c=4–2
c=2
Hence the equation of the line passing through points A (2, 4) and B (8, 10) is:
y = mx + c
y = (1)x + (2)
y=x+2
Question 4
The data below are the sizes (to the nearest inch) of the waists of 30 students in a class.
20        21        23        25        26        27
20        21        23        26        26        27
20        22        23        26        26        27
21        22        24        26        27        28
21        22        24        26        27        28
(a) Copy and complete the frequency table below.
Size of Waist Frequency
(Inch)
20 ____
21 4
22 ____
23 3
____ 2
25 ____
26 ____
____ 5
28 2
(b) Draw a Frequency Polygon for the information presented above.
Solutions:
(a)
Size of Waist Frequency
(Inch)
20 3
21 4
22 3
23 3
24 2
25 1
26 7
27 5
28 2
(b)
Computation

BODMAS
BODMAS is the acronym for the order in which arithmetic operations are carried out.
This acronym states that given a problem to solve, work out the: B – brackets, M
– multiplication, D – division, A – addition and S – subtraction of quantities in that order.
Note: Do multiplication and division, in the order they appear from left to right.
 Whole Numbers
This section illustrates how to compute the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of
whole numbers.
Addition
Add the numbers 584 and 646.

Procedure: In addition, we add from right to left. So for the problem above, we start with the
extreme right column. The numbers in that column are 6 and 4; when added 6 + 4 = 10, the zero is
written below the line in the column (extreme right column) and the 1 (highlighted blue) is added to
the numbers in the middle column. Next, the numbers in the middle column, 8 & 4, are added to
1(highlighted blue); 8 + 4 + 1 = 13. The 3 is written below the line in the middle column and the 1
(highlighted red) is added to the numbers in the left column. Lastly, the numbers in the left column,
5 & 6, are added to 1 (highlighted red); 5 + 6 + 1 = 12. The 12 is then written below the line. That is,
584 + 646 = 1230.
Subtraction
Subtract 342 from 864.

Procedure: When subtracting, subtract from right to left. For the problem above, start with
the extreme right column. The numbers in that column are 4 & 2; 4 – 2 = 2, 2 is written below the
line in the extreme right column. Next, subtract the numbers in the middle column; 6 – 4 = 2, 2 is
written below the line in the middle column. Lastly, subtract the numbers in the left column; 8 – 3 =
5. 5 is written below the line in the left column.
Multiplication
Multiply 462 by 246.

Procedure: When multiplying, multiply the top number (in this case 462) by each of the numbers in
the bottom number (in this case 246), starting with the number to the extreme right. The number to
the extreme right in the bottom number is 6. On multiplying, 462 x 6 = 2772 is the result. 2772 is
written below the line. Next, 462 is multiplied by 4: 462 x 4 = 1848, 0 is added to the right of 1848,
resulting in 18480(the amount of zeros added is determined by the amount of numbers to the right
of the number in the bottom row being used, in this case 1 number is to the right of 4 i.e. 6). 18480 is
written below 2772. Next, 462 is multiplied by 2: 462 x 2 = 924, two zeros is then added to 924 (as
there are two numbers to the right of 2 i.e. 4 & 6) resulting in, 92400. 92400 is then written below
18480. Lastly, 2772, 18480 and 92400 are added, equalling to 113652.
Division  
Divide 4350 by 5.

Procedure: Since 4 is not divisible by 5, zero (0) is written above 4. 43 is then divided by 5: 5 goes
into 43, 8 times, 8 is above 3. 5 multiplied by 8 is 40, 40 is then subtracted from 43, which yields 3. 3
is not divisible by 5, and hence 5 is taken down (follow arrow) to make 35. 35 is then divided by 5,
which yields 7. 7 is then written above 5: 7 multiplied 5 is 35, this 35 is then subtracted from 35,
yielding 0. Lastly 0 is taken down (follow arrow). 0 divided by 5 is 0, o is therefore written above 0.
So, 4350 divided 5 is 870.
Combining them altogether
The example below, is of a problem that combines the use of addition, subtract, multiplication and
division.
Example
 Fractions

A fraction is a number written in the form   , where 3 is called the numerator and 5 the
denominator. There are two types of fractions, common and improper fractions. A common fraction
is one whose numerator is less than the denominator; hence, all common fractions are less than 1. 
An improper fraction is one whose numerator is greater than the denominator; hence, all improper
fractions are greater than 1.
Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)
The lowest common multiple (L.C.M.) of a group of numbers is the lowest number that can be
divided by each number in the group, without leaving a remainder.
Example
What is the L.C.M. of the numbers 3, 5 and 8?
Addition
If the denominators of two fractions to be added are the same, then add the numerators and place it
over the denominator.
Example
Add the fractions:

If the denominators are different, then the L.C.M, the lowest common multiple, has to be found. On
determining the L.C.M, divide it by each of the denominators, multiply the quotient by the respective
numerators and then add the amounts, placing the result over the L.C.M.
Example
Add the fractions:

Subtraction
If the denominators of two fractions to be subtracted are the same, then add the numerators and
place it over the denominator.
Example
Subtract the fractions:
If the denominators are different, then the L.C.M, the lowest common multiple, has to be found. On
determining the L.C.M, divide it by each of the denominators, multiply the quotient by the respective
numerators and then subtract the amounts, placing the result over the L.C.M.
Example
Subtract the fractions:

Multiplication
When multiplying, it is best to firstly ‘cancel’ the fractions into their lowest form. Fractions are
cancelled by dividing denominators by numerators, or by dividing numerators by denominators.
Example
Multiply the fractions:

Division

When dividing: invert (inter change the numerator and the denominator:  ) the
fraction after the division sign, change the division sign to a multiplication sign, cancel the fractions,
then multiply.
Example
Simplify:
 Decimals
Decimals consist of a whole number and a decimal fraction.
Decimal                                = Whole number              +             Decimal fraction
7.8                          = 7          +             0.8
Decimal fractions are numbers written after decimal points; example, .8 is a decimal fraction. The
numbers after the decimal point are actually the numerators of a fraction, with the denominator
having as much zeros as there are numbers in the numerator. For example, the decimal fraction .8,

is   as a fraction; 0.73, is   .

Addition
Simplify:

Subtraction
Simplify:

Multiplication
The procedure for multiplying decimals is the same as multiplying whole numbers. On completing
the multiplication, the next step is to determine where the decimal point should be placed; count the
amount of numbers behind the decimal point in the numbers multiplied, that amount, is the number
of places that should be behind the decimal point in the product.
Example
Simplify:

Division
Before dividing, do the following: (1) Turn the divisor (the number that is doing the dividing) into a
whole number by moving the decimal point to the right of the last number. (2) Move the decimal
point of the number being divided to the right, by the same amount of places as the divisor was
moved. On completing, carry out the division placing the decimal point in the quotient, at the exact
point where it is in the number being divided.
Example
Simplify:
 Conversions Between Rational Numbers
Fractions to Decimals
Method 1
To convert a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator.
Example

Procedure: is similar to normal division except, since 8 goes into 4 zero times, a decimal point is
placed after the zero and a zero added to 4 turning it into 40.
Method 2
Step 1: Find a number that when multiplied by the denominator, results in a product of 10, 100, 1000
or any number with a 1 followed by zeros.
Step 2: Multiply both the numerator and denominator by that number.
Step 3: Write down the new numerator, putting a decimal point one place to the right for every zero
in the new denominator.
Example
Decimals to Fractions
To convert a decimal to a fraction, use the method outlined below.
Example

Fractions to Percentages
To convert a fraction to a decimal, multiply the fraction by 100.
Example

Percentages to Fractions
To convert a percentage into a fraction, follow the steps outlined below.
Step 1: Divide the percentage by 100.
Step 2: This step applies only if the percentage is not a whole number. In this case, multiply the
numerator and the denominator by 10 for every digit after the decimal point (if a number has 2 digits
after the decimal point, multiply by 100: 3 digits, multiply by 1000 etc).
Step 3: Reduce the fraction into its simplest form.
Examples

Decimals to Percentages
To convert a decimal into a percentage, move the decimal point two places to the right (which is the
same as multiplying by 100) and add the percentage sign.
Example
Convert 0.728 into a percentage.

Percentage to Decimal
To convert a percentage into a decimal, move the decimal point two places to the left (divide by 100)
and remove the percentage sign.
Example
Convert 43.2% into a decimal.
 Significant Figures
To approximate a number to a given amount of significant figures, follow the instructions outlined in
the example below.
Example
It should be noted that the first significant figure cannot be zero.
Example
 Decimal Places
To approximate a number to a given amount of decimal places follow the instructions outlined in the
example below.
Example

Standard Form
Numbers written in the form;
                              A x 10n
Where, 1 ≤ A ≤ 10, are in Standard Form.
When writing a number in standard form:
Step 1:  Write the number in the form A. That is, turn the number into a number greater than or
equal to 1, and/or less than or equal to 10. This is done by moving the decimal point either to the
right or to the left.
Step 2: Multiply the number attained above by 10 for each place moved to the left, and by   for
each place moved to the right.
Step 3:  Write the number in the form A x 10n.
Example
Write the following numbers in standard form: (i) 243 876 (ii) 0.000487652

Percentage Or Fraction Of A Quantity

To find the percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction (write the percentage given
over 100) and multiply by the quantity.
Example
What is 40% of 500?

To find the fraction of a given quantity, multiply the fraction by the quantity.
Example
 A Quantity As A Percentage Or Fraction Of Another

To express a quantity as a percentage of another quantity, divide the first quantity by the second and
multiply by 100.
Example
Express 80 as a percentage of 960.

To express a quantity as a fraction of another, write the first quantity over the second and simplify.
Example
Express 48 as a fraction of 144.
 Ratio

A ratio is a comparison between similar quantities, hence it is absolutely necessary to convert

quantities to the same units, currency etc. before expressing them as a ratio. A ratio can be expressed

as a fraction,  , or in the form n : d, where, : means to.

Example
In a class of 50 students, students play either football or basketball. 24 students play football. Find
the ratio of:
(i)                  football players : total number of students
(ii)                football players : basketball players.
 Square Of A Number
The square of a number is the number multiplied by itself. 
Example

Square Root
The square root of a number x, is defined as that number which when multiplied by itself yields the
number x.
Example

Average
The average or mean of a set of numbers is defined by the formula:
Example

Computation Quiz #1
Question 1
Simplify
(20 – 2) + 12 ÷ 4 x 3
Solution:

Question 2
Calculate the exact value of:

Solution:
Question 3
Correct to 3 significant figures, the value of 0.64 x 2.24.
Solution:
Question 4
What is 20% of  50 x 100?
Solution:

Question 5
What is the ratio of the square of 2 : the square root of 64?
Solution:
Number Theory

Types Of Numbers
Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers is represented by the symbol N, and is defined as the set of counting
numbers.
That is, the set of natural numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,….}.
Note, zero is not a natural number.
The set of even and odd numbers are two types of natural numbers. Even numbers are those which
are exactly divisible by 2.
That is, the set of even numbers = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,…}
Odd numbers are those which are not exactly divisible by 2.
That is, the set of odd numbers = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15,…}
Whole Numbers
The set of whole numbers is represented by the symbol W, and is defined as the set of natural
numbers including zero.
That is, the set of whole numbers, W = {0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5….}.
Integers
The set of integers is represented by the symbol Z, and is defined as the set of whole numbers and the
negatives.
That is, the set of integers, Z = {… -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
Note zero is neither positive nor negative.
Positive integers are defined as being prime or composite numbers. Prime numbers are numbers
which have only two factors (1 and itself).
That is, the set of prime numbers = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19…}.
Note: 1 is not a prime number since it only has one factor (itself).
Composite numbers are numbers which have more than two factors (can be divided by other
numbers apart from 1 and itself).
That is, the set of composite numbers = {4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16}.
Rational Numbers
The set of rational numbers is represented by the symbol Q, and is defined as the set of numbers
(whether positive or negative) which can be written as fractions. A fraction is a number written in the

form   , where n is the numerator, d is the denominator, and both n and d are integers.
Examples of rational numbers:

That is, the set of rational numbers, Q = {  : n and d are integers}

Irrational Numbers
The set of irrational numbers is represented by the symbol I, and is defined as the set of numbers
which cannot be expressed as fractions.
Examples of irrational numbers: √3, √99, π=3.14159
Real Numbers
The set of real numbers is represented by the symbol R, and is defined as the set of rational and
irrational numbers.
That is, the set of real numbers, R = {rational and irrational numbers}
Relationship between the types of numbers
On reading the definitions of the respective types of numbers, a relationship should become
apparent. This relationship is that:
The set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of whole numbers; the set of whole numbers is a
subset of the set of integers; the set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers; the set of
rational numbers is a subset of the set of real numbers.
The above relationship written in terms of symbols is:
N⊂W⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
Where, ⊂ means ‘a subset of’.
 Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)
The highest common factor (H.C.F.) of a group of numbers is the largest natural number which
divides into each number exactly, that is, without leaving a remainder.
Example
What is the H.C.F. of the numbers 12 and 28?

Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)

The lowest common multiple (L.C.M.) of a group of numbers is the lowest number that can be
divided by each number in the group, without leaving a remainder.
Example
What is the L.C.M. of the numbers 3, 5 and 8?
 The Identity Of Operations
The identity of an operation is defined as an action which results in the number being manipulated,
remaining unchanged.
The identity for an addition and a subtraction is zero. If zero is added to or subtracted from a
number, then the sum/difference obtained is that number.
Example

The identity for a multiplication and a division is one. If a number is multiplied or divided by one,
the product/quotient obtained is that number.
Example
 The Inverse Of Operations
Recall the identity of a number under addition is zero. The inverse of a number x under addition, is a
number which when added to x results in zero being the sum.
Example

Recall the identity of a number under multiplication is one. The inverse of a number x under
multiplication, is a number which when multiplied by x results in one as the product.
Example
 Associative Law
The associative law addresses the grouping of numbers, and states that the sum/product obtained in
an addition/multiplication is not dependent on how the numbers are grouped. That is for additions:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Example

For multiplication:
(a x b) x c = a x (b x c)
Example
 Commutative Law
The commutative law addresses the order in which an operation is completed, and states that
numbers can be swapped and the sum/product remains the same in an addition/multiplication.
That is for additions:
a+b=b+a
Example

For multiplication:
axb=bxa
Example

Distributive Law
The distributive law is summarised by the identity below:
(a + b) x c = a x c + b x c
Example
 Number Theory Quiz #1
Question 1
Find the H.C.F of:
12, 24, 60
Solution:
Factors of 12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}
Factors of 24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}
Factors of 60 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}
Therefore, the H.C.F. = 12
Question 2
Find the inverse of:
(a)        10
Under addition.
(b)        -5
Under multiplication.
Solutions:
(a)
The inverse of 10:
10 + x = 0
x = -10
i.e. the inverse is, -10.
(b)
The inverse of -5:

Question 3
Write an identity that summarizes the:
(i) Associative law (addition).
(ii) Commutative law (multiplication).
(iii) Distributive law.
Solutions:
(i)
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Recall, the Associative law states that the sum/product obtained in an addition/multiplication is not
dependent on how the numbers are grouped.
(ii)
axb=bxa
Recall, the Commutative law states that numbers can be swapped and the sum/product remains the
same in an addition/multiplication.
(iii)
(a + b) x c = a x c + b x c
Measurement

Converting Units

Converting Units within SI system

Length

Area
Volume

Distance

Area
This section is catered to finding the area enclosed by rectangles, squares, triangles, parallelograms,
trapeziums, and circles.
Rectangle
The area of a rectangle, A = Lw
Where, L is the length of the rectangle
And,      w is the width of the rectangle.

Example

Square
Squares are special cases of rectangles. All the sides of a square are equal.
The area of a square, A = L2
Where, L is the length of a side of the square.
Example

Triangle

 The area of a triangle,  

 Where, b is length of the base of the triangle
 And, h is the height of the triangle.

Example
Parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram, A = bh
Where, b is the length of the base of the parallelogram
And, h is the perpendicular height of the parallelogram.

Example

Trapezium

 The area of a trapezium, 

Where, a is the length of one parallel side of the trapezium
                b is the length of the second parallel side of the trapezium
And,      h is the perpendicular height (distance between the 2 parallel sides) of the trapezium.

Example

Circle
The area of a circle, A = πr2
Where, r is the radius of the circle

And, π is 3.142 or 

Example
Area, A = πr2

Perimeter
This section is centred on finding the perimeter (the total distance around) of figures.
Rectangle
The perimeter of a rectangle, P = L + w + L + w
                                                                = 2(L + w)
Where, L is the length of the rectangle
And,      w is the width of the rectangle.

Example

Square
The perimeter of a square, P = L + L + L + L
                                                           = 4L
Where, L is the length of a side of the square.

Example

Triangle
The perimeter of a triangle, P = the sum of all the sides.

Example
Circle
The perimeter of a circle is called its circumference. The circumference of a circle, C = 2πr or πd
Where, r is the radius of the circle
               d is the diameter of the circle

And,      π is 3.142 or  .

Example

 Perimeter, P = 2πr
 Area Of A Sector And Arc Length
The sector of a circle is the portion enclosed by two radii and an arc. The smaller area is called the
minor sector and the larger area, the major sector.

As seen in the diagram above, the arc length of the minor sector (minor arc), is the portion of the
circumference of the circle which spans the minor sector.

The area of the sector of a circle, A = πr2 

The length of the arc, L = 2πr 

Example
Arc length, L = 2πr 
 Surface Area
The surface area of a figure, is the total area of all the sides of the figure.
Triangular Prism(Right Angle Triangle)

To find the surface area of the prism above, follow the steps below.
Step 1:       Divide the figure into smaller shapes.
Step 2:       Find the area of each smaller shape.
Step 3:       Add the areas of each smaller shape.
A right-angle triangle prisim can be divided into five smaller shapes; two right angle triangles and
three rectangles.
Example
Find the surface area of the prism below.
Pyramid
A pyramid is an object which has: a straight sided shape base (a squared, rectangular, trianglular
base etc) and  triangular sides which meet at the top (called the apex).
Example

Cylinder
To find the surface area of the cylinder above, follow the steps below.
Step 1:       Divide the figure into smaller shapes.
Step 2:       Find the area of each smaller shape.
Step 3:       Add the areas of each smaller shape.
A cylinder can be divided into three segements: two circles and a curved surface area.
                     The area of a circle, A = πr2
Since there are two circles in a cylinder, multiply the abover formula by 2, that is:
                     The area of the circles, A = 2πr2
 The curved surface area, C.S.A. = 2πrh
The area of a cylinder, A = Area of the circles + C.S.A.
                                                  = 2πr2 + 2πrh
                                                  = 2πr (r + h)
Example

Cube
A cube has 6 sides (faces) of the same surface area. Each side (face) of the cube are squares. Recall,
the area of a square, A = L2 .
The surface area of a cube, A = 6L2
Where, L is the length of a side of the cube(all the sides of a cube are the same length).
Example

Cuboid

The surface area of a cuboid, A =  2Lw + 2 Lh + 2wh

 Where, L is the length of the cuboid
                 w is the width of the cuboid
And,       h is the height of the cuboid.
Example
Sphere
A sphere is a three-dimensional object (such as a ball or the earth) with every point on the surface
equidistant (halfway from) from the center.
The surface area of a sphere, A = 4πr2
Where, r is the radius of the sphere.

Example

Surface Area of a sphere, A = 4 πr2

 Volume
Triangular Prism(Right Angle Triangle)

The volume of a triangular prism, V =  AL

Where, A is the area of the cross-section of the prism.That is the area of one of the

triangles, 
And,      L is the length of the triangular prism.
Example
Pyramid
A pyramid is an object which has: a straight sided shape base (a squared, rectangular, trianglular
base etc) and  triangular sides which meet at the top (called the apex).

The volume of a pyramid, V =  

Where, A is the area of the base of the pyramid
And,      h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid.
Example
Cylinder

The volume of a cylinder, V =  πr2h

Where, πr2 is the area of the circular cross-section
And,    h is the height of the cylinder.
Example

Volume of a cylinder, V = πr2h

Cube

The volume of a cube , V = L3

Where, L is the length of a side of the cube.
Example
Cuboid

The volume of a cuboid, V = Lwh

Where, L is the length of the cuboid
w is the width of the cuboid
And,       h is the height of the cuboid.

Sphere
A sphere is a three-dimensional object (such as a ball or the earth) with every point on the surface
equidistant (halfway from) from the center.

The volume of a sphere, V =   πr3

Where, r is the radius of the sphere.
Example

Volume of a sphere, V =   πr3

 Time, Distance And Speed
Time
Time is the measurement of an instant which happens in the past, present or future, in hours and or
minutes past midnight or noon.
The units of time and their abbreviations are listed below:
day    =             d
hour  =             h
minute =         min
second =         s
Note:         1 day =             24 hours
1 hour =           60 minutes
1 minute =      60 seconds
Time is stated either by using a 12- hour clock (AM/PM) or by using a 24- hour clock (hrs). The table
below shows a comparison between a 12 hour and 24 hour clock, and can be useful when converting
time between the two clocks.
12 Hour Clock (AM/PM) 24 Hour Clock (hrs)
12 Midnight 00:00 hrs
1:00 AM 01:00 hrs
2:00 AM 02:00 hrs
3:00 AM 03:00 hrs
4:00 AM 04:00 hrs
5:00 AM 05:00 hrs
6:00 AM 06:00 hrs
7:00 AM 07:00 hrs
8:00 AM 08:00 hrs
9:00 AM 09:00 hrs
10:00 AM 10:00 hrs
11:00 AM 11:00 hrs
12 Noon 12:00 hrs
1:00 PM 13:00 hrs
2:00 PM 14:00 hrs
3:00 PM 15:00 hrs
4:00 PM 16:00 hrs
5:00 PM 17:00 hrs
6:00 PM 18:00 hrs
7:00 PM 19:00 hrs
8:00 PM 20:00 hrs
9:00 PM 21:00 hrs
10:00 PM 22:00 hrs
11:00 PM 23:00 hrs
Below are examples of converting time from the 24-hour clock to the 12-hour clock, and from the 12-
hour clock to the 24-hour clock.
Examples
The most frequently asked questions in relation to time, are on finding the time taken/time
difference.
Example

Average Speed
Average speed is defined as the average distance travelled per unit of time.

Examples
 Measurement Quiz #1
Question 1

If the area of the lined region is 300cm2, what is the value of x in cm?
Solutions:
Question 2
Find the perimeter of the figure below.

Solution:
Perimeter is the total distance around the figure.
Therefore, Perimeter = 10cm + 5cm + 5cm + 7cm + 8cm + 8cm + 2cm + 2cm + 2cm + 5cm
                                    = 54cm

Question 3
Find the area of the sector and the arc length.
Solution:
The area of the sector, A =

Arc length, L =

Question 4
Find the surface area of :
(i) 

(ii) 
Solutions:
(i)
(ii)

Question 5
Find the volume of:

(i) 
(ii)  
Solutions:
(i)

(ii)

Question 6
A bus travels 12hrs at an average speed of 50km/h. What distance did the bus travel?
Solution:
Algebra

Algebraic Expressions
x2 + 6x + 9
Above is an example of an algebraic expression. Algebraic expressions are expressions which contain
terms, variables and coefficients, and constants.
Terms
Terms are the elements in an algebraic expression, separated by the arithmetic signs.

Example

A term may consist of variables and coefficients, or a constant.

Variables
The letters in a term (by extension, algebraic expression) are called variables.
Example

Coefficients
Coefficients are the numbers before variables.
Example

Constants
Constants are the terms that contain numbers only.
Example
 Conducting Operations On Algebraic Expressions
Addition and Subtraction
When adding, and subtracting algebraic expressions follow the steps below:
Step 1: Group like terms (like terms are those with the same variables). Only like terms can be added
and subtracted.
Step 2: Add or subtract the coefficients of the grouped like terms.
Examples
Multiplication and Division
The rules for the multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers:

When multiplying algebraic expressions, follow the steps below:

Step 1: List the coefficients and variables of each term separately.
Step 2: Multiply the coefficients and constants.
Step 3: Multiply the variables.
Note when multiplying variables:
Examples
When dividing algebraic expressions, follow the steps below:
Step 1: List the coefficients and variables of each term separately.
Step 2: Divide the product of the coefficients and constants in the numerator, by the product of the
coefficients and constants in the denominator.
Step 3: Cancel the like variables in the numerator, by those in the denominator.
Examples
 Substituting Numbers For Algebraic Symbols
Algebraic symbols are the variables in an algebraic expression. The values of algebraic expressions
are obtained by substituting numbers in place of variables, and simplifying.
Examples
 Translating Verbal Phrases In To Algebraic Expressions
Before attempting to translate verbal phrases in to algebraic expressions, the following terminologies
and their meanings must be known:
Terminologies Signs/Meanings
Equals, is, adds up to =
Times, product, of, multiplied by x
Divided by, quotient, per, out of ÷
Plus, added to, sum, and, total, +
combined
Minus, less than, subtracted from, -
difference between, less than
Examples
 Binary Operations
A binary operation is one which takes two elements (no more, no less) and combines them into one.
Examples

In algebra, symbols are used to represent and perform operations on binary.

Examples
 Removing And Inserting Brackets
Removing Brackets
The distributive law is used when removing brackets. It is summarised by the identity below:
                (a + b) c = a x c + b x c
The distributive law basically states that when removing a bracket, use the term outside the bracket
to multiply each term in the bracket.
Examples

Inserting Brackets
The distributive law is also used to insert brackets. However, when inserting brackets, the law is used
in reverse.
The distributive law in reverse is a means of factorizing. Factorization is the breakdown of numbers
into factors, which when multiplied yields the original numbers.
When factorizing using the distributive law, follow the steps below.
Step 1: Write the variables and coefficients (if any) common to all the terms outside the brackets.
Step 2:  Divide each term by the term placed outside the brackets in step 1, placing the quotient of the
divisions inside the brackets.
Examples
 Indices
Before attempting to simplify expressions with indices (powers), revisiting the laws of indices is
always advised.
The laws of indices:

Examples
 Linear Equations
A linear equation by definition is an equation which when graphed produces a straight line. The
following are two examples of linear equations with one unknown:

When solving linear equations with one unknown:

Step 1: Place the unknown variables on the left hand side of the equal sign, and the numbers on the
right hand side of the equal sign.
Note: 
- To move a positive number from one side of the equal sign, to the other, subtract the number from
both sides.

- To move a negative number from one side of the equal sign, to the other, add the number to both
sides.

- If the coefficient of the unknown variable is multiplying it, divide both sides by the coefficient.
Step 2:  Solve for the unknown variable.
Examples
 Simultaneous Linear Equations
Simultaneous equations are two or more equations, with the same unknowns (variables) and
solutions. They are solved by using one of two methods: Elimination or Substitution. Below are
examples of simultaneous equations.

Elimination
In this method, the first objective is to eliminate one of the two unknowns (variables). This is done
by:
1.  Adding the equations. This procedure is carried out if the coefficients of one of the unknowns are
the same, but they have different signs.

2. Subtracting the equations. This is done if the coefficients of one of the unknowns are the same and
have the same sign.

3. Multiply one or both equations by a number(s) then add or subtract. If the coefficients of one of
the unknowns are not the same, multiply one or both equation by a number(s) which will make the
coefficients of one of the unknowns the same. Then, add or subtract the equations (depending on if
they satisfy #1 or #2 above).

Having eliminated one of the unknowns, solve for the value of the remaining unknown. On finding
its value, substitute it in one of the two equations, and solve for the value of the remaining unknown.

Example
Note:  Re-visit the rules in carrying numbers across the equal sign in Linear Equations (with one
unknown), if needs be.
Substitution
To use the method of substitution when solving simultaneous equations, follow the steps listed
below, illustrated using the simultaneous equations:

Step 1: Using one of the equations, make one of the unknowns the subject of that equation (that is,
have it alone on one side of the equal sign).

Step 2: Substitute the value of the subject in the other equation and solve for the value of the
remaining unknown.
Step 3: Solve for the unknown which was made the subject, by substituting the value obtained in step
2 in the equation made by the subject.

Example

Linear Inequality
All the rules governing the solution of linear equations apply to the solution of linear inequalities,
except for the differences listed below:
1.  Inequalities do not have equal signs. They are represented by the signs:  < which means, less
than; ≤ which means, less than or equal to; > which means, greater than; ≥ which means, greater
than or equal to.
2.  When an inequality is multiplied or divided by a negative number the sign changes. That is,
a < (less than) sign would change to a > (greater than) sign, a ≥ (greater than or equal to) sign would
change to a ≤ (less than or equal to) sign etc.
3.  The solution of an inequality is a range, which can be drawn on a number line, and is therefore
written as a solution set.
Examples
Solve the following linear inequalities:
(a)     x + 7 ≥ 9
(b)    x + 2 < 10 – x
Solutions:
(a)
x+7≥9
x+7–7≥9–7
x≥2
That is, {x: x ≥ 2}

(b)
x + 2 < 10 – x
x + x + 2 < 10 – x + x
2x + 2 -2 < 10 – 2
2x < 8
x<4
That is, {x: x < 4}
 Algebra Quiz #1
Question 1
Simplify

(a) 
(b)        2x4y2 + 8xy2 – 4x3y
Solutions:
(a)

(b)
2x4y2 + 8xy2 – 4x3y
Note: Only like terms can be added and or subtracted, there are no like terms in the Algebraic
expression above.
Question 2
(a) Given m = 4, n = -3
Calculate,  (3m + n) (2m – 2)
(b)        x*y = 4x – 3y
Find    6*4
Solutions:
(a)
(3m + n) (2m – 2)
= (3 (4) + (-3) )   (2 (4) – 2)
= (12 – 3)  (8 – 2)
= (9)  (6)
= 54
(b)
       6*4       =          4x – 3y
=          4(6) – 3(4)
=          24 – 12
=          12
Question 3
Factorize Completely
(a) 16p + 2q
(b)  169a2 – 13a
Solutions:
(a)
16p + 2q =       2(8p + q)
(b)
169a2 – 13a =  13a(13a – 1)
Question 4
Simplify:
(a)        (53)2
(b)        b1/4
Solutions:
(a)
(53)2          =          5 3 x 2
=          5 6
(b)

Question 5
Solve the Simultaneous equations:
5y + 6x = 28
2y + 3x = 13
Solution:
5y + 6x = 28 ——> Eq. 1
2y + 3x = 13 ——> Eq. 2
Multiply Eq. 2 by 2.
2(2y + 3x = 13)
4y + 6x = 26 ——> New Eq. 2
Eq.1 – New Eq.2
5y – 4y + 6x – 6x = 28 – 26
y=2
Substitute 2 for y in Eq.1
5y + 6x = 28
5(2) + 6x = 28
10 + 6x = 28
6x = 28 – 10
6x = 18
x=3
That is, x = 3 and y = 2
Geometry

Types And Properties Of Angles

Straight Angles
Angles which measure exactly 180° (degrees) are straight angles. Therefore, straight angles are
straight lines. Angles are represented by the sign ϴ, called theta. That is, for straight angles, ϴ= 180°.

Right Angles
Angles which measure exactly 90° are right angles, that is, ϴ = 90°.

Obtuse Angles
Obtuse angles are those which are greater than 90° but less than 180°, that is, 90° < ϴ < 180°.

Acute Angles
Acute angles are angles which are greater than 0° but less than 90°, that is, 0° < ϴ < 90°.

Reflex Angles
Reflex angles are angles which are greater than 180° but less than 360°, that is, 180° < ϴ < 360°.
Adjacent Angles
Two angles which share the same vertex (centre, usually represented by 0) and have a common side
(line) are called adjacent angles.

Complementary Angles
Complementary angles are two angles which when summed equals 90°.

Note: <A and <B, are ‘angle A’ and ‘angle B’ respectively.

Supplementary Angles
Supplementary angles are two angles which when summed equals 180°.

Vertically Opposite Angles

Vertically opposite angles are the angles opposite to each other when two straight lines intersect.
Their defining property is that, vertically opposite angles are equal in magnitude.

Corresponding Angles
When two parallel lines are crossed by a line called the transversal, the angles formed which are in
corresponding positions, are called corresponding angles. Corresponding angles are equal in
magnitude.
 Types And Properties Of Triangles
Equilateral Triangles
Triangles with all three sides equal in length and all three angles equal in magnitude, are called
equilateral triangles. Since the angles in a triangle sum to 180° and the size of each angle is the same
in an equilateral triangle, the angles are all 60°.

Isosceles Triangles
Isosceles triangles are triangles with two sides equal in length and two angles equal in magnitude.

Scalene Triangles
A scalene triangle is one which has no sides equal in length and no angles equal in magnitude.

Right-Angled Triangles
Right-angled triangles are triangles with one of their angles equal to 90° (i.e. a right angle).

Obtuse-Angled Triangles
Obtuse-angled triangles are triangles with one of their angles greater than 90° but less than 180° (i.e.
an obtuse angle).

Acute-Angled Triangles
Acute-angled triangles are triangles in which all the angles are acute. That is, all angles are greater
than 0° but less than 90°.

Congruent Triangles
Congruent triangles are triangles which have the same area, angles and side lengths.

Similar Triangles
Similar Triangles are triangles which have the same sized angles.
 Types And Properties Of Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals are any four-sided figure, joined by four straight lines, that is, Quadrilaterals are four-
sided polygons.
Properties of Quadrilaterals:
-Four sides.
-Four vertices (corners).
-Interior angles sum to 360°.
-Exterior angles sum to 360°.
Things to Know:
-Diagonals are line segments that join two opposite vertices (corners).

-Two sides are adjacent, if they share a common vertex.

-Two angles are adjacent, if they share a common side.

Rectangle

Rhombus

Square
Parallelogram

Trapezium

Isosceles Trapezium

Kite
 Regular Polygons
Regular polygons have all sides, and all angles equal.

Size of Internal Angles

To find the size of the internal angles of a regular polygon with ‘n’ sides, use the formula:

For example, the size of the interior angles of the pentagon (five sides) above is:

The sum of all the interior angles of a polygon with ‘n’ sides is found using the formula:
(n – 2)  x  180°
Therefore, the sum of all the interior angles of the pentagon above is:
(5 – 2)  x 180°  =  3  x 180°  =  540°
Size of Exterior Angles
Interior and Exterior angles are measured on the same line, that is, they add up to 180°.
Therefore, the size of an exterior angle =  180° – Interior angle.
For example, the size of the external angle of the pentagon above is:
Since, interior angle = 108°
Then, exterior angle =  180° – Interior angle
180° – 108° =  72°
Below is a list of the names and the number of sides, of some of the most popular polygons.
Name of Polygon Number of Sides
Equilateral Triangle 3
Quadrilateral 4
Pentagon 5
Hexagon 6
Heptagon 7
Octagon 8
Nonagon 9
Decagon 10
 Pythagoras’ Theorem
Pythagoras’ theorem states that for a right angled triangle, if a square was to be drawn on each side
of the triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse side (the side opposite the 90° angle), is
equal to the sum of the area of the two squares drawn on the other two sides.

Where,      a, b and c are the sides of the triangle.

Pythagoras’ Theorem is most often employed to find the length of an unknown side of a triangle, and
as such the form:
a2 + b2 = c2
is most frequently used.
Example:
 Sine, Cosine And Tangent Ratios
Sides of a Right Angled Triangle

The order in which the names of the sides are determined is listed below:
-The longest side of the triangle is called the Hypotenuse.
-The side opposite to the angle under consideration, in this case A, is called the Opposite.
-The remaining side is called the Adjacent.
Note: the Opposite side is always the side opposite to the angle under consideration.
Sine (Sin) Ratio
The sine of an angle is the ratio of the opposite side, to the hypotenuse side.

That is,                  Sin ϴ      =             

Cosine (Cos) Ratio
The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the adjacent side, to the hypotenuse side.

That is,                  Cos ϴ    =      

Tangent Ratio
The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the opposite side, to the adjacent side.

That is,                  Tan ϴ    =       

Statistics

Frequency Tables
Frequency tables are tables which list the frequency of an event, that is, the number of times an event
occurs.  There are two types of Frequency tables, Ungrouped and Grouped.
Ungrouped
These are frequency tables which list the frequency (number of times) of observations or data that
are ungrouped.
Example:
Below are the scores students in a class of 40 obtained on a quiz graded out of 10.
4              7              9              2              6              8              7              10
5              3              6              8              5              4              2              9
6              6              7              7              6              8              6              8
7              5              4              8              7              7              6              7
8              9              7              6              8              5              10           9
Construct a frequency table for the scores.
Score Frequency
2 2
3 1
4 3
5 4
6 8
7 9
8 7
9 4
10 2
Total Frequency 40
Note:   
(1) The total frequency was obtained by summing the frequencies of all the scores.
(2) The total frequency amount is equal to the amount of students in the class.
Grouped
These are frequency tables which list the frequency (number of times) of observations or data that
are grouped. These groups are often called classes.
Example:
Below is a list of the points each basketball team scored in the first half of all 42 games played on the
7th of January 2007, in the NCAA, National Collegiate Athletic Association.
20           20           30           26           47           35           46
22           17           27           30           35           42           47
48           30           21           18           27           36           43
24           19           28           34           37           44           48
49           40           38           33           28           19           25
23           18           28           34           38           43           47
Construct a frequency table for the classes: 15-19, 20-25, 26-29, 30-35, 36-39, 40-45, and 46-49.
Points Frequency
15 – 19 5
20 – 25 7
26 – 29 6
30 – 35 8
36 – 39 4
40 – 45 5
46 – 49 7
Total Frequency 42
Note:    In some cases it may be required to add a Tally column to a frequency table.
 Class Limits, Boundaries And Intervals
Class Limits
Class limits are the smallest and largest observations (data, events etc) in each class. Therefore, each
class has two limits: a lower and upper.
Example:
Class Frequency
200 – 299 12
300 – 399 19
400 – 499 6
500 – 599 2
600 – 699 11
700 – 799 7
800 – 899 3
Total Frequency 60
Using the frequency table above, what are the lower and upper class limits for the first three classes?
For the first class, 200 – 299
The lower class limit is 200
The upper class limit is 299
For the second class, 300 – 399
The lower class limit is 300
The upper class limit is 399
For the third class, 400 – 499
The lower class limit is 400
The upper class limit is 499
Class Boundaries
Class Boundaries are the midpoints between the upper class limit of a class and the lower class limit
of the next class in the sequence. Therefore, each class has an upper and lower class boundary.
Example:
Class Frequency
200 – 299 12
300 – 399 19
400 – 499 6
500 – 599 2
600 – 699 11
700 – 799 7
800 – 899 3
Total Frequency 60
Using the frequency table above, determine the class boundaries of the first three classes.
For the first class, 200 – 299
The lower class boundary is the midpoint between 199 and 200, that is 199.5
The upper class boundary is the midpoint between 299 and 300, that is 299.5
For the second class, 300 – 399
The lower class boundary is the midpoint between 299 and 300, that is 299.5
The upper class boundary is the midpoint between 399 and 400, that is 399.5
For the third class, 400 – 499
The lower class boundary is the midpoint between 399 and 400, that is 399.5
The upper class boundary is the midpoint between 499 and 500, that is 499.5
Class Intervals
Class interval is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of any class.
Example:
Class Frequency
200 – 299 12
300 – 399 19
400 – 499 6
500 – 599 2
600 – 699 11
700 – 799 7
800 – 899 3
Total Frequency 60
Using the table above, determine the class intervals for the first class.
For the first class, 200 – 299
The class interval = Upper class boundary – lower class boundary
Upper class boundary = 299.5
Lower class boundary = 199.5
Therefore, the class interval = 299.5 – 199.5
= 100
 Mean
The mean of a given set of numbers is the average of those numbers, and is calculated by summing
all the numbers and dividing by the amount of numbers.
That is, the mean  =

Example:
Find the mean of the following numbers:
6, 12, 15, 20, 14, 8, 10, 18, 24, 12

To find the mean of a frequency distribution with ungrouped data, the product of the frequency and
the corresponding observations (noted as fx) is calculated and summed, that sum is then divided by
the sum of the frequency amounts.
That is, the mean
=Ʃfx
Ʃf
Where,  Ʃfx is the sum of the products of the frequency and the corresponding observations
And,      Ʃf is the sum of the frequencies.
Example:
The table below shows the size show a survey of 50 men wear.
Find the mean size show.
Procedure to find the mean:
-Multiply the frequencies by the corresponding observations.
-Sum the product of the frequencies and the observations.
-Sum the frequencies.
-Divide the sum of the products of the frequencies and observations by the sum of the frequencies.

Therefore, Ʃfx = 510

And,            Ʃf = 50
That is, the mean

To find the mean of a frequency distribution with grouped data, firstly find the mid-point of each
class interval, then find the product of the frequency and the corresponding mid-points (noted as
f1 x1) and sum them, that sum is then divided by the sum of the frequency amounts.
That is, the mean
=Ʃf1  x1
Ʃf1
Where, Ʃf1 x1 is the sum of the products of the frequency and the corresponding mid-points
And,      Ʃf1 is the sum of the frequencies.
Example:
Find the mean of the following data.
Procedure to find the mean:
-Find the mid-point of each class by adding the lower class limit and the upper class limit of each
class, and dividing by two.
-Multiply the mid-points of each class by the respective frequencies.
-Sum the product of the mid-points and the frequencies.
-Sum the frequencies.
-Divide the sum of the products of the mid-points and the frequencies by the sum of the frequencies.

Therefore, Ʃf1 x1 = 4095

And,            Ʃf1 = 71
That is, the mean
 Cumulative Frequency
The cumulative frequency is obtained by adding each frequency in the table, to the cumulative
frequency in the row above it.
Example:
Insert a cumulative frequency column into the table below.

Recall, cumulative frequency is obtained by adding the frequency in each row, to the cumulative
frequency in the row above it.

It should be noted that when a question asks that the cumulative frequency should be determined, it
is also the norm that questions will ask candidates to determine from the cumulative frequency table,
the proportion and/or percentage of the sample above or below a given value.
This information can be determined from a cumulative frequency table by inserting a Less than or
Equal to column.
For example, in the solution to the example above, we can insert a Length Less than or Equal to
column as shown below.

Note the values in the Less than or Equal to column are the values in the Length column, and this
information is interpreted as for example:
-When the length is 9cm, the values less than or equal to 9cm, is the cumulative frequency, that is 17.
Note: If the cumulative frequency is to be calculated for a table with grouped data, then the less than
or equal to value for each class will be the upper class boundary.
Example:
How many lengths in the table above are less than or equal to 10cm?
Identify 10 in the less than or equal to column, the answer is the cumulative frequency amount in
that row, that is, 27.
 Median
The median of a given set of numbers is the central number (the number in the middle). To find the
median, the set of numbers should either be arranged in ascending (smallest to largest) or
descending (largest to smallest) order. If there is an even amount of numbers in a set, then the
median is the average of the two central numbers.
Example:
Find the median of the following set of numbers.
(a)          122, 130, 128, 123, 126, 124, 127, 125, 129
(b)          401, 406, 403, 405, 402, 404
(a)  The numbers in ascending order:
122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130
The central number is, 126.
Therefore, the median = 126.
(b) The numbers in ascending order:
401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406
The central numbers are, 403 and 404.
Therefore, the median

Note: The median divides a set into two equal sets, with the same amount of numbers below and
above the median.
To find the median of ungrouped data, if the sum of the frequency (n) is an odd number, then the

median is the   observation, if the sum of the frequency (n) is an even number, then the

median is the average of    observations.

Example:
Find the median of the data below.

The number of observations (employees), (n) = 100

Since 100 is an even number, the median is the average of   observations.
That is, the average of

The next step is to insert a cumulative frequency column.

Identify which row 50 falls under in the cumulative frequency column, the salary amount in that row
is the 50th observation.
That is, the 50th observation is, 6000.
Identify which row 51 falls under in the cumulative frequency column, the salary amount in that row
is the 51th observation.
That is, the 51th observation is, 6500.
Therefore, the median
 Mode
The mode of a given set of numbers is the number which has the highest frequency, that is, it is listed
the most times.
Example:
Identify the mode in the following distributions
(a) 20, 24, 27, 24, 26, 28, 27, 24
(b) 102, 108, 107, 109, 108, 102, 110
(c)
Goals Frequenc
Scored y
1 5
2 8
3 3
4 3
5 1
(a) The mode is the number which appears the most times:
20, 24, 27, 24, 26, 28, 27, 24
Since 24 appear the most times, it is the mode.
That is, mode = 24
(b)          102, 108, 107, 109, 108, 102, 110
In this distribution, 102 and 108 both appears two times.
Therefore, the mode = 102 and 108.
And this distribution is called, bimodal.
(c) The highest frequency is 8.
Therefore the modal number of goals scored is 2.
 Range, Interquartile And Semi-Interquartile Ranges (Raw Data)
Range
The range of a set of numbers is the difference between the largest and the smallest number.
Example:
Calculate the range of the following numbers:
204, 210, 215, 220, 225, 234, 238, 240
The range
= the largest number – the smallest number
=  240 – 204
=  36
Ungrouped Frequency Table-Range
The range of a frequency distribution with ungrouped events is calculated using the formula below.
The range = the upper boundary limit of the largest event – the lower boundary of the smallest event
Example:

Find the range of the points in the table above.

Firstly identify the largest and smallest points.
Largest point = 13
Smallest point = 7
Find the upper boundary limit of the largest and the lower boundary limit of the smallest.
Upper boundary limit of 13 is, 13.5
Lower boundary limit of 7 is, 6.5
The range
= Upper boundary limit of 13 – lower boundary limit of 7
=             13.5 – 6.5
=             7
Quartiles
-Q2 (the middle quartile) is the median.
-Q1 (the lower quartile) is the median of the numbers to the left of, or below Q 2.
-Q3 (the upper quartile) is the median of the numbers to the right of, or above Q 2.
Example:
12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32
Find the lower, middle and upper quartiles of the data above.
Since the data is already in ascending order, identify the median.
12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32
22 is the median, therefore, Q2= 22
The median of the numbers to the left of Q2: 12, 14, 16, 18, 20
16 is the median, therefore, Q1 = 16
The median of the numbers to the right of Q2: 24, 26, 28, 30, 32
28 is the median, therefore, Q3 = 28
Interquartile Range
The interquartile range of a distribution is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles.
That is, interquartile range = Q3 – Q1
Therefore using the example above, the interquartile range is:
Interquartile range = Q3 – Q1
Since,
Q3 = 28
Q1 = 16
Interquartile range
= 28 – 16
= 12
Semi-Interquartile Range
The semi-interquartile range of a distribution is half the difference between the upper and lower
quartiles, or half the interquartile range.
Therefore, from the example above, it was determined that the interquartile range = 12.
Therefore,          semi-interquartile range

Probability
Probability is defined as the likelihood of an event occurring. Given that all the possible outcomes are
equally likely, the probability of an event is equal to the number of favourable outcomes divided by
the total number of possible outcomes, that is:

The probability of an event will be a number between 0 and 1. If the probability of an event is 0, then
the event will never occur, that is, it is impossible. If the probability of an event is 1, then the event
will occur, that is, it is a certainty.
Example:
A basket consists of 50 fruits, 15 apples, 20 oranges and 15 peaches.
(a)What is the probability of selecting an apple?
(b)What is the probability of selecting an orange?
(c)What is the probability of selecting a grape?
(d)What is the probability of selecting either an apple or an orange?
(e)What is the probability of selecting an apple, an orange or a peach?
Procedure:
-Determine the number of favourable outcomes.
-Determine the total number of possible outcomes.
-Divide the number of favourable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes.
(a) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of apples, that is, 15.
The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50.
Therefore,

(b) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of oranges, that is, 20.
The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50.
Therefore,

(c) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of grapes, that is, 0.
The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50.
Therefore,

(d) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of apples and oranges, that is, 35.
The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50.
Therefore,

(e) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of apples, oranges and peaches, that is, 50.
The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50.
Therefore,
Consumer Arithmetic

Percentage Profit And Percentage Loss

Profit can be defined as the monetary gain made from a transaction. In consumer arithmetic, a profit
is made if the selling price of a product is greater than the cost price (the price at which the product
was bought) of the product.
Therefore,
Profit = Selling price – Cost price
The percentage profit made from a transaction is found by using the formula below.

A loss is made from a transaction if the selling price of a product is less than the cost price.
Therefore,
Loss = Cost price – Selling price
The percentage loss made from a transaction is found by using the formula below.

Example:
The manager of a Foot Locker store buys 30 Carmelo Anthony New York Knicks jerseys for $250
each.
(a)Find the percentage profit if the jerseys are sold for $290 each.
(b)Find the percentage loss if the jerseys are sold for $245 each.
Note that the percentage profit could be found without finding the total cost and selling prices. This
is shown below.
Note that the percentage loss could be found without finding the total cost and selling prices. This is
shown below.
 Discount
A discount is a reduction in the selling price of a product. Discounts are usually given as a percentage
of the selling price.
Therefore, if the discount is y%

The discount price is the difference between the selling price and the discount.
That is,

Example:
A Mac book has a selling price of $1000. If a 10% discount is given to a customer, what is the
discounted price of the Mac book?
 Sales Tax
Sales tax is a fee charged by governments on products, and is calculated as a percentage of the selling
price of a product. Depending on your country of residence, this sales tax might have a name, for
example, in Jamaica the sales tax is called General Consumption Tax, G.C.T, in England and most of
Europe its called, VAT, Value Added Tax.

Now to find the selling price of a product inclusive of the sales tax amount, add the sales tax to 100%
and find that percentage of the selling price. So if the sales tax is 10% , the formula would be:

Example:
Given that the sales tax on all products is 15%, find the final selling price of a product which costs
$1500.
 Simple Interest
Simple interest is the interest calculated on a principal sum. Principal is the sum of money invested
in to, or borrowed from an institution, denoted as P. The money earned by an invested principal is
called interest, and the money charged for borrowing a principal amount from an institution is also
called interest, denoted as I. The amount of interest earned or charged per year is expressed as a
percentage and is known as the rate of interest, denoted as R.
Therefore,

Note, the amount accruing, A  = P + I

Example1:
A person invested $5000 in a bank at 10% per annum for 4 years.
(a)What is the simple interest earned?
(b)Determine what this interest earned equals to in terms of monthly payments.

Example2:
A person borrows $12000 from a bank at 15% per annum for 3 years. Determine the sum of each
monthly payment.
 Compound Interest
Compound interest is interest which is calculated on the principal sum for the first year and on the
accruing amount for the remaining years.
For example, to find the compound interest earned when $5000 is invested at 10% per annum for 3
years:
-Find the interest earned for the first year.

-Add the principal to the interest for the first year, which sums to the principal at the beginning of
the second year.

-Find the interest earned for the second year.

-Add the principal at the beginning of the second year to the interest earned for the second year,
which sums to the principal at the beginning of the third year.

-Find the interest for the third year.

-Sum the interest for the first, second and third years, which equals to the Compound interest.
There is however a much simpler way to obtain the compound interest, this is done by using the
amount accruing formula below:

Below, the compound interest found above is determined using the formula.
 Depreciation
Most assets decrease in value over time and depending on the condition they are in (the wear); this
decrease in value is called depreciation.
To find the amount by which an asset depreciates over a year, the rate of depreciation (the
percentage by which it decreases) is multiplied by the initial cost of the asset, the depreciation
amount (the product obtained) is then subtracted from the initial cost to give the current book value
of the asset.
For example, a Blackberry Bold 9780 is purchased for $460, if its depreciation is calculated as 5%
per annum, what is its book value after a year?
The Initial cost of the asset, P = $460
The rate of depreciation, R = 5%

To find the depreciation of an asset for a period greater than one year, do the following:
-Find the book value using the formula,

-Find the depreciation amount by using the formula,

By amending the example above, we have, a Blackberry Bold 9780 is purchased for $460, if its
depreciation is calculated as 5% per annum, find the amount by which it depreciates over 3 years?