Probability and Statistics

Probability
Probability - is the basic tool for constructing and
analyzing mathematical models for random Union- two sets wherein the set of all elements
phenomena. which belongs to either or both sets.
Sets
Set- is a collection of objects possessing some
common properties.
Elements of the set- objects inside a set which can
be of any kind with any specified properties. It
describes the set. Denoted by a ∈ and ∈ Intersection- two sets wherein the set of all
Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} elements which belongs to both sets.
Set A has as its elements integers 1 through 6
Empty or null set- A set containing no elements
and is denoted by Ø.
Subset- If every element of a set is also an element
of another set. It is represented by c or ‫ﬤ‬
Statistics
Statistics- is the theory and method of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting
data.
Major types of statistics
 Descriptive Statistics- deals with the
If all elements of set A belongs to set B, then A is a
subset of B. In symbol we write: methods of organizing, summarizing and
presenting a mass of data so as to yield
A⊆B or B⊇A
meaningful information. It includes the
to respectively indicate that "A is contained in B" or
construction of graphs, charts, and tables,
"B contains A".
and the calculation of various descriptive
measures such as averages, measures of
Universal set- consists all elements under
variation, and percentiles.
consideration.
 Inferential Statistics- deals with making
U generalizations about a body of data where
only a part of it is examined. It includes
methods like point estimation, interval
estimation and hypothesis testing which are
all based on probability theory.
Complement Set- All set elements which belongs to
U but do not belong to A and is denoted by Ac.
Population &
Population- can Sampling
be characterized as the set of
individual persons or objects. It is the set of all
individuals or entities under consideration or study.
Sample- part of population or a sub-collection of
elements drawn from a population.
Disjoint Set- the sets contains no common element.
Types of Sampling  Qualitative variable- referred to as
a. Probability Sampling – all of the elements categorical variables. Those expresses a
of the population has a chance to be chosen qualitative attribute such as hair color, eye
Types of Probability Sampling color, religion, favorite movie, gender, and
 Simple random sampling- is the so on.
easiest form of probability sampling.  Quantitative variables- are those variables
All the researcher needs to do is to that are measured in terms of numbers.
assure that all the members of the Classification of Quantitative Variable
population are included in the list and  Discrete- possible values are some or all of
then randomly select the desired the ordinary counting numbers. Finite set of
number of subjects. data.
 Stratified random sampling- is also  Continuous- quantities such as length,
known as proportional random weight, or temperature can in principle be
sampling. This is a probability sampling measured arbitrarily accurately. Infinite set
technique wherein the subjects are of data.
initially grouped into different Level of measurement
classifications such as age,  Nominal- the numbers in the variable are
socioeconomic status or gender. used only to classify the data. Qualitative
 Systematic random sampling- can be type of data wherein there is no meaningful
likened to an arithmetic progression differences between data. (e.g. Filipino,
wherein the difference between any two Blue, Adobo, Female etc.,)
consecutive numbers is the same.  Ordinal- depicts some ordered relationship
 Cluster random sampling- is done among the variable’s observation. (e.g.
when simple random sampling is almost Military Rank, Class Rank, Mobile
impossible because of the size of the Legend’s Rank)
population.  Interval- it does not only classify and order
the measurement but also specify the
b. Non-Probability Sampling- some of the distance between each interval on scale are
elements of the population do not have a equivalent along the scale from low interval
chance to be chosen. to high interval. (e.g. Temperature)
 Quota Sampling- the aim is to end  Ratio- in addition of having equal interval,
up with a sample where the strata can have a value of zero as well. Despite of
(groups) being studied are the similarities with interval, ratio level
proportional to the population being shows that the divisions between the points
studied on the scale have an equivalent distance
 Convenience sampling- is simply between. (e.g. Height, Weight)
one where the units that are selected
for inclusion in the sample are the
easiest to access. Graphical Representation of Data
 Self-Selection Sampling- research  Bar Graph- pictorial rendition of
subjects volunteer to take part in the statistical data in which the independent
research rather than being variable can attain only certain discrete
approached by the researcher values. Vertical bar graph, values of the
directly. independent variable are plotted along a
horizontal axis from left to right. While
Variable
horizontal bar graph, the independent
Variable- A characteristic of interest measurable on variable is plotted along a vertical axis
each and every individual in the universe, denoted from the bottom up.
by any capital letter in the English alphabet.  Line Graph- is a graph which uses lines
Types of variable to connect individual data points that
 display quantitative values over a
specified time interval. Line graphs use
data point "markers" that are connected
by straight lines to aid in visualization.
 Circle Graph- graph in the form of a
circle that is divided into sectors, with
each sector representing a part of a set of
data.
 Pictograph- a way of showing data
using images. Each image stands for a
certain number of things.
 Scatter Point Diagram- pairs of
numerical data, with one variable on
each axis, to look for a relationship
between them. If the variables are
correlated, the points will fall along a
line or curve.
Mean, Median, Mode
Mean- mathematical average of all the terms

x= (Σfi)(xi)/n
fi= frequency
xi= classmark
n= total frequency

Median- depends on whether the number of terms in

~
x = L~
x + (n/2-Cfb)/f~x) c~
x
L~x = Lower boundary of median class
Cfb= <cf of the interval below the median class
f~
x = frequency of the median class
c~
x = Class size

Mode- the value of the term that occurs the most