CE 151

Structural Theory 1
Chapter 2
Loads on Structures
2.1 Dead Loads
2.1.1 Illustrative Problem 2-1
2.1.2 Illustrative Problem 2-2
2.2 Live Loads
2.2.1 Illustrative Problem 2-3
2.2.2 Illustrative Problem 2-4
2.3 Wind Loads
2.3.1 Illustrative Problem 2-5
2.3.2 Illustrative Problem 2-6
2.4 Load Combinations
2.4.1 Illustrative Problem 2-7
2.4.2 Illustrative Problem 2-8
2.5 Review Exercises
2.6 Answers to Review Exercises
After careful study of this chapter, students should be able to do the following:
1. Identify and classify the loads imposed to a structure.
2. Describe the types of loads commonly encountered in the design of structures and to
introduce the basic concepts of load estimation.
3. Compute Dead Loads in accordance to the NSCP.
4. Compute Live Loads in accordance to the NSCP.
5. Compute Wind Loads in accordance to the NSCP.
6. Apply the Load Combinations in accordance to the NSCP.

Loads - are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movements, and restrained
dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over time are rare or
of small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads. (NSCP 2015, 7 th ed, sec 202)

1. Dead loads – due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other material
permanently attached to it
2. Live loads – movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure
3. Environmental loads – caused by environmental effects, such as wind, snow, and
earthquakes
• The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures must be
designed are specified in the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP).

2.1 Dead Loads

➢ gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on
the structure

1 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
➢ consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other material and
equipment permanently attached to the structural system
➢ include weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls,
stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems
➢ consist of the weight of all materials and fixed equipment incorporated into the
building or other structure (NSCP 2015, 7th ed, sec 202)

See NSCP 2015 section 204, Dead Loads

Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)
Material Density Material Density
Aluminum 26.7 Lead 111.5
Bituminous products Lime
Asphaltum 12.7 Hydrated, loose 5.0
Graphite 21.2 Hydrated, compacted 7.1
Paraffin 8.8 Masonry, Ashlar Stone
Petroleum, crude 8.6 Granite 25.9
Petroleum, refined 7.9 Limestone, crystalline 25.9
Petroleum, benzine 7.2 Limestone, oolitic 21.2
Petroleum, gasoline 6.6 Marble 27.2
Pitch 10.8 Sandstone 22.6
Tar 11.8 Masonry, brick
Brass 82.6 Hard, low absorption 20.4
Bronze 86.7 Medium, medium absorption 18.1
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) 22.6 Soft, high absorption 15.7
Cement, portland, loose 14.1 Masonry, Concrete (solid portion)
Ceramic tile 23.6 Lightweight units 16.5
Charcoal 1.9 Medium weight units 19.6
Cinder fill 9.0 Normal weight units 21.2
Cinders, dry, in bulk 7.1 Masonry grout 22.0
Coal Masonry, Rubble Stone
Anthracite, piled 8.2 Granite 24.0
Bituminous, piled 7.4 Limestone, crystalline 23.1
Lignite, piled 7.4 Limestone, oolitic 21.7
Peat, dry, piled 3.6 Marble 24.5
Concrete, plain Sandstone 21.5
Cinder 17.0 Mortar, cement or lime 20.4
Expanded-slag aggregate 15.7 Particle board 7.1
Haydite, burned-clay aggregate 14.1 Plywood 5.7
Slag 20.7 Riprap, not submerged
Stone 22.6 Limestone 13.0
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, nonload-bearing 3.9-7.9 Sandstone 14.1
Other light aggregate, load bearing 11.0-16.5 Sand
Concrete, reinforced Clean and dry 14.1
Cinder 17.4 River, dry 16.7
Slag 21.7 Slag
Stone, including gravel 23.6 Bank 11.0
Copper 87.3 Bank screenings 17.0
Cork, compressed 2.2 Machine 15.1
Earth, not submerged Sand 8.2
Clay, dry 9.9 Slate 27.0

2 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Clay, damp 17.3 Steel, cold-drawn 77.3
Clay and gravel, dry 15.7 Stone, quarried, piled
Silt, moist, loose 12.3 Basalt, granite, gneiss 15.1
Silt, moist, packed 15.1 Limestone, marble, quartz 14.9
Silt, flowing 17.0 Sandstone 12.9
Sand and gravel, dry, loose 15.7 Shale 14.5
Sand and gravel, dry, packed 17.3 Greenstone, hornblende 16.8
Sand and gravel, wet 18.9 Terracotta, architectural
Earth, submerged Voids filled 18.9
Clay 12.6 Voids unfilled 11.3
Soil 11.0 Tin 72.1
River mud 14.1 Water
Sand or gravel 9.4 Fresh 9.8
Sand or gravel and clay 10.2 Sea 10.1
Glass 25.1 Wood (see Chapter 6 for relative densities
Gravel, dry 16.3 for Philippine wood)
Gypsum. loose 11.0 Zinc, rolled sheet 70.5
Gypsum, wallboard 7.9
Ice 9.0
Iron
Cast 70.7
Wrought 75.4

Table 204-2 Minimum Design Loads (kPa)

Component Load Component Load
CEILINGS FLOOR AND FLOOR FINISHES
Acoustical fiber board 0.05 Asphalt block (50 mm), 13 mm mortar 1.44
Gypsum board (per mm thickness) 0.008 Cement finish (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill 1.53
Mechanical duct allowance 0.20 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 13 mm mortar bed 0.77
Plaster on tile or concrete 0.24 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 25 mm mortar bed 1.10
Plaster on wood lath 0.38 Concrete fill finish (per mm thickness) 0.023
Suspended steel channel system 0.10 Hardwood flooring, 22 mm 0.19
Suspended metal lath and cement plaster 0.72 Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6 mm 0.05
Wood furring suspension system 0.12 Marble and mortar on stone-concrete fill 1.58
COVERINGS, Roof and Wall Slate (per mm thickness) 0.028
Asphalt shingles 0.10 Solid flat tile on 25-mm mortar base 1.10
Cement tile 0.77 Subflooring, 19 mm 0.14
Clay tile (for mortar add 0.48 kPa) Terrazo (38 mm) directly on slab 0.91
Book tile, 50 mm 0.57 Terrazo (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill 1.53
Book tile, 75 mm 0.96 Terrazo (25 mm) on 50-mm stone concrete 1.53
Ludowici 0.48 Wood block (75 mm) on mastic, no fill 0.48
Roman 0.57 Wood block (75 mm) on 13-mm mortar base 0.77
Spanish 0.91 FRAME PARTITIONS
Composition: Movable partitions 0.24
Three-ply ready roofing 0.05 Movable partitions (steel) 0.19
Four-ply felt and gravel 0.26 Wood or steel studs, 13 mm gypsum board each side 0.38
Five-ply felt and gravel 0.29 Wood studs, 50 x 100, unplastered 0.19
Copper or tin 0.05 Wood studs, 50 x 100, plastered one side 0.57
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing 0.19 Wood studs, 50 x 100, plastered two side 0.96
Deck, metal 20 gage 0.12 FRAME WALLS
Deck, metal 18 gage 0.14 Exterior stud walls:
Fiberboard, 13 mm 0.04 50 x 100 @ 400 mm, 15 mm gypsum, insulated, 10 mm siding 0.53

3 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm 0.10 50 x 150 @ 400 mm, 15 mm gypsum, insulated, 10 mm siding 0.57
Insulation, roof boards (per mm thickness) Exterior stud wall with brick veneer 2.30
Cellular glass 0.0013 Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.38
Fibrous glass 0.0021 Clay brick wythes:
Fiberboard 0.0028 100 mm 1.87
Perlite 0.0015 200 mm 3.74
Polystyrene foam 0.0004 300 mm 5.51
Urethane foam with skin 0.0009 400 mm 7.48
Plywood (per mm thickness) 0.0060 CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
Rigid insulation, 13 mm 0.04 Hollow Concrete Masonry Units Unplastered. Add 0.24 kPa
Skylight, metal frame, 10 mm wire glass 0.38 for each face plastered
Slate, 5 mm 0.34 Grout Wythe thickness (mm)
Slate, 6 mm 0.48 Spacing 100 150 200
Waterproofing membranes: 16.5-kN/m Density of Unit
3

Bituminous, gravel-covered 0.26 No grout 1.05 1.15 1.48

Bituminous, smooth surface 0.07 800 1.40 1.53 2.01
Liquid, applied 0.05 600 1.50 1.63 2.20
Single-ply, sheet 0.03 400 1.79 1.92 2.54
Wood sheathing (per mm thickness) 0.0057 Full 2.50 2.63 3.59
Wood shingles 0.14 19.6-kN/m3 Density of Unit
FLOOR FILL No grout 1.24 1.34 1.72
Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017 800 1.59 1.72 2.25
Lightweight concrete, per mm 0.015 600 1.69 1.87 2.44
Sand, per mm 0.015 400 1.98 2.11 2.82
Stone concrete, per mm 0.023 Full 2.69 2.82 3.88
21.2-kN/m3 Density of Unit
No grout 1.39 1.44 1.87
800 1.74 1.82 2.39
600 1.83 1.96 2.59
400 2.13 2.2 2.92
Full 2.84 2.97 3.97

Illustrative Problem 2-1

The floor system of a building consists of a 15-cm-thick reinforced concrete slab resting on four
steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders as shown. The cross-
sectional areas of the floor beams and the girders are 94.8 cm 2 and 337.4 cm2, respectively as
shown. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder AD.

4 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

Dead Load on Beam CG:

➢ Beam DH carries the slab (reinforced concrete) and its own weight (structural steel)
▪ the portion of the slab supported by beam DH has a width of 1.5 m (i.e., half the
distance between beams CG and DH) and a length of 8 m
→this is referred to as the tributary area form beam CG
➢ unit weights (see attached excerpt from NSCP):
reinforced concrete = 23.6 kN/m3
structural steel = 77.3 kN/m3
➢ Tributary Area for Beam CG = 8 𝑚 × 3 𝑚 = 24 𝑚2
➢ Computation of Total Dead Load (carried by beam CG):
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
concrete: 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
24
23.6 × 8 × 0.15 = 10.62 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
steel: 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
1 2
77.3 × 94.8 (100) = 0.73 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
Total: 10.62 + 0.73 = 11.35 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚

Dead Load on Beam DH:

➢ Beam CG carries the slab (reinforced concrete) and its own weight (structural steel)
▪ the portion of the slab supported by beam CG has a width of 3 m (i.e., half the
distance between beams CG and BF plus half the distance between beams CG
and DH) and a length of 8 m
→this is referred to as the tributary area form beam CG
➢ unit weights (see attached excerpt from NSCP):
reinforced concrete = 23.6 kN/m3

5 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
structural steel = 77.3 kN/m3
➢ Tributary Area for Beam CG = 8 𝑚 × 1.5 𝑚 = 12 𝑚2
➢ Computation of Total Dead Load (carried by beam CG):
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
concrete: 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
12
23.6 × × 0.15 = 5.31 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
8
steel: 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
1 2
77.3 × 94.8 (100) = 0.73 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
Total: 5.31 + 0.73 = 6.04 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚

Dead Load on Girder AD:

➢ The girder AD carries concentrated loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A, B,
C, and D, and a uniform load due to its self-weight.

➢ solving for 𝑅𝐴 :
▪ beam AE is similar to beam DH due to symmetry

+↻ Σ𝑀𝐸 = 0
𝑅𝐴 (8) − 6.04(8)(4) = 0
𝑅𝐴 = 24.16 𝑘𝑁

➢ solving for 𝑅𝐵 :

6 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
▪ beam BF is similar to beam CG due to symmetry

+↻ Σ𝑀𝐹 = 0
𝑅𝐵 (8) − 11.35(8)(4) = 0
𝑅𝐵 = 45.40 𝑘𝑁

➢ solving for 𝑅𝐶 :

+↻ Σ𝑀𝐹 = 0
𝑅𝐶 (8) − 11.35(8)(4) = 0
𝑅𝐶 = 45.40 𝑘𝑁

➢ solving for 𝑅𝐷 :

+↻ Σ𝑀𝐻 = 0
𝑅𝐷 (8) − 6.04(8)(4) = 0
𝑅𝐷 = 24.16 𝑘𝑁

➢ solving for the girder self-weight

𝑤 = 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟

7 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
1 2
𝑤 = 77.3(337.4) ( ) = 2.61 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
100

Illustrative Problem 2-2

The floor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130-mm-thick concrete slab resting on four steel
beams (A=9,100 mm2) that, in turn, are supported by two steel girders (A=25,600 mm2) as
shown. Determine the dead loads acting on beam BF and girder AD.

Dead Load on beam BF:

➢ Beam BF carries the slab (reinforced concrete) and its own weight (structural steel)
➢ unit weights (see attached excerpt from NSCP):
reinforced concrete = 23.6 kN/m3
structural steel = 77.3 kN/m3
➢ Tributary Area for Beam BF = 10 𝑚 × (2.5 𝑚 + 2.5 𝑚) = 50 𝑚2
➢ Computation of Total Dead Load (carried by beam BF):
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
concrete: 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
50
23.6 × 10 × 0.13 = 15.34 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
steel: 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
1 2
77.3 × 9100 (1000) = 0.70 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
Total: 15.34 + 0.70 = 16.04 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚

Dead Load on girder AD:

➢ The girder AD carries concentrated loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A, B,
C, and D, and a uniform load due to its self-weight.
➢ concentrated loads at B and C:

8 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

due to symmetry:
1
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐹 = (16.04)(10) = 80.20 𝑘𝑁
2
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐺 = 80.20 𝑘𝑁
➢ concentrated loads at A and D:
▪ Beam AE carries the slab (reinforced concrete) and its own weight (structural
steel)
▪ unit weights (see attached excerpt from NSCP):
reinforced concrete = 23.6 kN/m3
structural steel = 77.3 kN/m3
▪ Tributary Area for Beam AE = 10 𝑚 × 2.5 𝑚 = 25 𝑚2
▪ Computation of Total Dead Load (carried by beam AE):
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
concrete: 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
25
23.6 × 10 × 0.13 = 7.67 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
steel: 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
1 2
77.3 × 9100 (1000) = 0.70 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
Total: 7.67 + 0.70 = 8.37 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚

due to symmetry:
1
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐸 = (8.37)(10) = 41.85 𝑘𝑁
2
𝑅𝐷 = 𝑅𝐻 = 41.85 𝑘𝑁

➢ uniform load due to self-weight of girder AD:

➢ 𝑤 = 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟

9 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
1 2
➢ 𝑤 = 77.3(25600) (1000) = 1.98 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚

2.2 Live Loads

➢ loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the structure
➢ are those loads produced by the use and occupancy of the building or other
structure and do not include dead load, construction load, or environmental loads
(NSCP 2015, 7th ed, sec 202)
➢ magnitudes of design live loads are specified in NSCP

See NSCP 2015 section 205, Live Loads

Table 205-1 Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads

Use or Occupancy Uniform Concentrated
Load1 Load
Category Description kPa kN
Office use 2.4 9.02
1. Access floor systems
Computer use 4.8 9.0
2. Armories -- 7.2 0
Fixed seats 2.9 0
3. Theaters, assembly areas3 and Movable seats 4.8 0
auditoriums Lobbies and platforms 4.8 0
Stage areas 7.2 0
4. Bowling alleys, poolrooms and similar
-- 3.6 0
recreational areas
5. Catwalk for maintenance -- 1.9 1.3
6. Cornices and marquees -- 3.64 0
7. Dining rooms and restaurants -- 4.8 0

1
See Section 205.5 for live load reductions.
2
See Section 205.3.3, first paragraph, for area of load application.
3
Assembly areas include such occupancies as dance halls, drill rooms, gymnasiums, playgrounds, plazas, terraces
and similar occupancies that are generally accessible to the public.
4
For special-purpose roofs, see Section 205.4.4.

10 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
8. Exit facilities5 -- 4.8 06
General storage and/or
4.8 --7
repair
Public parking 2.4 --7
9. Parking garages and Ramps Private (residential) or
pleasure-type motor vehicle 2.4 --7
storage
Ramps 4.8 --7
Wards and rooms 1.9 4.52
10. Hospitals Stack rooms 7.2 4.52
Corridors above ground
3.8 4.5
floor
Reading rooms 2.9 4.52
11. Libraries Stack rooms 7.2 4.52
Corridors above ground
3.8 4.5
floor
Light 6.0 9.02
12. Manufacturing Heavy 12.0 13.42
Building corridors above
3.8 9.0
ground floor
Call centers and business
2.9 9.0
processing offices
13. Office Lobbies and ground floor
4.8 9.0
corridors
Other offices 2.4 9.02
Press rooms 7.2 11.02
14. Printing plants Composing and llinotype
4.8 9.02
rooms
Basic floor area 1.9 06
Exterior balconies 2.94 0
15. Residential8
Decks 1.94 0
Storage 1.9 0
16. Restrooms9 -- -- --
17. Reviewing stands, grandstands,
bleachers, and folding and telescoping -- 4.8 0
seating
Same as area served or
18. Roof decks -- --
occupancy
Classrooms 1.9 4.52
19. Schools Corridors above ground
3.8 4.5
floor

5
Exit facilities shall include such uses as corridors serving an occupant load of 10 or more persons, exterior exit
balconies, stairways, fire escapes and similar uses.
6
Individual stair treads shall be designed to support a 1.3 N concentrated load placed in a position that would
cause maximum stress. Stair stringers may be designed for the uniform load set forth in the table.
7
See section 205.3.3, second paragraph, for concentrated loads. See Table 205-2 for vehicle barriers.
8
Residential occupancies include private dwellings, apartments and hotel guest rooms.
9
Restroom loads shall not be less than the load for the occupancy with which they are associated, but need not
exceed 2.4 kPa.

11 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Ground floor corridors 4.8 4.5
20. Sidewalk and driveways Public access 12.0 --7
Light 6.0 --
21. Storage
Heavy 12.0 --
Retail 4.8 4.52
22. Stores
Wholesale 6.0 13.42
23. Pedestrian bridges and walkways -- 4.8 --

Table 205-2 Special Loads10

Vertical
Use or Occupancy Lateral Load
Load
Category Description kPa kPa
1. Construction, public access at site (live Walkway 7.2 -
load) Canopy 7.2 -
2. Grandstands, reviewing stands,
bleachers, and folding and telescoping Seats and footboards 1.7511 --12
seating (live load)
Catwalks 1.9 -
3. Stage accessories (live load) Follow spot, projection and
2.4 -
control rooms
Over stages 1.0 -
4. Ceiling framing (live load)
All uses except over stages 0.513 -
5. Partitions and interior walls - - 0.25
6. Elevators and dumbwaiters (dead and
- 2*total load -
live loads)
Total load including impact 1.25*total 0.10*total
7. Cranes (dead and live loads)
increase load14 load15
Exit facilities serving an
occupant load greater than - 0.75 kN/m16
8. Balcony railings and guardrails 50 persons
Other than exit facilities - 0.30 kN/m16
Components - 1.217

10
The tabulated loads are minimum loads. Where other vertical loads required by the design would cause greater
stresses, they shall be used. Loads are in kPa unless otherwise indicated in the table.
11
Units is kN/m.
12
Lateral sway bracing loads of 350 N/m parallel and 145 N/m perpendicular to seat and footboards.
13
Does not apply to ceilings that have sufficient access from below, such that access is not required within the
space above the ceiling are not provided with access. This live load need not be considered as acting
simultaneously with other live loads imposed upon the ceiling framing or its supporting structure.
14
The impact factors included are for cranes with steel wheels riding on steel rails. They may be modified if
substantiating technical data acceptable to the building official is submitted. Live loads on crane support girders
and their connections shall be taken as the maximum crane wheel loads. For pendant-operated traveling crane
support girders and their connections, the impact factors shall be 1.10.
15
This applies in the direction parallel to the runway rails (longitudinal). The factor for forces perpendicular to the
rail is 0.20*the transverse traveling loads (trolley, cab, hooks and lifted loads). Forces shall be applied at top of rail
and may be distributed among rails of multiple rail cranes and shall be distributed with due regard for lateral
stiffness of the structures supporting these rails.
16
A load per linear meter (kN/m) to be applied horizontally at right angles to the top rail.
17
Intermediate rails, panel fillers and their connections shall be capable of withstanding a load of 1.2 kPa applied
horizontally at right angles over the entire tributary area, including openings and spaces between rails. Reactions
due to this loading need not be combined with those of Note 7.

12 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
9. Vehicle barriers - - 27 kN18
10. Handrails - --19 --19
11. Storage racks Over 2.4 m high Total loads20 See Table 208-13
1.1 kN plus
weight of
12. Fire sprinkler structural support - See Table 208-13
water-filled
pipe21

Table 205-3 Minimum Roof Live Loads22

Method 1 Method 2
Tributary Area, m2 Uniform Rate of Maximum
ROOF SLOPE
0 to 20 20 to 60 Over 60 Load23 Reduction, Reduction,
Uniform Load, kPa kPa r R, %
1. Flat24 or rise less than 1-unit
vertical in 3-unit horizontal (33.3%
1.00 0.75 0.60 1.00 0.08 40
slope). Arch and dome with rise
less than 1/8 of span.
2. Rise 1-unit vertical to less than 3-
unit vertical in 3-unit horizontal
(33.3% to less than 100% slope). 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.75 0.06 25
Arch and dome with rise 1/8 of
span to less than 3/8 of span.
3. Rise 1-unit vertical in 1-unit
horizontal (100% slope) and
0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
greater. Arch or dome with rise
3/8 of span or greater. No reduction permitted
4. Awnings except cloth covered.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
5. Greenhouses, lath houses and
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
agricultural buildings.26

18
A horizontal load applied at right angles to the vehicle barrier at a height of 450 mm above the parking surface.
The force may be distributed over a 300-mm square.
19
The mounting of handrails shall be such that the completed handrail and supporting structure are capable of
withstanding a load of at least 890 N applied in any direction at any point on the rail. These loads shall not be
assumed to act cumulatively with Note 9.
20
Vertical members of storage racks shall be protected from impact forces of operating equipment, or racks shall
be designed so that failure of one vertical member will not cause collapse of more than the bay or bays directly
supported by that member.
21
The 1.1-kN load is to be applied to any single fire sprinkler support point but not simultaneously to all support
joints.
22
For special-purpose roofs, see Section 205.4.4.
23
See Sections 205.5 and 205.6 for live-load reductions. The rate of reduction, r in Equation 205-1 shall be as
indicated in the table. The maximum reduction, R shall not exceed the value indicated in the table.
24
A flat roof is any roof with a slope less than 1-unit vertical in 48-unit horizontal (2% slope). The live load for flat
roofs is in addition to the ponding load required by Section 206.7.
25
See definition in Section 202.
26
See Section 205.4.4 for concentrated load requirements for greenhouse roof members.

13 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Illustrative Problem 2-3
The floor system of an apartment building consists of a 100-mm-thick reinforced concrete slab
resting on three steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders as shown.
The areas of cross section of the floor beams and girders are 11,800 mm 2 and 21,00 mm2,
respectively. Determine the live loads acting on the beam CD and the girder AE.

▪ live load to be considered for apartment buildings = 1.9 kPa (see Table 205-1,
residential, basic floor area)
Live Loads for beam CD:
➢ beam CD will carry the live load, LL = 1.9 kPa
➢ Tributary Area for beam CD = 7.5 𝑚 × (1.8 𝑚 + 1.8 𝑚 ) = 27 𝑚2
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
➢ uniformly distributed live load = 𝐿𝐿 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
27
𝑤 = 1.9 × = 6.84 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
7.5

Live Loads for girder AE:

➢ The girder AE carries concentrated live loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A,
C, and E.
➢ concentrated loads at A and E
▪ consider beam AB:
✓ beam AB will carry the live load, LL = 1.9 kPa
✓ Tributary Area for beam AB = 7.5 𝑚 × 1.8 𝑚 = 13.5 𝑚2
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
✓ uniformly distributed live load = 𝐿𝐿 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
13.5
𝑤 = 1.9 × = 3.42 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
7.5

14 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

1
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = (3.42)(7.5) = 12.82 𝑘𝑁
2
𝑅𝐸 = 12.82 𝑘𝑁
➢ concentrated load at C
▪ consider beam CD

1
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐷 = (6.84)(7.5) = 25.65 𝑘𝑁
2
➢ summary of loading:

Illustrative Problem 2-4

The floor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130-mm-thick concrete slab resting on four steel
beams (A = 9,100 mm2) that, in turn, are supported by two steel girders (A = 25,600 mm 2), as
shown. Determine the live loads acting on the beam BF and girder AD.

15 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

▪ live load to be considered for gymnasiums = 4.8 kPa (see Table 205-1, item no. 3,
consider with movable seats)
Live Loads acting on Beam BF:
➢ the beam will carry the live load, LL = 4.8 kPa
➢ Tributary Area for Beam BF = 10 𝑚 × (2.5 𝑚 + 2.5 𝑚) = 50 𝑚2
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
➢ uniformly distributed live load = 𝐿𝐿 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
50
𝑤 = 4.8 × = 24 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
10

Live Loads acting on girder AD:

➢ The girder AD carries concentrated live loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A,
B, C, and D
➢ concentrated loads at A and D:
▪ consider beam AE
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 10 × 2.5
𝑤 = 𝐿𝐿 × = 4.8 × = 12 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 10

16 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

1
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐸 = (12)(10) = 60 𝑘𝑁
2
𝑅𝐷 = 60 𝑘𝑁
➢ concentrated loads at B and C
▪ consider beam BF

1
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐹 = (24)(10) = 120 𝑘𝑁
2
𝑅𝐷 = 120 𝑘𝑁
➢ summary of loading:

2.3 Wind Loads

➢ are produced by the flow of wind around the structure

See NSCP 2015, 7th ed, section 207, Wind Loads

17 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
• Buildings and other vertical structures shall be designed and constructed to resist wind
loads as specified and presented in sections 207A through 207F

I. Directional Procedure for Buildings of All Heights.

▪ is a procedure for determining wind loads on buildings and other structures for specific
wind directions, in which the external pressure coefficients utilized are based on past
wind tunnel testing of prototypical building models for the corresponding direction of
wind

Table 207B.2-1 Steps to Determine MWFRS Wind Loads for Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and
Open Building of All Heights
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Gust Effect Factor, G , see Section 207A.9
e. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
f. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi), see Section 207A.11 and Table 207.11-1
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz or Kh , see Table 207B.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure exposure qz or qh , see Equation 207B.3-1
6. Determine external pressure coefficient, Cp or CN
a. Figure 207B.4-1 for walls and flat, gable, hip, monoslope or mansard roofs
b. Figure 207B.4-2 for domed roofs
c. Figure 207B.4-3 for arched roofs
d. Figure 207B.4-4 for monoslope roof, open building
e. Figure 207B.4-5 for pitched roof, open building
f. Figure 207B.4-6 for throughed roof, open building
g. Figure 207B.4-7 for along-ridge/valley wind load case for monoslope, pitched or
throughed roof, open building
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , on each building surface
a. Equation 207B.4-1 for rigid buildings
b. Equation 207B.4-2 for flexible buildings
c. Equation 207B.4-3 for open buildings

Table 207B.5-1 Steps to Determine MWFRS Wind Loads Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Buildings (h
< 48 m)
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1

18 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
b. Exposure category B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
4. Enter table to determine net pressures on walls at top and base of building
respectively, ph , p0 , Table 207B.6-1
5. Enter table to determine net roof pressures, pz , Table 207B.6-2
6. Determine topographic factor, Kzt , and apply factor to wall and roof pressures (if
applicable), see Section 207A.8
7. Apply loads to walls and roofs simultaneously

Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS)

➢ can consist of a structural frame or an assemblage of structural elements that work
together to transfer wind loads acting on the entire structure to the ground
➢ structural elements such as cross-bracing, shear walls, roof trusses, and roof
diaphragms are part of the MWFRS when they assist in transferring overall loads
Open Building
➢ is a building having each wall at least 80 percent open. This condition is expressed
for each wall by the equation A0 ³ 0.8Ag
Where
A0 = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure, in m 2
Ag = the gross area of the wall in which A0 is identified, in m2
Partially Enclosed Building
➢ is a building that complies with both of the following conditions:
1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure
exceeds the sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope
(walls and roof) by more than 10 percent.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure
exceeds 0.37 m2. Or 1 percent of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and
the percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not
exceed 20 percent.

These conditions are expressed by the following equations:

1. A0 > 1.10 A0i
2. A0 > 0.37 m2 or 0.01Ag , whichever is smaller, and A0i / Agi £ 0.20
Where:
A0 , Ag = are as defined for Open Building
A0i = the sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including A0 , in m2
Agi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including Ag , in m2

19 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Enclosed Building
➢ is a building that does not comply with the requirements for open or partially
enclosed buildings

Simple Diaphragm Building

➢ is a building in which both windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted by roof
and vertically spanning wall assemblies, through continuous floor and roof
diaphragms, to the MWFRS
Diaphragm
➢ is a roof, floor, or other membrane or bracing system acting to transfer lateral forces
to the vertical Main Wind-Force Resisting System
Eave Height
➢ is the distance from the ground surface adjacent to the building to the roof eave line
at a particular wall
➢ if the height of the eave varies along the wall, the average height shall be used
Mean Roof Height
➢ is the average of the roof eave height and the height to the highest point on the roof
surface, except that, for roof angles of less than or equal to 10 o, the mean roof
height is permitted to be taken as the roof eave height

II. Envelope Procedure

▪ is a procedure for determining wind load cases on buildings, in which pseudo-external
pressure coefficients are derived from past wind tunnel testing of prototypical building
models successively rotated through 360 degrees, such that the pseudo-pressure cases
produce key structural actions (uplift, horizontal shear, bending moments, etc) that
envelop their maximum values among all possible wind directions.

Table 207C.2-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Low-Rise Buildings

1. Determine occupancy category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V , for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Figure 207A.8-1
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
e. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi) , see Section 207A.11 and Table 207A.11-1
4. Determine the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz or Kh , see Table 207C.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure, qz or qh , see Equation 207C.3-1
6. Determine external pressure coefficient, (GCp) , using Figure 207C.4-1 for flat and
gable roofs
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , from Equation 207C.4-1

20 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Table 207C.5-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise
Buildings
1. Determine occupancy category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V , for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Exposure category B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
b. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Figure 207A.8-1
4. Enter figure to determine wind pressures for h = 9 m, ps30 , see Figure 207C.6-1
5. Enter figure to determine adjustment for building height and exposure,  , see
Figure 207C.6-1
6. Determine adjusted wind pressures, ps , see Equation 207C.6-1

Low-Rise Building
➢ are enclosed or partially enclosed buildings that comply with the following
conditions:
1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 18 m.
2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal dimension.

III. Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances and Other Structures

Table 207D.1-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Rooftop Equipment and Other
Structures
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Gust Effect Factor, G , see Section 207A.9
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz or Kh , see Table 207D.2-1
5. Determine velocity pressure qz or qh , see Equation 207D.3-1
6. Determine force coefficient, Cf:
a. Solid freestanding signs or solid freestanding walls, Figure 207D.4-1
b. Chimneys, tanks, rooftop equipment, Figure 207D.5-1
c. Open signs, lattice frameworks, Figure 207D.5-2
d. Trussed towers, Figure 207D.4-3
7. Calculate wind force, F:
a. Equation 207D.4-1 for signs and walls
b. Equation 207D.6-1 and Equation 207D.6-2 for rooftop structures and equipment
c. Equation 207D.5-1 for other structures

21 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
Table 207E.4-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-rise
Buildings
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
e. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi), see Section 207A.11 and Table 207.11-1
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz or Kh , see Table 207E.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure, qh , see Equation 207E.3-1
6. Determine external pressure coefficient, (GCp)
a. Walls, see Figure 207E.4-1
b. Flat roofs, gable roofs, hip roofs, see Figure 207E.4-2
c. Stepped roofs, see Figure 207E.4-3
d. Multispan gable roofs, see Figure 207E.4-4
e. Monoslope roofs, see Figure 207E.4-5
f. Sawtooth roofs, see Figure 207E.4-6
g. Domed roofs, see Figure 207E.4-7
h. Arched roofs, see Figure 207B.4-3 footnote 4
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , Equation 207E.4-1

Table 207E.5-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Enclosed Low-rise Buildings (Simplified
Method)
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Exposure category, see Section 207A.7
b. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
4. Enter figure to determine wind pressures at h = 9 m, pnet9 , see Figure 207E.5-1
5. Enter figure to determine adjustment for building height and exposure,  , see
Figure 207E.5-1
6. Determine adjusted wind pressures, pnet , see Equation 207E.5-1
Table 207E.6-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Building
with h > 18 m
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, B, C or D, see Section 207A.7

22 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
e. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi), see Section 207A.11 and Table 207.11-1
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz or Kh , see Table 207E.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure, qh , see Table 207E.3-1
6. Determine external pressure coefficient, (GCp)
a. Walls and flat roofs, ( < 10o), see Figure 207E.6-1
b. Gable and hip roofs, see Figure 207E.4-2 per note 6 of Figure 207E.6-1
c. Arched roofs, see Figure 207B.4-3, footnote 4
d. Doomed roofs, see Figure 207E.4-7
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , Equation 207E.6-1

Table 207E.7-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Enclosed Building with h > 48.8 m
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Exposure category, see Section 207A.7
4. Enter Table 207E.7-2 to determine pressure on walls and roof, p , using Equation
207E.7-1. Roof types are:
a. Flat roof ( < 10o)
b. Gable roof
c. Hip roof
d. Monoslope roof
e. Mansard roof
5. Determine topographic factors, Kzt , and apply factor to pressures determined from
tables (if applicable), see Section 207A.8

Table 207E.8-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Open Buildings

1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Gust Effect Factor, G , see Section 207A.9
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz or Kh , see Table 207E.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure qh , see Equation 207E.3-1
6. Determine net pressure coefficients, CN
a. Monosloped roof, see Figure 207E.8-1
b. Pitched roof, see Figure 207E.8-2
c. Throughed roof, see Figure 207E.8-3

23 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , see Equation 207E.8-1

Table 207E.9-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Parapets

1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
e. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi), see Section 207A.11 and Table 207A.11-
1
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kh , at the top of the parapet, see
Table 207E.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure qp , at the top of the parapet, see Equation 207E.3-1
6. Determine external pressure coefficient for wall and roof surfaces adjacent to
parapet, (GCp)
a. Walls with h < 18 m, see Figure 207E.4-1
b. Flat, gable and hip roofs, see Figures 207E.4-2A to 207E.4-3
c. Multispan gable roofs, see Figure 207E.4-4
d. Monoslope roofs, Figures 207E.4-5A and 207E.4-5B
e. Sawtooth roofs, see Figure 207E.4-6
f. Domed roofs of all heights, see Figure 207E.4-7
g. Walls and flat roofs with h > 18 m, see Figure 207E.6-1
h. Arched roofs, see fotenote 4 of Figure 207B.4-3
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , see Equation 207E.9-1 on windward and leeward face of
parapet, considering two load cases (Case A and Case B) as shown in Figure 207E.9-1

Table 207E.10-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Roof Overhangs

1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
b. Exposure category, B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
e. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi), see Section 207A.11 and Table 207A.11-
1
4. Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kh , see Table 207E.3-1
5. Determine velocity pressure, qh , at mean roof height h using Equation 207E.3-1
6. Determine external pressure coefficient, (GCp), using Figures 207E.4-2A through C
for flat, gabled and hip roofs

24 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , using Equation 207E.10-1, refer to Figure 207E.10-1

Components and Cladding (C&C)

➢ are components that receive wind loads directly or from cladding and transfer the
load to the MWFRS. Cladding receives wind loads directly. Examples of components
include fasteners, purlins, girts, studs, roof decking, and roof trusses. Examples of
cladding include wall coverings, curtain walls, roof coverings, exterior windows and
doors, and overhead doors
➢ refers to elements of the building envelope that do not qualify as part of the MWFRS
Parapet Wall
➢ is that part of any wall entirely above the roof line

IV. Wind Tunnel Procedure

▪ is a procedure for determining wind loads on buildings and other structures, in
which pressures and /or forces and moments are determined for each wind
direction considered, from a model of the building or other structure and its
surroundings, in accordance with Section 207F

Illustrative Problem 2-5

Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the rigid gabled frame of a nonessential
industrial building shown. The structure is located where the prevailing wind speed is 49 m/s
and the terrain is representative of exposure B. The wind direction is normal to the ridge of the
frame as shown.

➢ use the envelope procedure

➢ is the building is low-rise?
Low-Rise Building
o are enclosed or partially enclosed buildings that comply with the following
conditions:
1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 18 m.
5
Mean roof height, ℎ = 3.5 + = 6 𝑚 < 18 𝑚
2
2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal dimension.
ℎ = 6 𝑚 < 12 𝑚

25 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
∴ the building is low-rise
➢ is the structure an MWFRS?
Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS)
o Can consist of a structural frame or an assemblage of structural elements
that work together to transfer wind loads acting on the entire structure to
the ground
o Structural elements such as cross-bracing, shear walls, roof trusses, and roof
diaphragms are part of the MWFRS when they assist in transferring overall
loads
∴ the structure is an MWFRS
➢ Table 207C.2-1 is applicable

Table 207C.2-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Low-Rise Buildings

1. Determine occupancy category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
➢ the building is nonessential (occupancy category IV)
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V , for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
➢ 𝑉 = 49 𝑚⁄𝑠
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Wind directionality factor, Kd , see Section 207A.6 and Table 207A.6-1
➢ 𝐾𝑑 = 0.85
b. Exposure category B, C or D, see Section 207A.7
➢ exposure category B
c. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Figure 207A.8-1
➢ 𝐾𝑧𝑡 = 1.0 (does not meet ALL the conditions specified in Section 207A.8.1)
d. Enclosure classification, see Section 207A.10
➢ the building is enclosed
e. Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi) , see Section 207A.11 and Table 207A.11-1
➢ 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 = ±0.18 (for enclosed building)
4. Determine the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz or Kh , see Table 207C.3-1
➢ at roof mean height, ℎ = 6 𝑚 , for exposure category B, 𝐾ℎ = 0.70
5. Determine velocity pressure, qz or qh , see Equation 207C.3-1
➢ 𝑞𝑧 = 0.613𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2 (at any height z)
➢ 𝑞ℎ = 0.613𝐾ℎ 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2 (at mean height, h)
𝑞ℎ = 0.613(0.70)(1.0)(0.85)(49)2 = 875.73
6. Determine external pressure coefficient, (GCpf) , using Figure 207C.4-1 for flat and
gable roofs
➢ roof angle
5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 6 ; 𝜃 = 39.81𝑜
➢ considering the given wind direction, in accordance to Figure 207C.4-1
Load Case A:
windward (building surface 2)
𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑓 = 0.21

26 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
leeward (building surface 3)
𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑓 = −0.43
Load Case B:
windward (building surface 2)
𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑓 = −0.69
leeward (building surface 3)
𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑓 = −0.37
7. Calculate wind pressure, p , from Equation 207C.4-1
➢ 𝑝 = 𝑞ℎ [𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑓 − 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 ]
➢ Load Case A
windward:
𝑝 = 875.73[0.21 − 0.18] = 26.27 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑝 = 875.73[0.21 + 0.18] = 341.53 𝑁⁄𝑚2
leeward:
𝑝 = 875.73[−0.43 − 0.18] = −534.20 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑝 = 875.73[−0.43 + 0.18] = −218.93 𝑁⁄𝑚2
➢ Load Case B
windward:
𝑝 = 875.73[−0.69 − 0.18] = −761.89 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑝 = 875.73[−0.69 + 0.18] = −446.62 𝑁⁄𝑚2
leeward:
𝑝 = 875.73[−0.37 − 0.18] = −481.65 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑝 = 875.73[−0.37 + 0.18] = −166.39 𝑁⁄𝑚2
➢ governing wind pressures
windward: 𝑝 = 341.43 𝑁⁄𝑚2 and 𝑝 = −761.89 𝑁⁄𝑚2
leeward: 𝑝 = −534.20 𝑁⁄𝑚2

27 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

Illustrative Problem 2-6

Determine the external wind pressure on the walls of the rigid-gabled frame of a building for an
essential disaster operation center shown. The building is located in Dagupan City, Pangasinan,
where the terrain is representative of exposure C. The wind direction is normal to the ridge, as
shown in the figure.

➢ is the building low-rise?

4
1. ℎ = 10 + = 12 𝑚 < 18 𝑚
2
2. ℎ = 12 𝑚 < 10 𝑚
∴ the building is low-rise
➢ use C&C Wind Loads Enclosed Low-rise Buildings (Simplified Method)
Table 207E.5-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads Enclosed Low-rise Buildings (Simplified
Method)
1. Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 103-1
➢ the building is essential (risk category I)
2. Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category, see Figure
207A.5-1A, B or C
➢ the design wind speed in Dagupan City, Pangasinan is V = 260 kph
3. Determine wind load parameters:
a. Exposure category, see Section 207A.7
➢ exposure category C
b. Topographic factor, Kzt , see Section 207A.8 and Table 207A.8-1

28 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
➢ 𝐾𝑧𝑡 = 1.0 (does not meet ALL the conditions specified in Section
207A.8.1)
4. Enter figure to determine wind pressures at h = 9 m, pnet9 , see Figure 207E.5-1
➢ computing for the wind pressure on walls
➢ consider zone 4 (according to NSCP, interior zone)
➢ effective wind area = 10 𝑚 × 10 𝑚 = 100 𝑚2 , consider area = 46.5 m2
▪ the wall is considered cladding
➢ basic wind speed, 𝑉 = 260 𝑘𝑝ℎ
by interpolation:
Wind Speed 250 kph 260 kph 300 kph
windward 1.55 pnet9w 2.23
leeward -1.72 pnet9l -2.48

300 − 260 300 − 250

=
2.23 − 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡9𝑤 2.23 − 1.55
𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡9𝑤 = 1.69 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
300 − 260 300 − 250
=
−2.48 − 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡9𝑙 −2.48 − (−1.72)
𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡9𝑙 = −1.87 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
5. Enter figure to determine adjustment for building height and exposure,  , see
Figure 207E.5-1
➢ mean roof height, h = 12 m
➢ exposure C
∴ 𝜆 = 1.49
6. Determine adjusted wind pressures, pnet , see Equation 207E.5-1
➢ 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜆𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡9
➢ windward: 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1.49(1.0)(1.69) = 2.52 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
➢ leeward: 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1.49(1.0)(−1.87) = −2.79 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2

2.4 Load Combinations

➢ once the magnitudes of the design loads for a structure have been estimated, an
engineer must consider all loads that might act simultaneously on the structure at a
given time

29 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
➢ aside from safety requirements, a structure must also satisfy serviceability
requirements
➢ NSCP 2015, 7th ed, section 203
➢ Where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, structures and
all portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the following
combinations of factored loads
➢ Section 203.3 – Load Combinations using Strength Design or Load and Resistance
Factor Design
▪ Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method
- is a method of proportioning and designing structural elements using
load and resistance factors such that no applicable limit state is reached
when the structure is subjected to all appropriate load combinations
▪ where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, structures
and all portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the
following combinations of factored loads:
1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹 ) (203 − 1)
1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹 + 𝑇) + 1.6(𝐿 + 𝐻 ) + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (203 − 2)
1.2𝐷 + 1.6(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 ) + (𝑓1 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑊 ) (203 − 3)
1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 𝑓1 𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (203 − 4)
1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 𝑓1𝐿 (203 − 5)
0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 1.6𝐻 (203 − 6)
0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.6𝐻 (203 − 7)
Where:
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live loads in
excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live load, or 0.5 for other live
loads
D = dead load
E = earthquake load
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum
heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live
load reduction
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
R = rain load on the undeflected road
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or
expansion resulting from temperature change, shrinkage,
moisture change, creep in component materials, movement
due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof
W = load due to wind pressure
➢ Section 203.4 – Load Combination Using Allowable Stress Design or Allowable
Strength Design
▪ Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Method

30 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
- is a method of proportioning and designing structural members such
that elastically computed stresses produced in the members by nominal
loads do not exceed specified allowable stresses (also called working
stress design)
▪ where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and
all portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects resulting from the
following combinations of loads:
𝐷+𝐹 (203 − 8)
𝐷+𝐻+𝐹+𝐿+𝑇 (203 − 9)
(
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 ) (203 − 10)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75[𝐿 + 𝑇 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)] (203 − 11)
𝐸
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 ) (203 − 12)
1.4

Illustrative Problem 2-6

The interior floor system shown has W610x551 sections spaced 2.5 m on center and is
supporting a floor dead load of 2.4 kPa and a live floor load of 3.8 kPa. Determine the governing
load in kN/m that each beam must support using the LRFD Method.

➢ Dead Load for the W610x551 beam:

𝑤𝐷 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑤𝐷 = 5.51 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚 + 2.4 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 (5 𝑚) = 17.51 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
➢ Live Load for the W610x551 beam:

31 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
𝑤𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑤𝐿 = 3.8 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 (5 𝑚) = 19 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
➢ Load Combinations using LRFD Method:
203 − 1 𝑈 = 1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹 )
𝑤𝑢 = 1.4(𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐹 ) = 1.4(17.51 + 0) = 24.51 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 2 𝑈 = 1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹 + 𝑇) + 1.6(𝐿 + 𝐻 ) + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2(𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐹 + 𝑤𝑇 ) + 1.6(𝑤𝐿 + 𝑤𝐻 ) + 0.5(𝑤𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑅 )
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2(17.51 + 0 + 0) + 1.6(19 + 0) + 0.5(0)
𝑤𝑢 = 240.52 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 3 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + (𝑓1𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑊 )
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2𝑤𝐷 + 1.6(𝑤𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑅 ) + (𝑓1 𝑤𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑤𝑊 )
𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 3.8 𝑘𝑃𝑎 < 4.8 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∴ 𝑓1 = 0.5
𝑎) 𝑤𝑢 = 1.2(17.51) + 1.6(0) + 0.5(19) = 30.51 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
𝑏) 𝑤𝑢 = 1.2(17.51) + 1.6(0) + 0.5(0) = 21.01 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 4 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 𝑓1 𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2𝑤𝐷 + 1.0𝑤𝑊 + 𝑓1𝑤𝐿 + 0.5(𝑤𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑅 )
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2(17.51) + 1.0(0) + 0.5(19) + 0.5(0) = 30.51 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 5 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 𝑓1 𝐿
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2𝑤𝐷 + 1.0𝑤𝐸 + 𝑓1 𝑤𝐿
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2(17.51) + 1.0(0) + 0.5(19) = 30.51 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 6 𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 1.6𝐻
𝑤𝑢 = 0.9𝑤𝐷 + 1.0𝑤𝑊 + 1.6𝑤𝐻
𝑤𝑢 = 0.9(17.51) + 1.0(0) + 1.6(0) = 15.76 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 7 𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.6𝐻
𝑤𝑢 = 0.9𝑤𝐷 + 1.0𝑤𝐸 + 1.6𝑤𝐻
𝑤𝑢 = 0.9(17.51) + 1.0(0) + 1.6(0) = 15.76 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
∴ the governing factored load is 𝑤𝑢 = 240.52 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚 to be used for design

Illustrative Problem 2-7

A roof system with W460x60 sections spaced 3 m on center is to be used to support a dead
load of 1.92 kPa; a roof live load of 1.44 kPa; and a wind load of ±1.53 kPa. Compute the
governing load per linear meter using the ASD Method.

32 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1

➢ Dead Load for the W460x60 beam:

𝑤𝐷 = 0.60 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚 + 1.92 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 (3 𝑚) = 6.36 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
➢ Roof Live Load for the W460x60 beam:
𝑤𝐿𝑟 = 1.44 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 (3 𝑚) = 4.32 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
➢ Wind Load for the W460x60 beam:
𝑤𝑊 = ±1.53 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 (3 𝑚) = ±4.59 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
➢ Load Combinations using the ASD Method:
203 − 8 𝐴=𝐷+𝐹
𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐹 = 6.36 + 0 = 6.36 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 9 𝐴= 𝐷+𝐻+𝐹+𝐿+𝑇
𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐻 + 𝑤𝐹 + 𝑤𝐿 + 𝑤𝑇
𝑤𝑎 = 6.36 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 6.36 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 10 𝐴 = 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐻 + 𝑤𝐹 + (𝑤𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑅 )
𝑤𝑎 = 6.36 + 0 + 0 + 4.32 = 10.68 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
203 − 11 𝐴 = 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75[𝐿 + 𝑇 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)]
𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐻 + 𝑤𝐹 + 0.75[𝑤𝐿 + 𝑤𝑇 + (𝑤𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑅 )]
𝑤𝑎 = 6.36 + 0 + 0 + 0.75[0 + 0 + 4.32] = 10.68 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
𝐸
203 − 12 𝐴 = 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1.4)
𝑤
𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝐷 + 𝑤𝐻 + 𝑤𝐹 + (0.6𝑤𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1.4𝐸 )
𝑎) 𝑤𝑎 = 6.36 + 0 + 0 + 0.6(4.59) = 9.11 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
𝑏) 𝑤𝑎 = 6.36 + 0 + 0 + 0.6(−4.59) = 3.61 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
∴ the governing load is 𝑤𝑎 = 10.68 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚 for design

2.5 Review Exercises

1. The floor system of an apartment building consists of a100-mm-thick reinforced
concrete slab resting on three steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two

33 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
steel girders. The areas of cross section of the floor beams and the girders are 11,800
mm2 and 21,100 mm2, respectively as shown. Determine the dead loads acting on the
beam CD and the girder AE.

2. The roof system of an office building consists of 100 mm-thick reinforced concrete slab
resting on four steal beams (A = 10,450 mm 2), which are supported by two steel girders
(A = 27,700 mm2). The girders, in turn, are supported by four columns, as shown.
Determine the live loads acting on the beam EF, the girder AG, and the column A.

3. Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the rigid-gabled frame of an
apartment building shown. The building is located in the City of Batac, Ilocos Norte,
where the terrain is representative of exposure C. The wind direction is normal to the
ridge as shown.

4. The various axial loads for a building column have been computed according to the
NSCP, with the following results: dead load = 890 kN; load from roof = 220 kN (roof live
load); live load from floors (reduced as applicable for large floor area and multi-story

34 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE

 CE 151
Structural Theory 1
columns) = 1112 kN; compression wind = 570 kN; tensile wind = 460 kN; compression
earthquake = 270 kN; and tensile earthquake = 310 kN. Determine the critical design
column load, 𝑃𝑢 , using the LRFD load combinations
Hint: compression forces are considered positive.

2.6 Answers to Review Exercises

1. Beam CD: 𝑤 = 9.4 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
Girder AE:
𝑤 = 1.63 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
𝑅𝐶 = 35.25 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐸 = 19.34 𝑘𝑁
2. --
3. --
4. 𝑃𝑢 = 2957.2 𝑘𝑁

35 Chapter 2 MARLON T. ACOBA, MSCE