Building Materials of the Hindu Temples Part II

GRANITES and other ROCKS

With rare watercolors from mahabalipuram Temples

Dr Uday Dokras, Ph D SWEDEN

Srishti Dokras, Architect

The Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram – 1825 Watercolour of the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram, Tamil
Nadu, by John Gantz, c. 1825. Inscribed: 'N W View of two ancient Temples by the Seaside.
Mahabilipoorum. J. Gantz'.

Indian architecture and art dates back to ancient times and is one of the major sources of pride
of the country. Ancient Indian kings appointed sculptures to create some of the world’s most
beautiful stone crafted temples. Every year a large number of tourists visit these beautiful
temples to enjoy and appreciate the magnificent architecture that meets the eyes.

1
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
There are quite a few such temples spread across the subcontinent, each of them belonging to a
different time period, but all of them equally beautifully constructed.

Pallava dynasty, early 4th-century to late 9th-century CE line of rulers in southern India whose
members originated as indigenous subordinates of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, moved into
Andhra, and then to Kanci (Kanchipuram in modern Tamil Nadu state, India), where they
became rulers.
Their genealogy and chronology are highly disputed. The first group of Pallavas was mentioned
in Prakrit (a simple and popular form of Sanskrit) records, which tell of King Vishnugopa, who
was defeated and then liberated by Samudra Gupta, the emperor of Magadha, about the middle
of the 4th century CE. A later Pallava king, Simhavarman, is mentioned in the
Sanskrit Lokavibhaga as reigning from 436 CE. The Pallava dynasty was an Indian dynasty that
existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of southern India. They gained prominence after the
eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the Pallavas served as feudatories.
Pallavas became a major power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE)
and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of
the Tamil region for about 600 years until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign they
were in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil kingdoms
of Chola and Pandyas in the south. Pallava was finally defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th
century CE.
Foundations of medieval South Indian architecture: Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of
architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in Mamallapuram. The historically significant and architecturally ardent, coastal temple town
of Tamil Nadu has been referred to as Mahabalipuram until it got a new name. The town is
located at a distance of around 60 kilometres from the capital city of Chennai, is officially called
Mamallapuram in the State.Kancheepuram was capital of the pallava kingdom.The Pallavas, who
left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval South Indian
architecture. They developed the Pallava script from which Grantha ultimately descended. The
Pallava script gave rise to several other southeast Asian scripts. Chinese
traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone
temples. The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610–
690 and structural temples between 690–900. A number of rock-cut cave temples bear the
inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I and his successors.

2
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
 The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of
structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the
early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Arakandanallur, with the solitary
exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River, the traditional southern
boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were
generally not available south of the river.

A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate a wooden or
masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art. Pancha Rathas is an example of
monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram,
This complex, located little away from the main town, is one of the frequently visited tourist
attraction. As the name suggests, there are total of five rathas inside the complex. The name
Pancha Rathas or Pancha Pandava Rathas is derived from the five Pandava brothers of the
Mahabharata. The tradition of naming temples or monuments to the Ramayana and Mahabharata
characters is found throughout India. In this tradition, if the number of temples is five then
association of these to the five Pandava brothers is natural. Apart from the naming, there is no
historic foundation in associating the monuments of the said characters.The five rathas inside this
complex display various architectural styles of a Hindu temple. These rathas are described in
details in the following chapters. The topic of authorship is also disputed, however, I am
skipping the discussion here the authorship is discussed in detail in another chapter of this series.

Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple, is singular in that it was excavated from the top
down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple
was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the
volcanic basaltic cliff rock. It was commissioned in the 8th century by King Krishna I and took
more than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora
Caves located at Maharashtra on the Deccan Plateau, is a huge monolithic temple dedicated
to Lord Shiva. There are 34 caves built at this site, but the other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and
Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a
free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The

3
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas, along
with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and
fertility. Ellora Caves is also a World Heritage Site.
There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built
with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures, especially
Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from
the 5th century CE. Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th
century. Among the accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples
at Mamallapuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as Rathas in
Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple
in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple built by Narasimhavarman II, rock cut temple
in Mahendravadi by Mahendravarman are fine examples of the Pallava style temples. The temple
of Nalanda Gedige in Kandy, Sri Lanka is another. The famous Tondeswaram
temple of Tenavarai and the ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee were patronised and
structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th century.

Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country
than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the
practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the
structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated
interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.
There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain
artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient
and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and
craftsmanship. The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect, a rock-
cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic
use elsewhere.
In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely
man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious
structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it is
generally small and dark, without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in
the Barabar caves, Bihar, which were built around the 3rd century BC. Other early cave temples
are found in the western Deccan; these are mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating
between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, there were probably wooden structures associated with
them, which would have deteriorated over time.
Historically, artisans carried forward design elements from wood in their rock-cut temples:
skilled craftsmen carved rock to imitate timber texture, grain, and structure. The earliest cave
temples include the Bhaja Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedse Caves, the Kanheri Caves, and
some of the Ajanta Caves. Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the
religious and the commercial. Buddhist missionaries are known to have accompanied traders on
the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples,
commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades. They were
made during the period when maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east
Asia.

4
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Although free-standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave
temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more
sophisticated, as in the Ellora Caves. The monolithic Kailash Temple is considered to be the
peak of this type construction. Although cave temples continued to be built until the 12th
century, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature. That is, rocks were cut
into bricks and used to build free-standing structures. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut
excavated temple.[7] Numerous rock reliefs, relief sculptures carved into rock faces, have been
found outside caves or at other sites. New discoveries of relatively small rock-cut sites, mostly
Buddhist, continue to be made in the 21st century, especially in the Deccan.
Natural Caves: The earliest caves used by humans were natural caves that they occupied or used
for a variety of purposes, such as shrines and shelters. Evidence suggests that the caves were first
occupied and slightly altered during the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods, up to about 6000
BC. These changes are not classified as architecture. Early examples included decorating
overhanging rock with rock-cut designs.[9] The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, now designated as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site, are located on the edge of the Deccan Plateau, where dramatic
erosion has left massive sandstone outcrops. Researchers have found primitive tools and
decorative rock paintings made by humans in the area's many caves and grottos, the earliest
paintings dating to circa 8,000 BCE.
During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BCE), Buddhist monks were also in the
habit of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave, southwest from Rajgir, Bihar. Many
believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent some time before his death, and where the first
Buddhist council was held after the Buddha died (paranirvana). The Buddha himself had also
used the Indrasala Cave for meditation, starting a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made,
as religious retreats, that would last for over a millennium.

Caves-Artificial- 3 rd century BC

The famous carved door of Lomas Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves, dated to approximately 250 BCE, displaying the
first known Maurya reliefs.(On right) The quasi-perfect walls of the Barabar Caves were dug into the hard rock and
polished to a mirror effect circa 250 BCE, date of the inscriptions of Ashoka.

In the 3rd century BCE Indian rock-cut architecture began to develop, starting with the already
highly sophisticated and state-sponsored Barabar caves in Bihar, personally dedicated
by Ashoka circa 250 BCE. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical

5
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
proficiency, the extremely hard granite rock being cut in geometrical fashion and polished to a
mirror-like finish.
There is another cave with the structure and polishing qualities of the Barabar caves, but without
any inscription. This is the Sitamarhi Cave, 20 km from Rajgir, 10 km south-west of Hisua, also
dated of the Maurya empire. It is smaller than the Barabar caves, measuring only 4.91x3.43m,
with a ceiling height of 2.01m. The entrance is also trapezoidal, as for the Barabar caves.
Finally, the Jain Son Bhandar Caves in Rajgir, generally dated to the 2nd–4th centuries CE,
nevertheless share a broad structure reminiscent of the caves of Barabar and some small areas of
irregular polish, which leads some authors to suggest that they may actually be contemporary to,
and even earlier than, the Barabar caves, and would conveniently create a precedent and an
evolutionary step to the Barabar Caves.[23]
To the southeast of Bihar, the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, partly natural and partly artificial
caves were built near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. The caves are situated on two
adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in the Hathigumpha
inscription. They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during 2nd century
BCE. It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks
during the reign of King Kharavela. Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while
Khandagiri has 15 caves.

Entrance of the Gopika cave, Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE./Polished interior of Sudama,
in the Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE.

6
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
 Visvakarma cave entrance, Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE.Udayagiri and Khandagiri
Caves, 2nd century BCE.
Artificial caves: After the Barabar Caves, huge efforts were made at building religious caves in
Western India until the 6th century CE. However, the polishing of cave walls was abandoned,
never to be revived. Such grandiose caves as Karla Caves (1st century CE) or the Ajanta
Caves (5th century CE) do not have any polishing either. This may be due to the fact that
Mauryan caves were dedicated and sponsored by the Mauryan Imperial government, allowing
for huge resources and efforts to be spent, whereas later caves where essentially the result of
donations by commoners, who could not afford as high a level of spending.
First wave of construction (2nd century BCE–4th century CE)

The Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves, Maharashtra, India, 1st-century CE.

Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the Mauryan Empire and the subsequent
persecutions of Buddhism under Pushyamitra Sunga, it is thought that many Buddhists relocated
to the Deccan under the protection of the Andhra dynasty, thus shifting the cave-building effort
to western India: an enormous effort at creating religious caves (usually Buddhist or Jain)
continued there until the 2nd century CE, culminating with the Karla Caves or the Pandavleni
Caves.[20] These caves generally followed an apsidal plan with a stupa in the back for
the chaityas, and a rectangular plan with surrounding cells for the viharas

7
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
When Buddhist missionaries arrived, they naturally gravitated to caves for use as temples and
abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. The Western
Ghats topography, with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines, and sharp cliffs, was suited to
their cultural inclinations. The earliest of the Kanheri Caves were excavated in the 1st and 2nd
centuries B.C., as were those at Ajanta, which were occupied continuously by Buddhist monks
from 200 BCE to 650 AD. As the Buddhist ideology encouraged involvement in trade,
monasteries often became stopovers for inland traders and provided lodging houses along trade
routes. As mercantile and royal endowments grew, cave interiors became more elaborate, with
interior walls decorated in paintings, reliefs, and intricate carvings. Numerous donors provided
the funds for the building of these caves and left donatory inscriptions, including laity, members
of the clergy, government officials, and even foreigners such as Yavanas (Greeks) representing
about 8% of all inscriptions.[30] Facades were added to the exteriors while the interiors became
designated for specific uses, such as monasteries (viharas) and worship halls (chaityas). Over the
centuries, simple caves began to resemble free-standing buildings, needing to be formally
designed and requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete. These artisans had not
forgotten their timber roots and imitated the nuances of a wooden structure and the wood grain in
working with stone.
Early examples of rock-cut architecture are the Buddhist and Jain cave basadi, temples
and monasteries, many with gavakshas (chandrashalas). The ascetic nature of these religions
inclined their followers to live in natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities,
and these became enhanced and embellished over time. Although many temples, monasteries,
and stupas had been destroyed, by contrast, cave temples are very well preserved as they are both

8
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
less visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well as made of more durable material
than wood and masonry. There are around 1200 cave temples still in existence, most of which
are Buddhist. The residences of monks were called Viharas and the cave shrines, called Chaityas,
were for congregational worship. The earliest rock-cut garbhagriha, similar to free-standing
ones later, had an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circumambulatory path
(pradakshina) around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees.

Ezhadippattam, Sittanavasal Cave, 1st century BCE

Gautamiputra vihara at Pandavleni Caves built in the 2nd century CE by the Satavahana
dynasty./Manmodi Caves in Junnar, 2nd century CE.

9
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
 Pandavleni Jain and Buddhist Caves

Chaitya or prayer hall on left. Vihara on the right

An Ancient Rock-Cut Architecture of Nashik Pandavleni Caves – An Ancient Rock-Cut

Architecture of Nashik By Akshatha

Buddhism is a widespread religion, it is said to have originated in Bihar, India. Pandavleni caves
in Nashik is one such rock-cut architecture, representing Hinayana Buddhism. 'Leni' in the
Marathi language means caves and Pandav is the later name given to these caves in Maharashtra.

Pandav leni was earlier called as 'Trirashmi caves', later it was changed to the current name.
However, these caves in Nashik is nowhere related to Mahabharatha or Pandavas in the epic.
Buddha leni in Nashik is said to have sculpted during 3rd C BC - 2nd C AD.

The Vihara and the Chaitya are the main caves among the group of 24 caves. Vihara (Buddhist
Monasteries) and Chaitya (prayer hall with a stupa) can be seen in every Buddha leni.

Pandavleni caves were the meeting places for monks to pray and study Buddha or Buddhism.
Inside the Buddha leni are the statues of Buddha and the inscriptions dating to the period of 3
kingdoms: the Kshatrapas, the Satavahanas, and the Abhirs. Located in Trirashmi mountains, it
is good to visit Pandavleni caves in the early morning; as one can see the sculptures well during
that time. The prayer hall is one of the main caves of Pandavleni.

Pandavleni, also known as Tirthankar Leni, Panch Pandav or Pandav Leni Jain cave, is another
ancient rock-cut sculptures complex located at Gomai River around 6 kilometer north of

10
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Shahada, Maharashtra. These caves were excavated by Jain saints 2,000 years ago. ... On the
right and left side of Mahavir sculpture there are two sculptures each.

Mahavir on left Jain Tirthankars on righ

Tulja Caves in Junnar.//Chaitya facade at Pandavleni Caves. Cave 26 in Ajanta, circa 480 CE.

Second wave of cave construction (5th–6th century CE) is jain

The construction of caves would wane after the 2nd century CE, possibly due to the rise
of Mahayana Buddhism and the associated intense architectural and artistic production
in Gandhara and Amaravati.The building of rock-cut caves would revive briefly in the 6th
century CE, with the magnificent achievements of Ajanta and Ellora, before finally subsiding
as Hinduism replaced Buddhism in the sub-continent, and stand-alone temples became more
prevalent.
The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, a World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples
carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of
the Sahyadri mountains. Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is located near main
trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. [32] A period of
intense building activity at this site occurred under the Vakataka king Harisena between 460 and
478 A profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved columns and carved reliefs are
found, including exquisitely carved cornices and pilaster. Skilled artisans crafted living rock to

11
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
imitate timbered wood (such as lintels) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving,
although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in the classical
sense.[31]
Later many Hindu kings from southern India patronize many cave temples dedicated
to Hindu gods and goddesses. One such prominent example of cave temple architecture are
the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the early Chalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century.
There are four cave temples hewn from the sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one Jain, that contain
carved architectural elements such as decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved
sculpture and richly etched ceiling panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines.

The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas./
Some of the 29 Ajanta Caves

Ellora Caves. Cave 34. The yakshini Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath at a Jain Cave at
Ellora// A monastery, or vihara, with its square hall surrounded by monks' cells. Ajanta
Caves, no. 4.

Rock-cut architecture also developed with the apparition of stepwells in India, dating from 200–
400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds
at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place.

12
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Final wave of cave construction (6th–15th century CE)
At Ellora, on the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves, is a Jain cave temple
containing a 16-foot (4.9 m) rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanath with an inscription dated
1234/5 CE. This well preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati, is still under
active worship. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site. [36] This was the last
excavation at Ellora. The Ankai Fort caves are thought to be from the same period.
The final wave of Indian rock-cut cave construction occurred at Gwalior with five clusters of
rock-cut monuments surrounding the Gwalior fort, two centuries after the Ellora Parshvantha
cave temple. They contain many monumental Jain images.
South-West Group: Now termed Trishalagiri. The group is the first one encountered when
driving to the Urvai Gate, just outside the fortifications. There are the oldest Jain monuments in
Gwalior from the post-Gupta period. Archaeologist L.B. Singh dates them to 6th to 8th cent AD.
South-East Group (Popularly referred to as Ek Patthar Ki Bawadi group or "Gopachal Atishya
Kshetra"), Urvahi group (Siddhachal Caves, North-West group and North-East group were all
excavated during the Tomar rule during 1440-1473 AD.
Babur, who visited Gwalior in AD 1527, ordered the Gwalior statues to be
destroyed.[39] However, only the faces of many of colossal Jain images were destroyed, some of
them were later repaired by the local Jains.

Jain statues, Urvahi gate group

Tirumalai cave temple/Kalugumalai Jain Beds/ Image of Mahavira, Samanar Malai, 9th
century/ Jain Tirthankar statues, Ek Pathar ki Bavadi

13
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
 Monolith Rosck Cut Caves

Varaha Cave Temple 7th century/Jain cave 30 at Ellora/Pancha Rathas monolith rock-
cut temples, late 7th century

The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of
structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the
early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Arakandanallur, with the solitary
exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River, the traditional southern
boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were
generally not available south of the river.
A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate a wooden or
masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art. Pancha Rathas is an example of
monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram,
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple, is singular in that it was excavated from the top
down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple
was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the
volcanic basaltic cliff rock. It was commissioned in the 8th century by King Krishna I and took
more than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora
Caves located at Maharashtra on the Deccan Plateau, is a huge monolithic temple dedicated
to Lord Shiva. There are 34 caves built at this site, but the other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and
Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a
free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The
Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas, along
with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and
fertility. Ellora Caves is also a World Heritage Site.
There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built
with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures, especially
Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from
the 5th century CE. Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th
century.

14
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
The Descent of the Ganges, also known as Arjuna's Penance, at Mamallapuram, is one of the
largest rock reliefs in Asia and features in several Hindu myths.

STEP WELLS

Chand Baori, Abhaneri near Bandikui, Rajasthan, is one of the deepest and largest stepwells in
India
Main article: Stepwell
The stepwell is a large hole in the ground with steps at one or more sides. They are used in India
to collect and conserve water from the monsoon rains, for use in the dry season. The steps allow
access to the water whatever level it is at. They have a history of around 4,000 years in India,
first appearing in the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization, reappearing around the 5th century
CE, and then constructed until relatively recent times, with some still in use. Many have walls
lined with stone brought from elsewhere for the purpose, but many are truly rock-cut. The most
elaborate are highly decorated. They are mostly found in drier states such
as Gujarat and Rajasthan.[45] Famous examples include: Chand Baori, Rani ki vav, Step-well of
Ambapur, and the Dada Harir Stepwell.

15
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Being world famous for its rich cultural heritage, India attracts a number of visitors every time.
This rich history is remarkably depicted through top ancient monuments and wonderful temples.
If you talk about the ancient structures of India, rock-cut temples and architectures are the most
prehistoric and amazing example of the same. These majestic rock-cut temples and architectures
are one of the must visit attractions for the travelers from India and abroad. In this article, read
about the popular rock-cut temples of India for a lifetime experience.

Masroor Cave Temples, Himachal Pradesh

16
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Also known as Himalayan Pyramid, Masroor Rock Cut Temple is a complex of 15 monolithic
rock-cut monuments. Each of them is carved in a traditional Indo Aryan style that is very
exclusive for the northern part of India. There is a lake near this temple complex that is known as
Masroor Lake and reflection of the temple can be seen in this lake.

Amarnath Temple, Kashmir

One can’t miss to talk about Amarnath Temple of Kashmir while discussing about rock cut or
cave temples in India. The cave is positioned at an elevation of 3,888 meters in Kashmir. It is
considered to be one of the most sacred shrines of Hinduism, which is encircled by snowcapped
mountains. A huge number of pilgrims come to the Amarnath cave by climbing the challenging
mountainous terrains to get the glimpse of automatically created ice stalagmite in the cave. This
ice formation is considered to be the holy Shivlingam by Hindus.

Religious importance

17
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Cave Temple of Amarnath
The stalagmite formations present in most natural limestone caves resemble Shiva Linga, a
representation of Hindu God Shiva, due to which some of the caves in India are considered of
religious import. In addition, several universally known caves related to Buddhism is also exist
in India. The same attraction leads local people to visit small caves as it draws tourists to large
show caves. In India, Amarnath Temple caves, Vaishno Devi Mandir, Badami Cave
Temples, Hulimavu Shiva cave temple, Mahakali Caves, Mandapeshwar Caves, Pandavleni
Caves are some of the caves with religious importance.

Varaha Cave Temples, Tamil Nadu

Situated in Mamallapuram of Tamil Nadu, Varaha Cave Temples is a gorgeous example of

Pallava architecture that dates back to 7th century. The temple is one of the finest testaments to
the ancient Vishwakarma Sthapathis. The most eminent statue in the cave temple is of Lord
Vishnu, which incarnated in the form of a Varaha or boar elevating earth from the sea. Many
other mythological figures are also carved in this temple.

Kanheri Caves, Maharashtra

18
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Kanheri Caves are also the group of caves and rock-cut monuments sliced into a huge basalt
projection in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park. These caves feature Buddhist sculptures along
with relief carvings, paintings and inscriptions dating back to the 1st century BCE to the 10th
century CE. Kanheri comes from the Sanskrit Krishnagiri, which means Black Mountain.

Badami Cave Temples, Karnataka

Badami Cave Temples are the complex of four majestic temples in the northern part of
Karnataka. This temple structure dates back from 6th century and is undoubtedly an epitome of
Indian rock-cut architecture, mainly Badami Chalukya architecture. The Badami cave temples
stand for several previously recognized examples of Hindu temples. It is situated on the west
bank of an artificial lake.

Ellora Caves, Maharashtra

Located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, Ellora Caves is one of the rock-cut architectural
marvels of India. This archaeological site was constructed by Rashtrakuta dynasty and comprised

19
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
of 34 caves. The most exclusive aspect of these cave temples is that they signify an ideal
combination of Hindu, Jain, Buddhist rock-cut temples.

Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra

Ajanta Caves are among the UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is a Buddhist temple complex that
comprised of 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments. These caves feature amazing paintings and
finest sculptures, which are supposed to be the best existing examples of Indian art. This
incredible temple complex is being visited by a huge number of tourists every year.

Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra

Elephanta Caves are the network of beautifully carved caves located on Elephanta Island of
Maharashtra. These are mainly two groups of caves, including five Hindu caves and two
Buddhist caves. In Hindu caves, one can see wonderful rock cut stone sculptures of Lord Shiva.
20
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Udayagiri Caves, Madhya Pradesh

Located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, Udayagiri Caves consists of some of the most ancient
Hindu Cave Temples. The site is noteworthy for the sculpture of Lord Vishnu’s incarnation of
Varaha. The cave complex is comprised of 20 caves, including 1 of Jainism and 19 of Hinduism.

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Orissa

A blend of natural and artificial caves, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Orissa are known for
their archaeological, historical and religious significance. The caves are located on two nearby
hills called Udayagiri and Khandagir. Udayagiri has 18 caves and Khandagiri has 15 caves.
Various religious inscriptions are done on these caves.

The Pancha Rathas, Mahabalipuram

21
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
This Pancha Rathas Monumental Complex is home to several temples, rathas and other historic
monuments that have led it to be listed into UNESCO World Heritage Sites. This complex has
the most amazing rock-cut temple called the Pancha Rathas. The Pancha Rathas features five
monolith rock-cut temples, which are carved from a single stone. Each of these Ratha is named
after the Pandavas and Draupadi, including Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Nakula
Sahadeva Ratha and Dharmaraja Ratha.
Monolithic Indian rock-cut architecture
Pancha Rathas (also known as Pandava Rathas) is a monument complex at Mahabalipuram,
on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in the Kancheepuram district of the state of
Tamil Nadu, India.The rathas have been preserved well on account of the sturdiness of their
material, granite, and in spite of constant salty winds from the Bay of Bengal and catastrophic
tsunamis in 13th century and in 2004.

Pancha Rathas is an example of monolithic Indian rock-cut architecture. Dating from the late 7th
century, it is attributed to the reign of King Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I
(630–680 AD; also called Mamalla, or "great warrior") of the Pallava Kingdom. An innovation
of Narasimhavarman, the structures are without any precedent in Indian architecture. The
complex is under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and is part of the
UNESCO World Heritage site inscribed by UNESCO as Group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram.

22
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
 Marcel beifer

Draupadi's Ratha
Each of the five monuments in the Pancha Rathas complex resembles a chariot (ratha), and each
is carved over a single, long stone or monolith, of granite which slopes in north-south direction
with a slight incline. Though sometimes mistakenly referred to as temples, the structures were
never consecrated because they were never completed following the death of Narasimhavarman
I. The structures are named after the Pancha Pandavas and their common wife Draupadi, of epic
Mahabharata fame. In order of their size, they include the

23
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha .
History
According to a plaque displayed at the site by the ASI, the Pallava dynasty had planned the
structures as models of chariots in rock based on prototypes of ancient rathas built in wood.[8]
The Pancha Rathas were carved during the reign of King Mahendravarman I and his son
Narasimhavarman I. Work on these five rathas was discontinued following the death of
Narasimha Varman in 668 AD.[4][9] The purpose of their construction is not known as the
structures were not completed. Part of the collection within the Group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram, they were classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984.

Geography
The site is located at Mahabalipuram (previously known as Mammallapuram), on the
Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in Kancheepuram district. It is approximately 35 miles
(56 km) south of Chennai (previously known as Madras), the capital city, while Chengalpattu is
about 20 miles (32 km) distant. The structures are part of the nine monolithic rock cut structures
seen here.

Architecture-Layout plan of the rathas

A complete view of Pancha Ratahas in Mahabalipuram.

Each of the five rathas is a monolith, carved whole from a rock outcropping of pink granite.
They are carved over a common mounted plinth which is north-south oriented with a slight

24
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
slope. Each has a different layout, such as square, rectangular, or apsidal plans. The largest
measures 42 by 35 feet (13 m × 11 m), and the tallest is 40 feet (12 m) high.

Representations
The Pancha rathas represent the diversity of Dravidian architecture of the time and it is likely
that their original design traces back to wood constructions of temple chariots and were scale
models or templates for much bigger temples built subsequently in Tamil Nadu. Most of the
rathas are stated to be modelled on the Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas.

Design
The structural design and elevation are with towers or domes with single (ekathala) to triple
(trithala) towers, which present a unique exhibition of South Indian Dravidian architecture. The
chiseling done by the stone sculptors are occasional along joints between the stones. The walls
are arranged and sequentially partitioned. The projections and recesses in these walls give the
appearance of a set of shallow pilasters. The niches created in the walls are of rectangular shape
and have carved sculptures of gods, demi-gods and the kings. The skirting around the images are
of wild aquatic animals with “foliated tails and open jaws”. The wall pilasters have curved
brackets, and columns on the porch provide support to an overhanging eave; arch windows
occasionally carved with images are located above them. The mouldings culminate in parapets.
The carvings above the eave overhangs are decorated roof forms in miniature size, which are
seen in rows all round each of the structure.

https://inktales.me/ Watercolors by Maira Kalman

25
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
By Jun Pierre Shiozawa

26
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
 Painted by Nayantara on 2016

John Gantz and his son Justinian ran a lithographic press, but are remembered best for their
watercolours of flat-top houses and public buildings in and around Chennai (Madras), dating to
the first half of the 19th century. Though not British-born, they both lived and died in India, in
the service of the East India Company. Mamallapuram, a tiny village south of Chennai, was a

27
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective
flourishing port of the Pallava dynasty from the 5th - 8th centuries. The site is famous for a
group of temples, a series of rock-cut caves and some monolithic sculptures created in the 7th
century. This view shows the Shore Temple, built in the late 7th century by Rajasimha and is
orientated east, towards the ocean. The temple consists of two spires; one contains a shrine for
Vishnu and one for Shiva. Rajasimha built Shore Temple during ( 700 - 728 ) AD.It is the first
structural temple made from stone, lime and mortar. It has three sanctuaries dedicated to Siva
and Vishnu and is the earliest important structural temple in Southern India. The temple had a
number of sculptures which are now damaged due to wear and tear of weather and the super
plaster applied on the sculptures leading to original works being shadowed. The figures on the
enclosure is so much eroded that it cannot be recognised. An interesting scene is carved on the
north side of the enclosure wall. Six ascetics appear in a group in the upper panel. One ascetic is
standing on one leg in an act of penance and below is a cat, a monkey and two deer are present
which seems to be inspired from the open air composition of Narasimhavarman , the first. To the
west, is a human size image of Durga’s lion where Durga is shown sitting astride the lion’s right
thigh. This depicts the control of Durga over the lion. There is a small niche seen on the chest of
the lion which is said to be small receptacle where an image of Durga is also carved. There are
three Somaskanda panel having four armed Siva on a rectangular seat in Sukhasana having two
armed Parvati at his left in Umasahita. Skanda being seated in between is enjoying parental
affection. Kiritas are long in this relief where surfaces are flat and figures are somewhat short.
Brahma and Vishnu being shown standing behind Siva depicting that though Brahma generates
the universe and Vishnu operates it, it is Siva who is maintaining the equilibrium of the cosmos
who can either destroy or create . So the importance of Siva is more within the Trinity. On the
back wall , the image of Durga with her ganas are carved . The posture of the ganas with
weapons in hand indicates they are waiting for her orders looks in the manner of the
Mahisasurmardini panel. The attitude of Durga is relaxed though dynamic who is resting one leg
upon lion holding a long bow.

Arjun's Penance is the largest bas reliefs in the world, carved during mid 7th century and carved
on the two adjoining monolithic rocks. The total length of Arjuna's Penance is around 96 feet.

28
Journal of Indo Nordic author’s Collective