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Communication Technologies

Evolution of Networking: ARPANET, Internet, Interspace, Different ways of sending data across the
network with reference to switching techniques (Circuit and Packet switching).
Data Communication terminologies: Concept of Channel, Bandwidth (Hz, KHz, MHz) and Data transfer
rate (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps).
Transmission media: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, infrared, radio link, microwave link
and satellite link.
Network devices: Modem, RJ45 connector, Ethernet Card, Router, Switch, Gateway, wifi card.
Network Topologies and types: Bus, Star, Tree, PAN, LAN, WAN, MAN.
Network Protocol: TCP/IP, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), PPP, SMTP, POP3 Remote Login (Telnet), and
Internet Wireless/Mobile Communication protocol such as GSM, CDMA, GPRS, and WLL.
Mobile Telecommunication Technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G; Mobile processors;
Electronic mail protocols such as SMTP, POP3
Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing VOIP
Wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMax
Network Security Concepts:
Threats and prevention from Viruses, Worms, Trojan horse, Spams
Use of Cookies, Protection using Firewall, https;
India IT Act, Cyber Law, Cyber Crimes, IPR issues, hacking.
Introduction To Web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Markup
Language (XML); Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP); Domain Names; URL; Website, Web browser,
Web Servers; Web Hosting, Web Scripting – Client side (VB Script, Java Script, PHP) and Server side
(ASP, JSP, PHP), Web 2.0 (for social networking)
E-commerce payment transactions using online banking, mobile banking and payment apps and services.

COMPUTER NETWORK: A Network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. The

computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of exchanging information and provide
distributed control.

NETWORK GOALS:
i) Resource sharing: Peripherals, Information and Software.
ii) Information discovery and retrieval.
iii) Communication medium: Personal/World Wide.

EVOLUTION OF NETWORK:
Evolution of networking started way back in 1969 by the development of first network called ARPANET,
which led to development of Internet.
i) ARPANET: The seeds of today’s Internet were planted in 1969, when U.S. Department of Defence
sponsored a project named ARPANET (Advance Research Projects NETwork) with a goal to connect
computers at different universities and U.S. defence. In mid 80’s, federal agency, the National Science
Foundation, created a new, high-capacity network called NSFnet. NSFnet allowed only the academic
research on its network. It was the Inter networking i.e. linking of these two and some other networks
(i.e., the ARPANET, NSFnet and some private networks) that was named Internet.

ii) INTERNET: A network of computer networks that share a common communication protocol (Transfer
Control Protocol – TCP/IP) that allows computers of different types to exchange information. It is an
interconnected system of networks that connects computers all over the world via the Internet Protocol.

iii) INTERSPACE: Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments. It
provides the most advanced form of communication available on the internet today. It is the vision of
what the internet will become.

Network Switching Techniques

It provides communication between two computers. These are techniques to send data along the network.
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There are three types of network switching techniques:

i) Circuit Switching: In this technique, first the complete physical connection between two computers is
established and then data (message) is directly transmitted from the source computer to the destination
computer. This technique is to setup an end-to-end path between the computers before any data can be
sent.
ii) Message Switching: In this technique, the source computer sends data or the message (as a single file)
to the switching office first, which stores the data in its buffer. It then looks for a free link to another
switching office and then sends the data to this office. This process is continued until the data is
delivered to the destination computer. Its working principle is also known as store and forward. There
is no limit on block size.
iii) Packet Switching: Packet switching places a tight upper limit on block size, unlike message switching
where there is no limit on the block size. A fixed size of packet which can be transmitted across the
network is specified. Another point of its difference from message switching is that the data packets are
stored on the disk in message switching whereas in packet switching, all the packets of fixed size are
stored in main memory. This improves the performance as the access time is reduced, thus the
throughput of the network is improved.

DATA COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

A communication channel or simply channel refers either to a physical transmission medium such as a

wire or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.

Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a communication channel in a given period of
time (1 second). For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second(bps) or bytes per
second. For analog devices, the bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz). The units used for it
are Hz, KHz (=10 3 Hz), MHz (=103 KHz)

Data transfer rate: The amount of data transferred per second through the communication channel is
referred to as it data transfer rate. It is measured in bits per second (bps), bytes per second (Bps), megabits
per second (mbps), kilobytes per second(kBps), megabytes per second(MBps), gigabytes per second(GBps),
terabytes per second(TBps).

TRANSMISSION MEDIA (COMMUNICATION CHANNELS): It means ‘connecting cables’ or

‘connecting media’. The cables that connect two or more workstations are the communication channels. The
communication media are in two categories: guided media (cables) and unguided media (waves through air,
water or vacuum).

a) Twisted Pair Cable/Ethernet Cable (CAT 5, CAT 6, and CAT 7):

The most common form of wiring in data communication application is
the twisted pair cable. It consists of two identical wires wrapped
together in a double helix.

Advantages: It is simple, easy to install and maintain, is physically

flexible, has a low weight, can be easily connected and is very
inexpensive. Despite having such advantages, there are some
disadvantages also.

Disadvantages: The data transmission characteristics of twisted pair

cable are not so good. Because of high attenuation, it is incapable of
carrying a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters. It is
prone to electromagnetic interference. Its low bandwidth capabilities
make it unsuitable for broadband applications.
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b) Coaxial Cable: This type of cable consists of a solid wire core
surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields, each separated by some
kind of plastic insulator. The inner core carries the signal, and the shield
provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals.

Advantages includes higher bandwidths - up to 400 MBPS and be used

for broadband transmission i.e., several channels can be transmitted
simultaneously (as with cable TV).

Disadvantages: It is expensive compared to twisted pair cables and are

not compatible with twisted pair cables.

c) Optical Fibers: Optical fibers consist of thin strands of glass or glass

like material which are so constructed that they carry light from a
source at one end of the fiber to a detector at the other end. The light
sources used are either light emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes
(LDs). The data to be transmitted is modulated onto the light beam
using frequency modulation techniques. The signals are then picked
up at the receiving end and demodulated. The band width of the
medium is potentially very high.
The fiber cable consists of three pieces:(i) The core i.e., the glass or
plastic through which the light travels.(ii) the cladding, which is a
covering of the core that reflects light back to the core, and the (iii)
Protective coating, which protects the fiber cable from hostile
environment. Advantages: It is immune to electrical and magnetic
interference i.e., noise in any form because the information is traveling
on a modulated light beam, highly suitable for harsh industrial
environments, guarantees secure transmission and has a very high
transmission capacity and can be used for broadband transmission.
Disadvantages: Fiber optic cables are very expensive, quite fragile and
may need special care to make them sufficiently robust for an office
environment.

Wireless media:
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Omni directional radio waves

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Satellite
link

NETWORK DEVICES:
Modem, RJ45 connector, Ethernet Card, Router, Switch, Gateway, WiFi card

NIC: Any computer which has to be a part of the computer network must have an NIC ( Network Interface
Card/ Unit ) installed in it. A computer communicates with other computers on the network with the help of
NIC only.

MODEM: A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with other
computers via telephone lines. A modem changes the digital data from the computer into analog data, a
format that can be carried by telephone lines. In a similar manner, the modem receiving the call then changes
the analog signal back into digital data that the computer can digest. This is called modulation/demodulation.
3 types of modulation techniques are used: AM (Amplitude Modulation), FM(Frequency Modulation),
PM(Phase Modulation)

RJ-45: is short for Registered Jack-45. RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector, which is commonly used to
connect computers on the local area networks i.e., LANs especially Ethernet. The RJ-45 connector looks
very much similar to standard telephone connector (RJ- 11 connector), but it is wider than RJ-11 as it houses
eight wires instead of six( as in RJ11).
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ETHERNET CARD: A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card,
network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network interface and by similar terms) is a computer hardware
component that connects a computer to a computer network using a network cable.

HUB: A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together. A hub contains multiple
independent but connected modules of network and inter-networked equipment. Active hubs electrically
amplify the signal as it moves from one connected device to another. Passive hubs allow the signal to pass
from one computer to another without any change.

SWITCH: A switch is a multi port device, similar to a hub but with some intelligence, It is used to connect
several nodes to form a network and redirects the received information only to the intended node.

ROUTER: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. This
creates an overlay internetwork, as a router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks.
When a data packet comes in one of the lines, the router takes the address of its ultimate destination and
directs the packet to the next network on its journey.

Router performs the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from
one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination
node.

REPEATER: A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network. Over distance,
the cables connecting a network lose the signal transmitted. If the signal degrades too much, it fails to
reach the destination. Or if it does arrive, the degradation of the message makes it useless. Repeaters can be
installed along the way to ensure that data packets reach their destination. Repeaters are generally installed
where the cable length connecting two computers in a network exceeds 75 metres (approximately).

GATEWAY: A Gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It establishes an intelligent
connection between a local network and external networks with completely different structures and performs
the necessary translation so that the connected networks can communicate properly.

WiFi Card: A wireless adapter which allows devices to connect to a wireless network. In this way, the Wi-
Fi card acts as both a receiver and transmitter. It receives the wireless signal and communicates with the
wireless network, enabling you to access the Web with your device.

TYPES OF NETWORKS: Networks are classified on the basis of geographical spread and on this basis;
there can be four types of networks:
 Personal Area Networks (PANs)
 Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
Personal area network (PAN): is a computer network used for communication among computer devices,
including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body. The devices may or
may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters. PANs can be used
for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting
to a higher level network and the Internet. PAN may be constructed through cables or wirelessly (including
Bluetooth).

Local Area Network (LAN): Small computer networks that are confined to a localized area (e.g., an office,
a building or a factory) are known as Local Area Networks (LANs). The key purpose of a LAN is to serve
its users in resource sharing, hardware as well as software resources. One computer is designated as the file
server that stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by
the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called Workstations.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Metropolitan Area Networks are the networks spread over a
city/limited geographical are. For e.g., cable TV network that are spread over a city, can be termed as
metropolitan area networks, localized system such as teller machines within a single citywide area are
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connected using a MAN. A small bank with offices restricted to a city might also be connected through a
MAN.

Wide Area Networks (WAN): Used to connect systems with no limit of geographical spread. The networks
spread across countries are known as WANs. A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a group of computers that are
separated by large distances and tied together. It can be a group of LANs that are spread across several
locations and connected together to look like one big LAN. The WANs link computers to facilities fast and
efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher speeds. The largest WAN in existence is the
Internet.

Difference between a LAN and a WAN

LAN WAN
1. Diameter of not more than a few kilometers 1. Span entire countries.
2. A total data rate of at least several Mbps. 2. Data rate less than 1 Mbps
3. Complete ownership by a single organization 3. Owned by multiple organization
4. Very low error rates 4. Comparatively higher error rates
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NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topologies: It is the physical makeup of a network, i.e., endpoints or user station attached to the
network.

1. Bus: It is characterized by common transmission medium shared by all the connected hosts, managed
by dedicated nodes. It offers simultaneous flow of data and control.
2. Tree: A tree topology may be defined as a group of bus or star topologies put together.
3. Star: It is characterized by central switching mode (communication controller) unique path (point to
point link) for each host. It is easy to add and remove additional hosts by upgrading the centralized
node.

Advantages
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Bus Topology Tree Topology Star Topology

Economic as compared to other Faster as compared to Bus Faster communication as compared
topologies of network Topology to Bus topology
Simple Architecture Easier to set-up for multi-floor Independent line of connection
plans of network allows freedom of removing or
adding nodes from the network

Disadvantages

Bus Topology Tree Topology Star Topology

Slower as compared to tree and star Slower as compared to Star Expensive as compared to Bus
topologies of network Topology topology
Breakage of wire at any point Expensive as compared to Bus Long wire length
disturbs the entire network Topology

Mobile Telecommunication Technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G; Mobile processors;

Electronic mail protocols such as SMTP, POP3
Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing VOIP
Wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMax

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS: A PROTOCOL is a format description of message formats and the

rules that two or more machines must follow to exchange those messages. Protocol defines standardized
formats for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors and so on.

i) TCP/IP Protocol: The communication protocol used by Internet is TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/ Internet Protocol). The TCP part is responsible for dividing the file/ message into packets on
the source computer. It is also responsible for reassembling the received packets at the destination or
recipient computer. The IP part is responsible for handling the address of destination computer so that
each is routed to its proper destination. At the source computer, the message or the file/document to be
sent to another computer is firstly divided into very small parts called Packets. A packet generally
contains up to 1500 characters. Each packet is given a number serial wise e.g., 1, 2, 3.These packets are
then sent to the address of destination computer. The destination computer receives the packets in
random manner. If a packet is garbled or lost, it is demanded again. The packets are reassembled in the
order of their number and the original message/file/document is obtained.

ii) FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It is the commonly used protocol for exchanging files over

the Internet. Files can be transferred between two computers using FTP software. The user's computer is
called the local host machine and is connected to the Internet. The second machine called the remote
host, also running FTP software and is connected to the Internet. FTP is most commonly used
to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g., uploading a web
page file to a Web server).

iii) Point-to-point protocol (PPP) is a computer network protocol used to transfer a datagram
between two directly connected (point-to-point) computers. This protocol is used for a very basic level
of connectivity providing data linkage between the computers.Point-to-point protocol is widely used for
the heavier and faster connections necessary for broadband communications.
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iv) SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol – SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is
a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability
to queue messages at the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other
protocols, POP3 or IMAP that let the user save messages in a server mailbox and download them
periodically from the server. In other words, users typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending
e-mail and either POP3 or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) for receiving e-mail. 

v) POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is the most recent version of a standard protocol for receiving e-mail.
POP3 is a client/server protocol in which e-mail is received and held for you by your Internet server.
Periodically, you (or your client e-mail receiver) check your mail-box on the server and download any
mail, probably using POP3. This standard protocol is built into most popular e-mail products, such as
Eudora and Outlook Express. It's also built into the Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers.
POP 3 is used for most webmail services, such as Gmail and Yahoo Mail.

vi) Remote Login (Telnet) or an Application Level : Telnet allows user to establish a virtual terminal
connection between two machines using TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

WIRELESS/MOBILE COMMUNICATION refers to communication using devices which are not

connected with the help of cables.
1. GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellular technology used for
transmitting mobile voice and data services. It supports voice calls, data and multimedia transfer
services. GSM is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communications. GSM makes use of
narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for transmitting signals. Each GSM
radio channel is 200 kHz wide that is further divided into frames each of which hold eight 25 kHz time-
slots. In India this technology is adapted by Airtel and Vodafone.

2. CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access): A digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum
techniques, CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses the
full available spectrum. CDMA uses a spread-spectrum technique where data is sent in small pieces
over a number of discrete frequencies available for use. Each user’s signal is spread over the entire
bandwidth by unique spreading code. At the receiver end the same unique code is used to recover the
signal. In India this technology is used by Reliance, Tata and MTNL.

3. GPRS: GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service and is a packet oriented mobile data service
based on second generation (2G) and third generation (3G)--or sometimes referred to as in-between
both generations, 2.5G--wireless data service that extends GSM data capabilities for Internet access,
multimedia messaging services, and early mobile Internet applications via the wireless application
protocol (WAP), as well as other wireless data services.

4. WLL (Wireless in Local Loop): Mobile Telephony is primarily meant to provide telephony for people
on the move. WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) using radio signals as a substitute for other connecting media. Advantages of WLL include
enhanced reliability, better bandwidth and superior customer service features, high quality data
transmission and signaling services.

Mobile Communication Technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G

The G in 2G, 3G and 4G stands for Generation, and they refer 2nd, 3rd and 4th generation of wireless
technology. The newer generation is faster, more secure and more reliable. 1G was offered in analog
technology (AMPS), 2G signals are transmitted in digital format in GSM and CDMA technologies.

1G – The analog 1G offered simple telephony service without data.

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2G – Delivered digital signal and offered up to 250Kbps speed. Supports voice, text and data services.

3G – Improved data services with Multimedia and Mobile Broadband. At least 200Kbps up to 3Mbps speed.

4G – 4G delivers up to 100Mbps for mobile access, and up to 1Gbps for wireless access. Most wireless
carriers offering HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) at up to 6Mbps are claiming that they offer 4G network.

4G LTE – LTE (Long Term Evolution) is one of the two standards offered within 4G, and WiMax being the
second one. The specification calls for downlink speed of up to 300Mbps and uplink speed of up to 75Mbps.

SMS (Short Message Service): is the transmission of short text messages to and from a mobile phone, fax
machine and/or IP address. Once a message is sent, it is received by Short Message Service Center ( SMSC),
which must then get it to the appropriate mobile device. To do this, the SMSC sends a SMS request to the
home location register (HLR) to find the roaming customer. Once the HLR receives the request, it will
respond to the SMSC with the subscriber’s status: 1) Inactive or active 2) where subscriber is roaming.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (e-mail) transmission
across Internet Protocol (IP) networks. While electronic mail servers and other mail transfer agents use
SMTP to send and receive mail messages, user-level client mail applications typically only use SMTP for
sending messages to a mail server for relaying. For receiving messages, client applications usually use either
the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or a proprietary system
(such as Microsoft Exchange or Lotus Notes/Domino) to access their mail box accounts on a mail server.

Email: is basically short for electronic mail i.e., messages sent & received electronically by computer. It is
an extremely cost-effective way to move information around quickly and reducing the clutter of paper in the
office

Voice Mail: refers to e-mail systems that support audio. Users can leave spoken messages for one another
and listen to the messages by executing the appropriate command in the e-mail system.

Protocols and Chat and Video Conferencing VOIP

Chat: Online textual talk, in real time, is called Chatting.

Video Conferencing: A two-way videophone conversation among multiple participants is called

Video Conferencing. It requires a digital camera, video conferencing software and an internet connection.
Microsoft NetMeeting is one such software.

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Voice over Internet Protocol (Voice over IP, VoIP) is one of a
family of internet technologies, communication protocols, and transmission technologies for delivery
of voice communications and multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet.
Other terms frequently encountered and often used synonymously with VoIP are IP telephony, Internet
telephony, voice over broadband (VoBB), broadband telephony, and broadband phone.

Wireless Technologies

Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity is a brand, originally licensed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to describe the
underlying technology of wireless local area networks (WLAN). A person with a WiFi device can connect to
the internet or Local area network using an access point, provided that the device should be in the range of
that Wireless access point. Wireless access point (WAP) connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent
wired LAN. It is based on the IEEE 802.11 specifications.

WiMax: (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a telecommunications protocol that

provides fixed and fully mobile Internet access. WiMax is similar to WiFi but on a much larger scale and
faster speeds. WiMax is based on IEEE 802.16 standards. It is expected to have a range of up to 40 miles
with a speed of 70 Mbps or more.
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Network security Concepts

Computer Virus: A virus is a software program designed to infect, destroy or interfere with a computer or
software program. Viruses are able to replicate, require host program as a carrier and are activated by
external action. Viruses can destroy file allocation tables (FAT) and lead to the corruption of the entire file
system. They can create bad sectors on the disk and decrease the space on hard disks by duplicating files.
They are also capable of destroying executable files and alter data, leading to the system failure. They can be
categorized into three types:
a. File infectors –attach themselves to a program file
b. Boot sector viruses – install themselves on the beginning tracks of a hard drive.
c. Macro viruses- Infect data files

Damage the virus can cause

The main objective of virus is to make your system unstable and cause harm to data. A virus
a. Can destroy the File allocation table (FAT) and lead to the corruption of an entire file system, resulting
in the need to fully reinstall and reload the system
b. Can create bad sectors on the disk, destroying parts of program and files
c. Can decrease the space on hard disc by duplicating files.
d. Can format specific tracks on the disks or format the entire disc.
e. Can destroy specific executable files and alter data in data files, causing a loss of integrity in the
data.
f. Can cause the system to hang so that it does not respond to any keyboard or mouse movements.

Computer Worm: A computer worm is a self-replicating malware computer program. It uses a computer
network to send copies of itself to other nodes (computers on the network) and it may do so without any user
intervention. Computer worms are similar to viruses in that they replicate functional copies of themselves
and can cause the same type of damage. In contrast to viruses, which require the spreading of an infected
host file, worms are standalone software and do not require a host program or human help to propagate. 

Trojan Horse:  A Trojan is a malware program that appears to be legitimate (hidden in a program), but in
fact does something malicious. Users are tricked into loading and executing it on their systems. Unlike
viruses, a Trojan does not replicate (i.e. infect other files), nor does it make copies of itself as worms do. It
does not require a host program in which to embed itself. They generally spread through user interaction
such as opening an e-mail attachment or downloading and running a file from the internet. Most of the time
the users are unaware of the damage it is causing because of the Trojan horse’s masking effect.

Spam: Spam refers to electronic junk mail or junk newspaper message. Spam is flooding the Internet with
many copies of the same message, in an attempt to force the message on people who would not otherwise
choose to receive it. Most spam is commercial advertising, often for dubious products, get-rich-quick
schemes, or quasi-legal services.

Cookies: A cookie is a message given to a Web browser by a Web server. The browser stores the message in
a text file. The message is then sent back to the server each time the browser requests a page from the server.
The main purpose of cookies is to identify users and possibly prepare customized Web pages for them.
When you enter a Web site using cookies, you may be asked to fill out a form providing such information as
your name and interests. This information is packaged into a cookie and sent to your Web browser, which
stores it for later use. The next time you go to the same Web site, your browser will send the cookie to the
Web server. The server can use this information to present you with custom Web pages.

Firewall: A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network is called
Firewall. Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.
Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks
connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the
firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
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Https: (hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) works by transmitting normal http interactions through an
encrypted system and the information cannot be accessed by any party other than the client and end server.
Two types of encryption layer available are Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Secure Sockets Layer
(SSL), both of which encode the data records being exchanged. 

India IT Act: In India, the cyber laws are contained in the Information technology Act, 200 which was
notified on 17 October 2000. It aims to provide the legal infrastructure for e-commerce in India by
governing the transactions through the Internet and other electronic medium. An Act to provide legal
recognition for transactions carried out by means of electronic data interchange and other means of
electronic communication, commonly referred to as "electronic commerce", which involve the use of
alternatives to paper-based methods of communication and storage of information, to facilitate electronic
filing of documents with the Government agencies and further to amend the Indian Penal Code, the Indian
Evidence Act, 1872, the Bankers' Books Evidence Act, 1891 and the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 and
for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Cyber Law: Cyber Law is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet
and World Wide Web.

Cyber Crimes: Computer crime or cybercrime is a form of crime where the Internet or computers are used
as a medium to commit crime. A generalized definition of cyber crime may be “unlawful acts wherein the
computer is either a tool or target or both”. The computer may be used as a tool in the following kinds of
activity- financial crimes, sale of illegal articles, pornography, online gambling, intellectual property crime,
e-mail spoofing, forgery, cyber defamation, cyber stalking. The computer may however be target for
unlawful acts in the following cases- unauthorized access to computer/ computer system/ computer
networks, theft of information contained in the electronic form, e-mail bombing, data didling, salami attacks,
logic bombs, Trojan attacks, internet time thefts, web jacking, theft of computer system, physically
damaging the computer system.

IPR issues: Intellectual property Rights (IP) refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic
works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. IP is divided into two categories:  
Industrial property, which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic
indications of source; and Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and
plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and
architectural designs.  Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances,
producers of phonograms in their recordings, and those of broadcasters in their radio and television
programs. 

Hackers and Crackers: Hacker is a slang term for a computer enthusiast, i.e., a person who enjoys learning
programming languages and computer systems and can often be considered an expert on the subject(s). The
Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems whereas Hackers are more interested
in gaining knowledge for playful pranks

Hacking: The process by which people break and enter a computer/network without having any authorized
access and with no malicious intent is known as hacking. It is the duty of an ethical hacker to inform the
system administrator of the security flaw as soon as he/she identifies it.

Introduction to Web Services

1. WWW (World Wide Web): The World Wide Web (WWW) is a set of protocols that allows you to
access any document on the Net through a naming system based on URLs. WWW also specifies a way-
the hypertext Transfer protocol (HTTP) – to request and send a document over the internet. It is user
friendly, can contain multimedia documents (including graphics, audio, video, animations and text) and
hypertext and hyperlinks. A hypertext file is a document that can incorporate text, graphic images,
audio and video tracks, and most importantly, dynamic links to relates files or documents, even on net.
These dynamic links are called hyperlinks.
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2. HTML. Everything on the web is a document written in a special language called HTML or Hypertext
Markup Language. This language tells the browsers like Mosaic or Internet Explorer or Netscape how
to display text, picture and links on the screen. HTML is a document-layout and hyperlink-specification
language i.e., a language used to design the layout of the document and to specify the hyperlinks.
HTML tells a browser how to display the contents of a hypertext documents i.e., a documents including
text, images and other support media. The language also tells the browser how to make a document
interactive through special hyperlinks. HTML is a language that supports multimedia and new page
layout features.

3. XML (eXtensible Markup Language): XML allows the designers to create their own tags to store and
transport data.

4. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): It is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web
servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter
a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch
and transmit the requested Web page. In short, HTTP is a protocol for transferring Hyper text from web
server to web browser.

5. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is an address of a file on Internet. The first part of the address
indicates what protocol to use, and the second part specifies the Doman name or the IP address where
the resource is located. It is a string of characters that identifies a page on the Web. It is a reference (an
address) to a resource on the Internet.  The protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a
colon and two forward slashes.
For example, in the URL http://www.example.com, the domain name is www.example.com

6. Domain Name: It is a unique name which identifies an internet site. Domain names are used
in URLs to identify particular Web pages.
For example, in the URL http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html, the domain name is
pcwebopedia.com.Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain
(TLD) it belongs to. There are only a limited number of such domains. For example:
 gov - Government agencies
 edu - Educational institutions
 org - Organizations (nonprofit)
 mil - Military
 com - commercial business
 net - Network organizations
 ca - Canada
 th - Thailand
Because the Internet is based on IP addresses, and not domain names, every Web server requires
a Domain Name System (DNS) server to translate domain names into IP addresses.

7. Web Browser and Web Server: A Web Browser is a WWW client that navigates through the World
Wide Web and displays web pages. A Web Server is a WWW server that responds to the requests made
by web browsers.

8. Web Sites, Web Addresses and Web Pages: A location on a net server is called a web site. Each web
site has a unique address called URL (Uniform Resources Locator)/web address/ protocol address. The
document residing on web sites are called web pages. The web pages use HTTP. Home Page is the top-
level web page of a web site. When a web-site is opened, its home page is displayed. Web portal is a
web site, which hosts other web sites. In other words, a web portal has hyper links to many other web
sites. By clicking upon these links the corresponding web sites can be opened. www.yahoo.com is an
example of web portal. Other examples are:- www.indiatimes.com , www.khoj.com etc.
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9. Web hosting: is a means of hosting web server application on a computer system through which
electronic contents on the Internet is readily available to any web browser client. The computer system
providing the web hosting is known as web-server or the web host.

10. Web scripting: The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as web-
scripting. It is a list of commands that are embedded in the web-page and are interpreted and executed
by a certain program or scripting engine. Scripts are of two types: client-side scripts and server side
scripts. Client side scripting enables interaction within a web page. They are downloaded at the client
end and then interpreted and executed by the browser. Some popular client side scripting languages are
VBScript, JavaScript, and Hypertext preprocessor (PHP). Server side scripting enables the completion
of the task at the server end and then sending the result to the client end. Some popular server side
scripting languages are Hypertext preprocessor (PHP), ASP (Active Server Pages) and JSP (Java server
pages).

11. Web 2.0 - Web2.0 is a tool that empowers us to make our voice heard on the internet.  It allows people
who have access to the internet to write to it – sharing experiences, knowledge, insights, views,
theories, and other ideas.  This can be done by means of text, graphics, sound and video. Web 2.0 is also
used for social networking. Example: Social Networking Sites, Blogs, Face book, Video Sharing Sites,
Video Conferencing Applications etc.

E-commerce
E-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the
transmitting of funds over an electronic network, primarily the internet. These business transactions
occur where involved parties can be Business or Customer. The terms e-commerce and e-business are
often used interchangeably. Most commonly used e-Commerce site are ebay.in, amazon.com
Advantages/Benefits of E-commerce:
• Goods sold through e-business are generally cheaper as cost incurred in E-business is less
compared to setting up a traditional business.
• Customers can receive highly customizable service.
• Even Remote area customers are reached in e-business.
• Sellers have better understanding of their customers' needs as customers communicate through
e-mails
Online banking, also known as internet banking, e-banking or virtual banking, is an electronic
payment system that enables customers of a bank or a financial institution to conduct a range of
financial transactions through the financial institution’s website.
An online bank offers customers the services traditionally available through a local branch, including
deposits, which is done online or through the mail, and online bill payment, balance enquiries etc.
Mobile Banking
Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or a financial institution that allows its customers to
conduct a range of financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as a mobile phone or
tablet and using software, usually called an app, provided by the financial institution for the purpose.
To complete the online transaction:-
1 The user should have a bank account,
2. The user should have a Mobile connection/phone which is attached to above bank account
3. The mobile banking app of the above bank should be installed on that mobile,
4. The user should store the Login credentials (User Id & Password) provided by the bank to
complete the transaction
Payment apps and Services
Payment apps are also referred to as Mobile Wallets. There are many payment apps available.
- To use a payment app you need a compatible smartphone where the app is required to be
installed.
- Once the app has been installed, create an account and set the password for your account to
make online payments.
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- To make online payment, you need to put in some money into it using a valid debit or credit
card.
- Once you have the money in the wallet, you can use online payments. For example to buy air
tickets or to recharge your phone, as well you can make payments at your local retail store in the
market which are very efficient to use and convenient to handle.
Examples of some of the wallets which are frequently used in the market are Paytm Wallet, MobiKwik
Wallet,PayPal, Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) App, Google Wallet, Apple pay
Precautions to be taken with regard to making payments while shopping online?
- Share payment information only with known or reputable vendors
- Before entering any personal or payment information, make sure that the URL should start with
http