PERSPECTIVE

published: 07 September 2015

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01353

Dissociative states in dreams and

brain chaos: implications for creative
awareness
Petr Bob1,2* and Olga Louchakova 3,4
1
Center for Neuropsychiatric Research of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry and UHSL, First Faculty of Medicine,
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic, 2 Central European Institute of Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk
University, Brno, Czech Republic, 3 Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA,
4
Sofia University, Palo Alto, CA, USA

This article reviews recent findings indicating some common brain processes during
dissociative states and dreaming with the aim to outline a perspective that neural
chaotic states during dreaming can be closely related to dissociative states that may
manifest in dreams scenery. These data are in agreement with various clinical findings
Edited by: that dissociated states can be projected into the “dream scenery” in REM sleep
Sue Llewellyn, periods and dreams may represent their specific interactions that may uncover unusual
University of Manchester, UK
psychological potential of creativity in psychotherapy, art, and scientific discoveries.
Reviewed by:
Andrew A. Fingelkurts, Keywords: dreams, dissociation, self-organization, chaos, creativity
BM-Science – Brain and Mind
Technologies Research Centre,
Finland
Richard James Brown, Introduction
University of Manchester, UK

*Correspondence:
A particular unexplained question is whether it may be possible for an individual to have
Petr Bob, a “transcendental experience” in which consciousness transcends its own symbolic self-
Center for Neuropsychiatric Research understanding and abstract thinking and how these experiences may be related to particular
of Traumatic Stress, Department aspects of consciousness and their complex organization in the brain. Recent findings indicate
of Psychiatry and UHSL, First Faculty that conscious states can be described as representations of brain states and related to dynamics of
of Medicine, Charles University, Ke
large-scale neuronal networks (Freeman, 1991, 1999, 2000; Singer, 2001; Varela et al., 2001; Rees
Karlovu 11, 128 00 Prague,
Czech Republic
et al., 2002; Fingelkurts et al., 2010, 2013; Bob, 2011; Fingelkurts and Fingelkurts, 2012).
[email protected] According to some recent theoretical viewpoints subjective experience can be represented in
the brain by a “cerebral mental field” which refers to the mind as a system property related to the
Specialty section: synchronized activities of large numbers of neurons (Libet, 2006). These specific complex processes
This article was submitted to linking the brain and its cognitive “mental field” may help to describe relationships between
Psychopathology, subjective experience and brain activation patterns on various functional levels of organization
a section of the journal (Freeman, 1991, 1999, 2000; Melancon and Joanette, 2000; Varela et al., 2001; Korn and Faure,
Frontiers in Psychology
2003). In addition, these findings show that not only brain generates consciousness, but also
Received: 01 May 2015 consciousness affects the brain. This complex organization of subjective mental experiences plays a
Accepted: 24 August 2015 role in spatio-temporal activities of the brain, which via various feedback loops are associated with
Published: 07 September 2015
the spatial-temporal organization of the mind processes (Freeman, 1991, 1999, 2000; Fingelkurts
Citation: et al., 2010, 2013; Bob, 2011; Fingelkurts and Fingelkurts, 2012; Bass, 2014; Tang et al., 2015).
Bob P and Louchakova O (2015)
In this context, recent findings indicate that distributed patterns of neuronal activities are
Dissociative states in dreams
and brain chaos: implications
specifically linked within neural assemblies that tend to create coherent systems, which enable
for creative awareness. mental representations related to perceptual and cognitive functions, memory processes, and
Front. Psychol. 6:1353. conscious awareness (Freeman, 1991; Singer, 2001; Rees et al., 2002). In addition, according to
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01353 the recent evidence these neural mechanisms that enable conscious integration are significantly

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1353

Bob and Louchakova Dissociative states in dreams and brain chaos

affected by various stressful and traumatic experiences that may may represent a conscious reflection of dissociative states
determine dissociation of conscious awareness and memory (Li represented during memory processing in REM sleep (Gabel,
and Spiegel, 1992; Putnam, 1997; Bob, 2003; Spiegel, 2012). 1989; Rotenberg, 1992; Bob, 2004; Eisser, 2005; Stickgold and
Walker, 2005).

Dissociative States in Dreams

Dreams and Brain Chaos
Dissociative states usually emerge as a disconnection and switch
between different mental states due to a disconnection between Recent findings indicate that some modalities of awareness
memories related to traumatic or stressful experiences that and attention used for self-monitoring and for the internal
disturb conscious awareness and experience of the self (Li explorations of one’s consciousness such as dreams, meditation
and Spiegel, 1992; Putnam, 1997; Bob, 2003; Spiegel, 2012). and various forms of creative awareness may be at certain
In this context, dissociation can be defined as a partial or levels of brain functions understood using theories of non-linear
total disconnection between memories of the past, awareness dynamics, chaos and self-organization (Freeman, 1991, 1999,
of identity and of immediate sensations, and control of 2000; Elbert et al., 1994; Melancon and Joanette, 2000; Bob, 2003,
bodily movements often resulting from traumatic experiences, 2011; Korn and Faure, 2003; Fingelkurts et al., 2013).
intolerable problems, or disturbed relationships ( Li and Spiegel, In the scientific history, the chaotic processes were for the first
1992; Bob, 2003; Colman, 2003). Due to this disconnection time documented in the last years of 19th century in the work
of memory and identity dissociation is related to disability by Poincaré (1908/1998). In his “Science and method” Poincaré
to integrate some mental contents into conscious awareness (1908/1998, p. 68) wrote: “A very small, unnoticeable cause can
(Bernstein and Putnam, 1986). In agreement with new DSM-V determine a visible very large effect; in this case we claim that this
criteria, dissociation may be defined: “as a disruption of and/or effect is a product of random . . .”.
discontinuity in the normal, subjective integration of one or In the dynamic state of chaos very small changes in a system
more aspects of psychological functioning, including—but not can result to very large differences in the system’s behavior (the
limited to—memory, identity, consciousness, perception, and so-called butterfly effect, which metaphorically means that the
motor control” (Spiegel, 2012; American Psychiatric Association, flapping of a butterfly’s wings in one part of the world later may
2014). cause a tornado in a distant part of the world). Chaos represents
Dissociative mental states also manifest during dreams and a dynamic pattern of activity that occurs when a system involves
may be typically related to discontinuities and shifts in dream a large number of interlinked and simultaneously active states,
scenes, which according to some psychological studies of dreams which can lead to self-organization (Freeman, 1991, 2000; Elbert
may specifically manifest in pathological processes related to et al., 1994; Korn and Faure, 2003; Bob, 2015).
nightmares and recurrent dreams linked to traumatic experiences Seminal contributions to this field of research reported
(Ferenczi, 1934; Levitan, 1980; Hartmann, 1998; Bob, 2004; Freeman (Freeman, 1991, 1999, 2000; Elbert et al., 1994; Bob,
Schonhammer, 2005). Intriguing relationships between dreams 2011), who was particularly interested to explore how brain
and the dissociative states were also reported in cases of the generates cognitive processing, intentionality, and meaning. In
so-called “alter personalities” in multiple personality disorder his research Freeman found that brain activities may manifest
(MPD), which may manifest on parallel levels in dreams chaotic behavior. Freeman also proposed that chaos could
and during personality alterations in hypnosis (Jeans, 1976; underlie basic forms of collective neural activity in perceptual
Marmer, 1980a,b; Salley, 1988; Putnam, 1989; Brenner, 1996, processing including ability to access memorized sensory patterns
1999, 2001; Bob, 2004). For example, Barrett (1994, 1995, and learning of novel sensory information. In cognitive processes
1996) reported some cases of MPD in which alter personalities chaos may explain brain ability to respond flexibly to the outside
manifested in dream scenes. These case studies suggest that world and to generate novel activity patterns that are subjectively
dream “personalities” may manifest as hallucinated projections of experienced as “novel” ideas that enable complex dynamic
various aspects of the fragmented self that may be understood as behavior of the brain and intentional behavior (Freeman, 1991,
prototypes of these alter personalities (Bowers and Brecher, 1955; 1999, 2000).
Watkins and Watkins, 1979–1980; Merskey, 1992; Rickeport, Recent findings indicate that deterministic mechanisms of
1992; Watkins, 1993; Lynn et al., 1994; Barrett, 1995; Bob, brain activity as well as chaotic neural patterns are important
2004). In this context, Bowers and Brecher (1955) reported for brain functioning (Freeman, 1991, 1999, 2000; Elbert et al.,
that fragmented aspects of the self, very similar to altered 1994; Birbaumer et al., 1995; Kantz and Schreiber, 1997; Bob,
personalities in MPD, may manifest during hypnosis also in 2011). In this context, mental states and brain activities related to
individuals without multiple personality structures and also they intentional goals are predictable and deterministic. On the other
may be observed in dreams and associations using Rorschach test. hand brain processes related to great sensitivity to very small
Taken together these reported studies suggest that dissociative changes, mainly in initial stages of a neural processes, seem to
mental states may be projected as specific types of hallucinatory be characterized by chaotic neural activities and mental states,
experiences during dreams and may be identified as parts of for example during free floating divergent thinking or search
dream scenes (Gabel, 1989; Hartmann, 1998; Bob, 2004). An related mental events (Freeman, 1991, 1999, 2000; Elbert et al.,
important implication of these data is that dreaming processes 1994; Globus and Arpaia, 1994; Birbaumer et al., 1995; Faure

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1353

Bob and Louchakova Dissociative states in dreams and brain chaos

and Korn, 2001; Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2002; Bob, 2011; Yoruk dream images, which lead to dream discontinuities and multiple
and Runco, 2014). These chaotic brain activities with increased transitions of neural firing patterns (Tender and Kramer, 1971;
sensitivity to “initial conditions” underlying novel trends in brain Kaczmarek and Babloyantz, 1977; Elazar and Hobson, 1985;
processes are related to a very large number of interacting and Rotenberg, 1992; Kahn and Hobson, 1993; Kahn et al., 1997, 2000,
interlinked neural states that are sensitive and unstable because 2002; Kahn, 2013).
of a competition of many neural patterns (Freeman, 2000; Korn
and Faure, 2003). According to these findings chaos may enable
flexible brain responses to some external stimuli associated with Dreams, Conscious Awareness, and
novel neural activities, behavior and cognitive processing, for Novel Ideas
example experiences of original ideas and creativity (Skarda and
Freeman, 1987; Freeman, 1991, 2000, 2001; Elbert et al., 1994; Reported findings suggest that dreams may reflect dissociative
Melancon and Joanette, 2000; Korn and Faure, 2003; Bob, 2011). mental states that especially manifest as discontinuous jumps in
Chaotic states in the brain may manifest in various cognitive the dream scenery (Salley, 1988; Gabel, 1989; Bob, 2004), which in
processes as for example in dreams (Kahn and Hobson, 1993; a similar way as dissociative states during waking may be related
Kahn et al., 2000, 2002; Bob, 2011; Kahn, 2013), dissociative to chaos and self-organization in the brain (Pediaditakis, 1992;
states (Pediaditakis, 1992; Putnam, 1997; Sel, 1997; Bob, 2003) Putnam, 1997; Sel, 1997; Bob, 2003, 2011). These findings are in
and may characterize specific processes in development of accordance with experiences and case studies in psychotherapy,
mental disorders, as for example in depression or schizophrenia which indicate that dreams are not random processes and may be
(Gottschalk et al., 1995; Huber et al., 1999; Paulus and Braff, 2003; meaningful for self-discovery and personal growth (Jeans, 1976;
Bob, 2011). Marmer, 1980a,b; Salley, 1988; Barrett, 1994, 1995, 1996; Brenner,
Chaotic brain states are usually related to activities in 1996, 1999, 2001; Bob, 2004).
various independent regions that process information in parallel A specific feature of chaotic neural states is that they can
distributed mode (Tirsch et al., 2004). This parallel distributed generate novel patterns of neural activities and novel synaptic
processing may manifest in transient states and fluctuations of connections, which may link less associated or dissociative
increased or decreased complexity that in cases of low associated mental states into a coherent whole (Kahn and Hobson, 1993;
strength among the parallel distributed information subsystems Kahn et al., 2000). For example, several findings suggest that high
may lead to dissociated mental states (Mc Clelland et al., 1986; complexity and self-organization manifest also during creative
Li and Spiegel, 1992; Butler et al., 1996; Bob, 2003). Due to divergent thinking (Combs, 1996; Mölle et al., 1996). Specifically
these decreased levels of association between some information in the REM sleep these integrative processes support “binding”
processes, dissociation manifests as disturbed continuity between functions of dreams, which connect dream images coherently
interacting mental states (Li and Spiegel, 1992; Bob, 2003). together that enables novel creative unity of conscious experience
Dream scenes mainly occur in the REM sleep and include (Revonsuo and Tarkko, 2002). These findings suggest that dreams
mental images, thoughts, sounds, and other sensory experiences may reflect new integrations of dissociated mental states related
in various sequences that may be episodically disturbed by to traumatic and stressful experiences and may also increase
discontinuous shifts in dream narratives (Kahn and Hobson, creative potentialities in various cases of artistic inventions,
1993; Faw, 1997; Kahn et al., 1997, 2000, 2002; Stickgold et al., scientific discoveries and deep insights related to meta-cognitive,
2001; Hobson and Pace-Schott, 2002; Kahn, 2013). According to transcendental or religious experiences reflecting certain forms
some findings neural correlates of these discontinuous shifts in a of “preconscious” or “unconscious” intelligence (Haule, 1984;
dream scenery are rapid shifts in neural patterns related to self- Barrett, 1993; Strunz, 1993; Baylor, 2001; Schaverien, 2005;
organized neural activities, mainly associated with activities of Louchakova, 2006; Edwards et al., 2013; Dresler et al., 2015).
cholinergic pontogeniculoocipital (PGO) systems (Hobson and
McCarley, 1977; Quattrochi et al., 1989; Hobson, 1990; Kahn and
Hobson, 1993; Stickgold et al., 1994, 2001; Kahn et al., 1997, Conclusion
2000, 2002; Kahn, 2013). In addition, there is also evidence that
the PGO activity is correlated with increased firings in the visual Chaos and self-organization manifest in brain and cognitive
cortex and lateral geniculate bodies participating in formation of functions and may be specifically related to dissociative states
images (Callaway et al., 1987; Singer, 1989; Kahn and Hobson, characterized by rapid shifts between disconnected mental states
1993; Porte and Hobson, 1996; Stickgold et al., 2001; Kahn, that in the case of dreams are likely specifically related to PGO
2013). During these self-organizing processes brain responses bursts of neural activity (Kahn and Hobson, 1993; Putnam, 1997;
may become very sensitive with respect to very small stimuli Bob, 2003, 2011; Korn and Faure, 2003; Kahn, 2013).
which may lead to chaotic bifurcations that cause rapid shifts Although the current literature and evidence about these
in patterns of neural activities related to increased cholinergic links between dreams and dissociated states are limited, they
and decreased aminergic input onto forebrain structures (Kahn provide useful explanatory scheme for future research that could
and Hobson, 1993; Stickgold et al., 1994; Kahn et al., 2000, 2002; explain more detailed connections of self-organizing theory
Kahn, 2013). According to recent findings these chaotic processes of dreams and dissociative states. For example, Tart (2009)
may be characterized by significant transitions of dream objects suggests that hypnotic techniques provide a useful framework
and sceneries due to a competition and interference of various for experimental studies of dreams and other clinical data show

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1353

Bob and Louchakova Dissociative states in dreams and brain chaos

that also dreams in patients who experienced serious traumatic the content of the dream (Salley, 1988; Gabel, 1989; Bob,
events could open new perspectives in this research (Bob, 2004). These data also suggest that neural chaotic states during
2004; Rotenberg, 2014). These studies may also provide dreaming may represent underlying neural processes that enable
new theoretical framework for understanding of connections new integration of dissociated contents of memory which may
between dreams and brain functions related to unusual creative generate novel ideas, insights and other creative conscious states.
potential of unconscious mental processing as well as important
findings for psychotherapy that using “dream analysis” may
open novel insights and creativity in individual life and help Acknowledgments
to resolve traumatic experiences linked to various mental
disorders. The study was supported by projects PRVOUK provided
Taken together these data suggest a perspective for further by Charles University, project GACR P407/12/1957 and the
research that dissociated mental states may be projected into project “CEITEC – Central European Institute of Technology”
a dream scenery during REM sleep and dreams may represent (CZ.1.05/1.1.00/02.0068) from European Regional Development
specific interactions of dissociated contents, which may create Fund.

References Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormaker, V. I., Steiger, A., Holsboer, F., Czisch, M., et al.
(2015). Neural correlates of insight in dreaming and psychosis. Sleep Med. Rev.
American Psychiatric Association. (2014). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of 20, 92–99. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2014.06.004
Mental Disorders, 5th Edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Edwards, C. L., Ruby, P. M., Malinowski, J. E., Bennett, P. D., and
Barrett, D. (1993). The “Committee of sleep”: a study of dream incubation of Blagrove, M. T. (2013). Dreaming and insight. Front. Psychol. 4:979. doi:
problem solving. Dreaming 3, 115–122. doi: 10.1037/h0094375 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00979
Barrett, D. (1994). Dreams in dissociative disorders. Dreaming 4, 165–175. doi: Eisser, A. S. (2005). Physiology and psychology of dreams. Semin. Neurol. 25,
10.1037/h0094410 97–105. doi: 10.1055/s-2005-867078
Barrett, D. (1995). The dream character as prototype for the multiple personality Elazar, Z., and Hobson, J. A. (1985). Neuronal excitability control in health and
alter. Dissociation 8, 66–68. disease: a neurophysiological comparison of REM sleep and epilepsy. Prog.
Barrett, D. (1996). “Dreams in multiple personality disorder,” in Trauma and Neurobiol. 25, 141–188. doi: 10.1016/0301-0082(85)90002-4
Dreams, ed. D. Barrett (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 68–81. Elbert, T., Ray, W. J., Kowalik, Z. J., Skinner, J. E., Graf, K. E., and Birbaumer, N.
Bass, L. (2014). Quantum theory of iconic memory. Act. Nerv. Super. 56, 57–61. (1994). Chaos and physiology: deterministic chaos in excitable cell assemblies.
Baylor, G. W. (2001). What do we really know about Mendeleev’s dream of the Physiol. Rev. 74, 1–47.
periodic table? A note on dreams of scientific problem solving. Dreaming 11, Faure, P., and Korn, H. (2001). Is there chaos in the brain? I. Concepts of nonlinear
89–92. doi: 10.1023/A:1009484504919 dynamics and methods of investigation. C. R. Acad. Sci. III 324, 773–793. doi:
Bernstein, E. M., and Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity 10.1016/S0764-4469(01)01377-4
of a dissociation scale. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 174, 727–735. doi: 10.1097/00005053- Faw, B. (1997). Outlining a brain model of mental imaging abilities. Neurosci.
198612000-00004 Biobehav. Rev. 21, 283–288. doi: 10.1016/S0149-7634(96)00026-7
Birbaumer, N., Flor, H., Lutzenberger, W., and Elbert, T. (1995). Chaos and order Ferenczi, S. (1934). Gedanken über das trauma. Int. Z. Psychoanal. 20, 5–12.
in the human brain. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. Suppl. 44, 450–459. Fingelkurts, A. A., and Fingelkurts, A. A. (2012). Mind as a nested
Bob, P. (2003). Dissociation and neuroscience: history and new perspectives. Int. J. operational architectonics of the brain: comment on “Neuroontology,
Neurosci. 113, 903–914. doi: 10.1080/00207450390220376 neurobiological naturalism, and consciousness: a challenge to scientific
Bob, P. (2004). Dissociative processes, multiple personality and dream functions. reduction and a solution” by Todd E. Feinberg. Phys. Life Rev. 9, 49–50. doi:
Am. J. Psychother. 58, 139–149. 10.1016/j.plrev.2011.11.001
Bob, P. (2011). Brain, Mind and Consciousness: Advances in Neuroscience Research. Fingelkurts, A. A., Fingelkurts, A. A., and Neves, C. F. (2010). Natural world
New York, NY: Springer. physical, brain operational, and mind phenomenal space-time. Phys. Life Rev.
Bob, P. (2015). The Brain and Conscious Unity: Freud’s Omega. New York, NY: 7, 195–249. doi: 10.1016/j.plrev.2010.04.001
Springer. Fingelkurts, A. A., Fingelkurts, A. A., and Neves, C. F. (2013). Consciousness as a
Bowers, M. K., and Brecher, S. (1955). The emergence of multiple personalities in phenomenon in the operational architectonics of brain organization: criticality
the course of hypnotic investigation. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Hypn. 3, 188–199. doi: and self-organization considerations. Chaos Solitons Fractals 55, 13–31. doi:
10.1080/00207145508410151 10.1016/j.chaos.2013.02.007
Brenner, I. (1996). The characterological basis of multiple personality. Am. J. Freeman, W. J. (1991). The physiology of perception. Sci. Am. 264, 34–41. doi:
Psychother. 52, 154–166. 10.1038/scientificamerican0291-78
Brenner, I. (1999). Deconstructing DID. Am. J. Psychother. 53, 344–360. Freeman, W. J. (1999). Consciousness, intentionality, and causality. J. Conscious.
Brenner, I. (2001). Dissociation of Trauma: Theory, Phenomenology and Technique. Stud. 6, 143–172.
Boston: International Universities Press. Freeman, W. J. (2000). Mesoscopics neurodynamics: from neuron to brain.
Butler, L. D., Duran, R. E. F., Jasiukaitis, P., Koopman, C. H., and Spiegel, D. J. Physiol. Paris 94, 303–322. doi: 10.1016/S0928-4257(00)01090-1
(1996). Hypnotizability and traumatic experience: a diathesis-stress model Freeman, W. J. (2001). Biocomplexity: adaptive behavior in complex
of dissociative symptomatology. Am. J. Psychiatry (Festschrift Suppl.t) 153, stochastic dynamical systems. BioSystems 59, 109–123. doi:
42–62. 10.1016/S0303-2647(00)00146-5
Callaway, C. W., Lydic, R., Baghdoyan, H. A., and Hobson, J. A. (1987). Gabel, S. (1989). Dreams as a possible reflection of dissociated self-monitoring
Pontogeniculooccipital waves: spontaneous visual system activity during rapid system. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 177, 560–568. doi: 10.1097/00005053-198909000-
eye movement sleep. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 7, 105–109. doi: 10.1007/BF00 00008
711551 Globus, G. C., and Arpaia, J. P. (1994). Psychiatry and the new dynamics. Biol.
Colman, A. M. (2003). A Dictionary of Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford Psychiatry 32, 352–364. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(94)90039-6
University Press. Gottschalk, A. M., Bauer, M. S., and Whybrow, P. C. (1995). Evidence of chaotic
Combs, A. (1996). The Radiance of Being: Complexity, Chaos, and the Evolution of mood variation in bipolar disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 947–959. doi:
Consciousness. Saint Paul, MN: Paragon House. 10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950230061009

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1353

Bob and Louchakova Dissociative states in dreams and brain chaos

Hartmann, E. (1998). Nightmare after trauma as paradigm for all dreams: a new Paulus, M. P., and Braff, D. L. (2003). Chaos and schizophrenia: does the method
approach to the nature and functions of dreaming. Psychiatry 61, 223–238. fit the madness? Biol. Psychiatry 53, 3–11. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01701-8
Haule, J. R. (1984). From somnambulism to the archetypes: the French Roots of Pediaditakis, N. (1992). Deterministic non-linear chaos in brain function and
Jung(s Split with Freud. Psychoanal. Rev. 71, 636–689. borderline psychopathological phenomena. Med. Hypotheses 39, 67–72. doi:
Hobson, J. A. (1990). Sleep and dreaming. Neuroscience 10, 371–382. 10.1016/0306-9877(92)90143-Z
Hobson, J. A., and McCarley, R. W. (1977). The brain as a dream-state generator: Poincaré, H. (1908/1998). Science and Method. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
an activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process. Am. J. Psychol. 134, Porte, H., and Hobson, J. A. (1996). Physical motion in dreams: one measure
1335–1368. doi: 10.1176/ajp.134.12.1335 of three theories. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 105, 329–335. doi: 10.1037/0021-
Hobson, J. A., and Pace-Schott, E. F. (2002). The cognitive neuroscience of sleep: 843X.105.3.329
neural systems, consciousness and learning. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3, 679–693. doi: Putnam, F. (1997). Dissociation in Children and Adolescents. A Developmental
10.1038/nrn915 Perspective. London: The Guilford Press.
Huber, M. T., Braun, H. A., and Krieg, J. C. (1999). Consequences of deterministic Putnam, F. W. (1989). Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder.
and random dynamics for the course of affective disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 46, London: The Guilford Press.
256–262. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00311-4 Quattrochi, J. J., Mamelak, A. N., Madison, R. D., Macklis, J. D., and Hobson,
Jeans, R. F. (1976). The three faces of evelyn: a case report. I. An independently J. A. (1989). Mapping neuronal inputs to REM sleep induction sites with
validated case of multiple personalities. J. Abnorm Psychol. 85, 249–255. doi: carbachol-fluorescent microspheres. Science 245, 984–986. doi: 10.1126/science.
10.1037/h0078100 2475910
Kaczmarek, L. K., and Babloyantz, A. (1977). Spatiotemporal patterns Rees, G., Kreiman, G., and Koch, C. (2002). Neural correlates of consciousness in
in epileptic seizures. Biol. Cybern. 26, 199–208. doi: 10.1007/BF00 humans. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3, 261–270. doi: 10.1038/nrn783
366591 Revonsuo, A., and Tarkko, K. (2002). Binding in dreams - the bizarreness of dream
Kahn, D. (2013). Brain basis of self: self-organization and lessons images and the unity of consciousness. J. Conscious. Stud. 9, 3–24.
from dreaming. Front. Psychol. 4:408. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013. Rickeport, M. M. (1992). The interface between multiple personality,
00408 spirit mediumship and hypnosis. Am. J. Clin. Hypn. 34, 168–177. doi:
Kahn, D., Combs, A., and Krippner, S. (2002). Dreaming as a function of chaos- 10.1080/00029157.1992.10402841
like stochastic processes in the self-organizing brain. Nonlinear Dyn. Psychol. Rotenberg, V. S. (1992). Sleep and memory II: investigations on humans. Neurosci.
Life Sci. 6, 311–322. doi: 10.1023/A:1019758527338 Biobehav. Rev. 16, 503–505. doi: 10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80191-5
Kahn, D., and Hobson, J. A. (1993). Self-organization theory of dreaming. Rotenberg, V. S. (2014). Probability forecast in different types of behavior and in
Dreaming 3, 151–178. doi: 10.1037/h0094378 REM sleep in frame of search activity concept. Act. Nerv. Super. 56, 95–104.
Kahn, D., Krippner, S., and Combs, A. (2000). Dreaming and the self-organizing Salley, R. D. (1988). Subpersonalities with dreaming functions in a patient with
brain. J. Conscious. Stud. 7, 4–11. multiple personalities. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 176, 112–115. doi: 10.1097/00005053-
Kahn, D., Pace-Schott, E. F., and Hobson, J. A. (1997). Consciousness in waking 198802000-00007
and dreaming: the roles of neuronal oscillation and neuromodulation in Schaverien, J. (2005). Art, dreams and active imagination: a post-Jungian approach
determining similarities and differences. Neuroscience 78, 13–38. to transference and the image. J. Anal. Psychol. 50, 127–153. doi: 10.1111/j.0021-
Kantz, H., and Schreiber, T. (1997). Nonlinear Time Series Analysis. Cambridge: 8774.2005.00519.x
Cambridge University Press. Schonhammer, R. (2005). ‘Typical dreams’- reflections of arousal. J. Conscious.
Korn, H., and Faure, P. (2003). Is there chaos in the brain? II. Stud. 12, 18–37.
Experimental evidence and related models. C. R. Biol. 326, 787–840. doi: Sel, R. (1997). Dissociation as complex adaptation. Med. Hypotheses 48, 205–208.
10.1016/j.crvi.2003.09.011 doi: 10.1016/S0306-9877(97)90307-8
Levitan, H. (1980). “The dream in traumatic states,” in The Dream in Clinical Singer, W. (1989). “The role of acetylcholine in use-dependent plasticity of the
Practice, ed. J. M. Natterson (New York, NY: Jason Aronson). visual cortex,” in Brain Cholinergic Systems, eds M. Steriade and D. Biesold
Li, D., and Spiegel, D. (1992). A neural network model of dissociative disorders. (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Psychiatr. Ann. 22, 144–147. doi: 10.3928/0048-5713-19920301-11 Singer, W. (2001). Consciousness and the binding problem. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Libet, B. (2006). Reflections on the interaction of the mind and brain. Prog. 929, 123–146. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05712.x
Neurobiol. 78, 322–326. doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2006.02.003 Skarda, C. H. A., and Freeman, W. J. (1987). How brains make chaos in
Louchakova, O. (2006). “Ontopoiesis and union in the prayer of the heart: order to make sense of the world. Behav. Brain Sci. 10, 161–195. doi:
contributions to psychotherapy and learning,” in Logos of Phenomenology and 10.1017/S0140525X00047336
Phenomenology of the Logos. Book four. The Logos of Scientific Interrogation. Spiegel, D. (2012). Divided consciousness: dissociation in DSM-5. Depress. Anxiety
Participating in Nature-Life-Sharing in Life. Analecta Husserliana, ed. A. T. 29, 667–670. doi: 10.1002/da.21984
Tymieniencka (New York, NY: Springer), 289–311. Stickgold, R., Hobson, J. A., Fosse, R., and Fosse, M. (2001). Sleep, learning,
Lynn, S. J., Maré, C., Kvaal, S., Segal, D., and Sivec, H. (1994). The hidden observer, and dreams: off-line memory reprocessing. Science 294, 1052–1057. doi:
hypnotic dreams, and age regression: clinical implications. Am. J. Clin. Hypn. 10.1126/science.1063530
37, 130–142. doi: 10.1080/00029157.1994.10403125 Stickgold, R., Rittenhouse, C., and Hobson, J. A. (1994). Dream splicing: a new
Marmer, S. S. (1980a). “The dream in dissociative states,” in The Dream in Clinical technique for assessing thematic coherence in subjective reports of mental
Practic, ed. J. M. Natterson (New York, NY: Jason Aronson). activity. Conscious. Cogn. 3, 114–128. doi: 10.1006/ccog.1994.1008
Marmer, S. S. (1980b). Psychoanalysis of multiple personality. Int. J. Psycho-Anal. Stickgold, R., and Walker, M. P. (2005). Memory consolidation and
61, 439–459. reconsolidation: what is the role of sleep. Trends Neurosci. 28, 408–415.
Mc Clelland, J. L., Rumelhart, D. E., and PDP research group. (1986). Parallel doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2005.06.004
Distributed Processing I, II. Cambridge: MIT Press. Strunz, F. (1993). Preconscious mental activity and scientific problem-solving:
Melancon, G., and Joanette, Y. (2000). Chaos, brain and cognition: toward a a critique of the Kekulé dream controversy. Dreaming 3, 281–294. doi:
nonlinear order? Brain Cogn. 42, 33–36. doi: 10.1006/brcg.1999.1154 10.1037/h0094386
Merskey, H. (1992). The manufacture of personalities. The production of multiple Tang, Y. Y., Hölzel, B. K., and Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of
personality disorders. Br. J. Psychiatry 160, 327–340. mindfulness meditation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 213–225. doi: 10.1038/nrn3916
Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Zeman, U., Hajak, G., Cohen, L., and Berman, K. F. (2002). Tart, C. (2009). Hypnotic suggestion as a technique for the control of dreaming.
Transitions between dynamical states of differing stability in the human brain. Act. Nerv. Super. 51, 77–82.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99, 10948–10953. doi: 10.1073/pnas.162114799 Tender, J., and Kramer, M. (1971). Dream recall. Am. J. Psychiatry 128, 3–10.
Mölle, M., Marshall, L., Lutzenberger, W., Pietrowsky, R., Fehm, H. L., and Born, J. Tirsch, W. S., Stude, P., Scherb, H., and Keidel, M. (2004). Temporal order
(1996). Enhanced dynamic complexity in the human EEG during creative of nonlinear dynamics in human brain. Brain Res. Rev. 45, 79–95. doi:
thinking. Neurosci. Lett. 208, 61–64. doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(96)12539-8 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.01.002

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1353

Bob and Louchakova Dissociative states in dreams and brain chaos

Varela, F. J., Lachaux, J. P., Rodriguez, E., and Martinerie, J. (2001). The brainweb: Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was
phase synchronization and large-scale integration. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2, 229– conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
239. doi: 10.1038/35067550 be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Watkins, H. H. (1993). Ego-state therapy: an overview. Am.
J. Clin. Hypn. 35, 232–240. doi: 10.1080/00029157.1993. Copyright © 2015 Bob and Louchakova. This is an open-access article distributed
10403014 under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use,
Watkins, J. G., and Watkins, H. H. (1979–1980). Ego states and hidden observers. distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original
J. Altered States Conscious. 5, 3–18. author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal
Yoruk, S., and Runco, M. A. (2014). The neuroscience of divergent thinking. Act. is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or
Nerv. Super. 56, 1–16. reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1353