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GENERAL SCIENCE POINTERS THE EARTH SCIENCES

BASIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS


• Geology: The science of the origin, history, and structure
of the Earth, and the physical, chemical, and biological
changes that it has experienced or is experiencing.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY • Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean.
• Palaeontology: The science of the forms of life that
SCIENCE existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
• Meteorology: The science that deals with the atmosphere
 is a systematic study that is concerned with facts and
and its phenomena, such as weather and climate.
principles, and methods that could be observed in our
natural or physical and social environment. It comes from
the Latin word 'scire' that means 'to know’. THE LIFE SCIENCES (BIOLOGY)
 is both a body of knowledge and a process – a way of
thinking, a way of solving problems. • Botany: The study of plants.
• Zoology: The science that covers animals and animal
life.
The Branches of Science
• Genetics: The study of heredity.
• Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES
preventing illness, disease, and injury.
• Physics: The study of matter and energy and the
interactions between them. Physicists study such subjects
as gravity, light, and time. Albert Einstein, a famous Scientific Method
physicist, developed the Theory of Relativity. -is the logical method used by scientists to acquire
• Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, knowledge that is used to explain different phenomena in nature.
properties, reactions, and the structure of matter. The A thing observed by the senses is called a phenomenon; a
chemist Louis Pasteur, for example, discovered scientifically tested observation is called a fact. The scientific
pasteurization, which is the process of heating liquids such method has six basic steps, namely:
as milk and orange juice to kill harmful germs.
• Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the Earth's a. Identify and clearly state the problem. Questions
atmosphere. arise from something observed as unusual; a problem that
is specific, measurable, and attainable is identified.
b. Gather information pertinent to the problem. This is
done by recalling past experiences concerning the problem,
interviewing people who are knowledgeable of the problem, Law - a statement which describes what happens but
and researching in libraries and research centers. does not explain the cause of the occurrence.
c. Formulate hypothesis. Based on information or data Theory - hypothesis that can be explained from
gathered, an 'educated guess' can be made. observations.
d. Test the hypothesis. Carrying out experiments. f. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations.

Controlled experiment - manipulating one of the conditions or Scientific Traits


factors that may affect the result of experiment. Scientific knowledge may also be obtained through the use
of models and ideas, or through serendipity or accidental
1) Trials - number of times experiment is repeated. discovery. In scientific study, some standards or procedures must
2) Controls - factors that are kept constant throughout be observed. Scientists should always exhibit scientific attitudes
the experiment like the following:
3) Variables - factors that change during the experiment.
a. Curiosity - keen observation of things and events in the
Kinds: surroundings.
1. Independent or experimental - factors that are Galileo's intensive desire to study heavenly bodies drove
changed. him to use a telescope to study the moon, the planets, the sun,
2. Dependent - factors that change as a result of and the stars.
changes in the independent variable.
b. Logic and system - use of step-by-step experimental
Presentation of Data method and keeping of accurate record.
Tables - easy to read, organized Gregor Mendel was successful in his study of hereditary
presentations. traits because he used logical experimental methods and
Graphs - readily show patterns of data. accurately recorded his observations.
Kinds:
1. Line - proper to use when comparing two c. Open-mindedness - readiness or willingness to change
continuously changing variables. or modify ideas or principles when necessary.
2. Bar - appropriate to use when comparing a
changing value with an unchanging value. Johannes Kepler changed his notion about the popular belief
during his time that the planets moved along perfect circles to a
more accurate information that these follow elliptical orbits.
e. Draw a generalization or conclusion.
Conclusion - a statement about the result of the
experiment.
d. Intellectually honest - -acknowledging contribution of to do certain things which we normally cannot do. (e.g., airplane,
others to one's success. internet, CT scan. and computers.)
b. Products - materials produced or made through artificial or
Isaac Newton recognized the role of Galileo and others in his natural means. They make life more pleasant, more convenient,
formulation the Laws of Motion. and more comfortable. (e.g., steel, toothpaste, chemical fertilizers,
and pesticides)
e. Hardwork and perseverance c. Processes - include the ways of doing things. (e.g., food
Marie Curie and his husband Pierre had to work on several Preservation, prawn culture and induced fruiting.)
thousand kilograms of uranium ore to strain a tenth of a gram of
pure uranium.
MEASUREMENT
f. Not opinionated – using hard evidences to prove one's
theory. International System (SI) of Measurement

John Dalton used experimental evidences to support his Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity
atomic theory. with a chosen standard. The International System (SI) is the
system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is
g. Creativity and critical thinking legally enforced in almost all parts of the world. There are
Albert Einstein did not just depend on established facts and seven basic quantities in this system:
accepted beliefs during his days.
QUANTITY UNIT
Rather, he used these to develop his own theory in a
different perspective. Length Meters (m)

Mass Kilograms (kg)


Technology
Time Seconds (s)
- is defined as the application of scientific knowledge to Electric current Amperes (amp)
practical purposes. In short, it is an applied science. It is
classified into three kinds, namely: Temperature Kelvin (K)

Amount of substance Moles (mol)


a. Machines - include tools, gadgets or devices that help us do
our activities faster and better. They make life more pleasant to us Luminous intensity / light Candelas
Two factors affect the degree of measurements. They are interval between the two being divided into 180 parts. The
(a.) the ability to use the measuring instruments properly and (b.) conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on the
the precision of the instrument. The unit factor method is a Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation is:
systematic technique for solving numerical problems. The factors
F = 9/5C + 32.
are derived from fixed relationships between quantities. The main
purpose is to cancel units not desired using fixed relationships,
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade
leaving behind the unit desired. Units of a derived quantity like
density may be inverted to be able to cancel the unit not desired. temperature scale, is the scale based on 0 for the freezing point of
water and 100 for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by
Metric Prefixes the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is sometimes called the
centigrade scale because of the 100-degree interval between the
Metric prefixes are pretty easy to understand and very
defined points. The following formula can be used to convert a
handy for metric conversions. You don't have to know the nature
of a unit to convert, for example, from kilo-unit to mega-unit. All temperature from its representation on the Fahrenheit (F) scale to
the Celsius (C) value: C = 5/9(F - 32). The Celsius scale is in
metric prefixes are powers of 10.
general use wherever metric units have become accepted, and it
is used in scientific work everywhere.

Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of


thermodynamic temperature measurement in the International
System (SI) of measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the
triple point (equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous
phases) of pure water. The Kelvin (symbol K without the degree
sign) is also the fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale, an absolute
temperature scale named for the British physicist William
Most people even in the countries where metric system is used Thomson, Baron Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius
only know the most important metric prefixes like 'kilo' and 'milli'. They scale. The difference between the freezing and boiling points of
are very handy for understanding metric conversions. water is 100 degrees in each, so that the Kelvin has the same
magnitude as the degree Celsius. To convert Celsius to Kelvin: K
Temperature = __°C + 273

There are three temperature scales in use today,


Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.

Fahrenheit temperature is a scale based on 32 for the


freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling point of water, the
Volume Application:
The volume of an object
Liquid Volume
Volume refers to the amount of space that an object weighing
Equivalents
occupies. It is often used to signify more accurate 2.5 g is 1.4 cc. Will the object
1dm3 = 1liter (L)
measurements. float or sink on water
1 cm3 = a milliliter (mL)
Given : V = 1.4 cc
1000 cm3 = 1liter
VOLUME OF A REGULAR SOLID M= 2.5 g
Solution:
A regular solid is one having length, width, and thickness or D = M/ V
height and each can be measured in a single straight line. To = 2.5 g / 1.4 cc
measure the volume, we use a standard unit of measurement = 1.79 g/cc
which is the meter. The volume of a regular solid is obtained by Answer: the object will sink since it is denser than water.
multiplying its length, width and thickness. The volume is (Density of water = 1 g/cc)
expressed in cubic units (ex. Cubic meter, cubic cm, etc.)

VOLUME OF A LIQUID
Application:
Liquid volume is also measured in cubic meters but the use Calculate the volume of the block of
of liter (L) is widely accepted. Graduated cylinder is used to wood.
measure the volume of liquid. In reading the measurement of the Given : Solution:
volume of clear liquid, read the lower meniscus. For colored liquids, L = 2 cm Volume = L x W x T
read the upper meniscus. W = 2 cm = 8 cm3
T = 2 cm
VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID

An irregular solid is one where a dimension cannot be


measured in a single straight line. The displacement method is
used to determine the volume of irregular solids.

Displacement method used by Archimedes: Fill a container


with water, put the object in the container and catch the overflow.
Get the volume of the overflow)
Density b. Friction- resists / opposes the relative sliding
movement of two surfaces in contact with one
Density is the mass of the object per unit volume. another.
Substances differ in their densities. Each substance has a specific c. Centripetal force – drive a thing inward toward a
density. center or rotation. It keeps an object moving in a
circular path.
All materials with a density less than 1 g. /cc (density of d. Force of Gravity – which is acting on an object
water) will float on water, and all those with density greater than which enables it to exert an equal and opposite force
1 g/cc will sink. on its support.

D= Mass / Volume (g/cc) Nuclear Force- the strongest known force which holds
together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Force Electromagnetic Force- binds electrons to the atomic
- Normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull nucleus, atoms in the molecules, ions in solid matter, and
- Anything that changes the speed and direction of moving molecules into liquids and solids.
objects or that which causes a stationary object to start
moving in a straight line MASS vs WEIGHT

MEASURING FORCE Mass indicates the quantity of matter in a material object. It


does not change, thus it is a property that is constant. It is
Gravitational force is the pull that the earth exerts on all measured in a unit called kilogram. Weight on the other hand, is
objects and is measured by the weight of an object. Some the measure of the pull of gravity on an object. On earth, it
instruments for measuring weight are: the bathroom scale and the depends on the mass of the object and its distance from the center
balance (or kilohan) you often see in the market. of the earth. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its
weight. The closer is to the center of the earth, the greater is its
TYPES OF FORCES weight. Weight is expressed in N units. 100g = 1N.

Gravitational force – downward force that the earth exerts Work


on objects In science, work is done only when the force applied to an
a. Inertia – tendency of an object to remain at rest object actually moves the object in the direction of the force. This
or maintain its motion unless disturbed by a force is represented as:

WORK = force x displacement


SIMPLE MACHINES
Force- anything that causes motion or a change in motion a. Lever – any rigid body which is pivoted about a point
Displacement – the distance and direction through which called fulcrum (e.g. crowbar, hammer, pliers, nutcracker,
an object is moved tongs, table knife, baseball bat)
b. Pulley- a wheel with a grooved rim over which a rope
CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF WORK passes. ( as in flag pole)
W= F x d c. Wheel and axle – consists of a wheel attached to an
(Newton) (meter) axle so that if you push on the wheel, the axle turns also
= Newton-meter or joule (e.g. doorknob, eggbeater, screw driver)
d. Inclined plane –a flat surface with one and higher than
Application: the other. The longer it is in relation to its height, the
How much work do you do by pushing a sack of rice with larger is its mechanical advantage (e.g. plank, ladder,
a force of 50 N across a distance of 10 meters? winding road)
Given: F= 50 N e. Wedge – an inclined plane with either one or two
D = 10 m sloping sides. The smaller the angle of the wedge, the
Solution: greater the mechanical advantage (nail, scissors, chisel,
W=Fxd knife)
= 50 N x 10 m f. Screw – spiral inclined planes. Works by transferring
= 500 Nm or 500 J force exerted on the circumference of the screw (food
* note : 100 g = 1 N grinder, metal screws)

Energy
Machines
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial
Machine is any mechanical device that we use to help us (en meaning in and ergon, meaning work). Anything that is able
do our work, or make our work easier to do work possess energy. Energy is the ability to do work or the
ability to exert force on an object and make it move.
Simple Machines – machines that have only one or two
parts FORMS OF ENERGY
Compound Machines – machines that make use of or a. Mechanical Energy
more simple machines ● kinetic energy – energy possessed by an object or a
body in motion
● potential energy- energy possessed by a body
because of its position or state
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy transferred by Convection when a gas or liquid moves from one
coming from the attractive and repulsive forces of all the place to another.
particles or molecules in a body
c. Heat Energy – energy which flows from one body to Radiation
another due to a temperature difference between them, and Heat transfer when heat is given off in all directions around
the flow is always from the hotter to the colder body them is radiation. The sun and other hot objects radiate energy.
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of electrons
flowing through conductors, like copper wires and aluminum ENERGY RESOURCES
wires. a. Fossil Fuels
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to 1. Coal – being mined formed from trees and other
forces of attraction and to the arrangement of subatomic vegetation buried in swamps created by the encroaching
particles in atoms and of atoms in the molecules of sea
substances. 2. Petroleum - a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid
f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic waves hydrocarbons.
, radio waves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x 3. Natural Gas- composed entirely of carbon and
rays and gamma rays. hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane and other
g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear fusion hydrocarbons.
or fission of atomic nuclei of heavy element or light element. b. Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power pertains to the production of
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER electricity by means of generators driven by water turbines.

Conduction c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the earth,


The molecules in a material are always moving. When one energy of steam from beneath the earth’s surface
part of a material is heated, the molecules in that part move faster
and collide with other molecules. As this goes on, heat is conducted d. Wind Energy- energy harnessed through the windmill
from molecule to molecule until the heat is spread throughout the
material. This is conduction. A conductor is the material through e. Solar Energy- energy from the sun, radiant energy. The
which heat passes easily. An insulator is a material that conducts visible light is harnessed to produce the electricity by means of
heat poorly. so-called solar cells or photovoltaic cells, which generate
electricity when exposed to sunlight
Convection
The movement of a gas or liquid brought about by
temperature differences creates a convection current. Heat is
hydrogen and other larger elements, the star exploded, sending
Earth matter out in all directions. Once again, through gravitational
Formation of the Earth forces, this matter eventually cooled and collected in a few key
areas, forming the planets and the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt
BIG BANG is simply an early form of the collection of matter that was not able
In the beginning there is only a super-massive gaseous point to completely form a planet due to Jupiter's gravity. Some early
in our empty universe. Instantaneously and randomly, enough planets may have collided with other early planets, creating larger
energy is created to break the gravitational bond holding this planets, moons, or possibly space rocks. In the meantime, a
massive body together, exploding the super-heated particles smaller star began to form at the center of the previous explosion
throughout space. In less than one millionth of a second, protons, and our Sun started its fusion process again.
neutrons, electrons, and their anti-particles begin to form.
As time moves on, particles begin to cool by giving off energy, Earth’s Structure
which allows them to combine to create the first and most simple
ion, hydrogen, as well as a few more massive atoms. More time The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers
passes; the atoms are becoming more abundant in the universe. are the core, the mantle and the crust. The core is the inner part
They begin to pull together through atomic forces and the of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the
gravitational force. Gaseous bodies become more massive, mantle. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this
attracting more atoms and becoming more massive. The moment it hasn't been possible to take a look inside the earth
gravitational force of these early bodies is so great that they because the current technology doesn't allow it. Therefore all kinds
collapse in on themselves, beginning fusion. of research had to be done to find which material the earth consists
of, what different layers there are and which influence those have
Hydrogen atoms combine, yielding larger atoms and (had) on the earth's surface. This research is called seismology.
enormous amounts of energy; enough energy to keep these stars
from collapsing. Eventually, the fusion process has to end and the
star will explode, sending out more massive atoms into the
universe. Over time, these atoms collect and combine to create
planets, smaller stars, asteroids, and numerous other solid bodies.

FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

As matter began to condense and stars began to form, one


such star appeared where the Sun now appears within the Milky
Way Galaxy. After igniting with fusion and burning its usable
THE CORE - these materials are not everywhere the same. There is an Oceanic
The inner part of the crust and a Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles
Earth is the core. (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The
This part of the Continental crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles
Earth is about 1,800 (30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light material, like granite.
miles (2,900 km)
below the earth's Plate Tectonics
surface. The core is
a dense ball of the The earth's crust consists of a number of moving pieces or
elements iron and plates that are always colliding or pulling apart. The Lithosphere
nickel. It is divided consists of nine large plates and twelve smaller ones. The
into two layers, the continents are embedded in continental plates; the oceanic plates
inner core and the make up much of the sea floor. The study of Tectonic plates - called
outer core. The plate tectonics - helps to explain continental drift, the spreading of
inner core - the the sea floor, volcanic eruptions and how mountains are formed.
center of earth is solid and about 780 miles (1,250 km) thick. The The force that causes the movement of the tectonic plates may be
outer core is so hot that the metal is always molten, but the inner the slow churning of the mantle beneath them. Mantle rock is
core pressures are so great that it cannot melt, even though constantly moved upwards to the surface by the high temperatures
temperatures there reach 6700ºF (3700ºC). The outer core is below and then sinks by cooling. This cycle takes millions of years.
about 1370 miles (2,200 km) thick. Because the earth rotates, the
outer core spins around the inner core and that causes the earth's Continental drift
magnetism. The drift of the plates across the surface of the earth has
been going on over millions of years, which still changes the
THE MANTLE - The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins outward appearance of the earth. When you look at the map of the
about 6 miles (10 km) below the oceanic crust and about 19 miles world, you see how well the east coast of North and South America
(30 km) below the continental crust (see The Crust). The mantle fits into the west coast of Europe and Africa. Over millions of years
is to divide into the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about these continents have slowly drifted apart.
1,800 miles (2,900km) thick and makes up nearly 80 percent of
the Earth's total volume. Diverging plates
Where plates pull apart, hot molten rock (fluid magma)
THE CRUST - The crust lies above the mantle and is the earth's emerges as lava and so new matter is added to the plates. In this
hard outer shell, the surface on which we are living. In relation way new oceanic plates are formed. The place where this happens
with the other layers the crust is much thinner. It floats upon the is known as a mid-ocean ridge. Mid-ocean ridges are rarely more
softer, denser mantle. The crust is made up of solid material but
than about 4,920 ft. (1,500 m) high, but they may snake along the
ocean bed for thousands of miles. Beneath each of the world's
great oceans there is a mid-ocean ridge. An example is the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, which stretches from the North
Pole to the South Pole. Mid-ocean ridges are areas of much volcanic
and earthquake activity.

Converging plates
In many places the huge plates of the earth's surface are
slowly moving together with unimaginable force. Sometimes the
edge of one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision,
sometimes the impact simply crimps the plates' edges, thereby DIASTROPHISM – the process which involves movements of the
creating great mountain ranges. When one tectonic plate bends earth’s crust such that a portion is pushed up, push down or
beneath the other, it is called subduction. Most of the time this forced sideways
happens because a dense oceanic plate collides with a lighter
continental plate. You can see this along the Pacific coast of South- ● Folding – the process when the sideward forces acting on
America. The oceanic plate dips beneath into the Asthenosphere. rocks deform the rocks into wavelike folds after tilting,
Through the heat of the Asthenosphere the subducted plate melts. bending of wrinkling.
At the surface an ocean trench is created, followed by an arc of
islands. In this area also volcanic activities and earthquakes occur. ● Faulting sliding or moving over of rock layers over one
another along the break or fracture, may occur vertically or
Seafloor Spreading horizontally.
Studies show that volcanic activity under the sea causes magma
from beneath the earth’s crust to rise to the surface, forming a
Volcanoes
very long ridge along the middle of the oceans that separate the
A Volcano is a gap in the earth where molten rock and other
large continents.
materials come to the earth's surface. Some volcanoes are just
cracks in the earth's crusts. Others are weak places in the earth's
When continental plates collide, one of the plates splits up
crust, which occur on places where magma bubbles up through the
into two layers: a lower layer of dense mantle rock and an upper
crust and comes to the earth's surface. Magma is molten rock that
layer of lighter crystal rock. As the mantle layer subducts, the
occurs by partial melting of the crust and the mantle by high
upper layer is peeled off and crumples up against the other plate,
temperatures deep down in the ground. Once magma comes to the
thus forming mountain ranges, like the Alps. These are called
earth's surface it is called lava.
crumpled mountains.
ACTIVE AND NON-ACTIVE VOLCANOES Earthquakes

There are volcanoes in different phases of activity: Active An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused
volcanoes, which are likely to erupt at any moment, dormant by sudden movements in the earth's crust. The biggest
volcanoes, which lie dormant for centuries, but then erupt earthquakes are set off by the movement of tectonic plates. Some
suddenly and violently, and extinct volcanoes, ones no longer plates slide past each other gently, but others can cause a heavy
likely to erupt. pressure on the rocks, so they finally crack and slide past each
other. By this, vibrations or shock waves are caused, which go
TYPES OF VOLCANOES through the ground. It is these vibrations or seismic waves which
0-43 miles (0-70 km) below ground shallow earthquakes
The ordinary volcanoes can be divided in different types, relating
to their forms: 43-186 miles (70-300 km) below intermediate earthquakes
● The shield volcano: This is a broad, shallow volcanic cone, ground
which arises because the running lava, which is fluid and
hot, cools slowly. deeper than 186 miles (300 km) deep earthquakes
● The dome volcano: This one has a steep, convex slope below ground
from thick, fast-cooling lava cause an earthquake. The closer to the source of the earthquake
● The ash-cinder volcano: Throws out - besides lava - much (the focus or hypocenter), the more damage occurs. Earthquakes
ash into the air. Through this the volcanic cone is built up are classified according to the depth of the focus.
from alternate layers of ash and cinder.
● The composite volcano: These are also built up from
alternate layers of lava and ash but, besides its main crater, The closer the focus to the surface, the heavier the
it has many little craters on its slope. earthquake. The earthquake is always the most intense on the
● The caldera volcano: An older volcano with a large crater surface directly above the focus (Epicenter). In general big
which can be 62 miles (100km) wide. In this crater many earthquakes begin with light vibrations (foreshocks). These are the
little new craters are formed. initial fractures in the rocks. After the main shock, there may be
minor aftershocks, most of the time for months. This occurs as the
rocks settle down.
Rocks As melting proceeds with increasing temperatures and depths of
burial, eventually the rock becomes molten and becomes magma,
Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed. which cools and crystallizes to form plutonic igneous rock, or
a. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) which is erupted onto the Earth's surface as lava, and cools and
from within Earth cools and solidifies. There are two types: crystallizes to form volcanic igneous rock.
intrusive igneous rocks solidify beneath Earth's surface;
extrusive igneous rocks solidify at the surface. Examples: Further complications within the rock cycle include (1)
Granite, basalt, obsidian weathering of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (in addition to
b. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits of igneous rocks), and (2) metamorphism of igneous rocks and
rock plus material such as shells and sand) gets packed repeated metamorphism of metamorphic rocks.
together. They can take millions of years to form. Most rocks
that you see on the ground are sedimentary. Examples: WEATHERING – Breaking down of rocks brought about by either
Limestone, sandstone, shale physical or chemical means giving rise to sediments or ther rock
c. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks fragments
that have been transformed by heat, pressure or both.
Metamorphic rocks are usually formed deep within Earth, Types of Weathering
during a process such as mountain building. Examples:
Schist, marble, slate A. Physical or mechanical weathering
● Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes
THE ROCK CYCLE ● Exfoliation or unloading -
○ rock breaks off into leaves or sheets along joints
The three major types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and which parallel the ground surface;
metamorphic rocks are interrelated by a series of natural ○ caused by expansion of rock due to uplift and erosion;
processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and removal of pressure of deep burial;
crystallization of hot molten lava and magma. Igneous rocks ● • Thermal expansion -
undergo weathering and erosion to form sediments. ○ repeated daily heating and cooling of rock;
Sediments are deposited and lithified by compaction and ○ heat causes expansion; cooling causes contraction.
cementation to form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks ○ different minerals expand and contract at different
become buried by additional sedimentary deposition, and when rates causing stresses along mineral boundaries.
they are deep within the Earth, they are subjected to heat and
pressure which causes them to become metamorphic rocks. B. Chemical weathering
With further burial and heating, the metamorphic rocks begin to
melt. Partially molten metamorphic rocks are known as migmatite. Rock reacts with water, gases and solutions (may be acidic); will
add or remove elements from minerals.
❖ Dissolution (or solution) -
➢ Several common minerals dissolve in water
■ halite C. Biological weathering
■ calcite
➢ Limestone and marble contain calcite and are soluble Organisms can assist in breaking down rock into sediment or soil.
in acidic water 1. Roots of trees and other plants
➢ Marble tombstones and carvings are particularly 2. Lichens, fungi, and other micro-organisms
susceptible to chemical weathering by dissolution. 3. Animals (including humans)
Note that the urn and tops of ledges are heavily
weathered, but the inscriptions are somewhat EROSION- the process by which rock fragments and sediments
sheltered and remain legible. are carried along by such agents as wind and running water
➢ Caves and caverns typically form in limestone
■ speleothems are cave formations DEPOSITION- the process by which rock fragments and
■ speleothems are made of calcite sediments are carried by agents of erosion are dropped or
■ form a rock called travertine deposited in other places.
● stalactites - hang from ceiling
● stalagmites - on the ground COMPACTING – the process by which rock fragments and other
➢ Karst topography forms on limestone terrain and is materials that accumulated, usually at the bottom of a thick
characterized by: column of water, get cemented together and harden into rock
■ caves/caverns,
■ sinkholes, METAMORPHISM - a change in constitution of a rock brought
■ disappearing streams, about by pressure, heat and chemical action resulting in a more
■ springs compact and highly crystalline condition of the rock.
❖ Oxidation
➢ Oxygen combines with iron-bearing silicate minerals MELTING
causing "rusting" COOLING AND SOLIDIFYING
➢ Iron oxides are produced. Iron oxides are red,
orange, or brown in color Minerals and Gems
➢ Mafic rocks such as basalt (which may contain olivine,
pyroxene, or amphibole) weather by oxidation to an Minerals are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that are
orange color found in and on earth. Most are chemical compounds, which means
➢ "Georgia Red Clay" derives its color from the they are made up of two or more elements. For example, the
oxidation of iron bearing minerals mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum and oxygen. A few
❖ Hydrolysis
minerals, such as gold, silver and copper, are made from a single Layers of the Atmosphere
element. Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks.
Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals. THE TROPOSPHERE
Many minerals, such as gold and silver, are very valuable The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and
because they are beautiful and rare. Limestone, clay and quartz measures about 7 miles (12 km). It contains over 75 percent of all
are other examples of minerals. the atmosphere's gases and vast quantities of water and dust. As
the sun heats the ground, it keeps this thick mixture churning. The
Gems are minerals or pearls that have been cut and polished. They weather is caused by these churnings of the mass. The troposphere
are used as ornaments, such as jewelry. is normally warmest at ground level and cools higher up where it
Precious stones are the most valuable gems. They include reaches its upper boundary (the tropopause). The tropopause
diamonds, rubies and emeralds varies in height. At the equator it is at 11.2 miles (8 km) high, at
50 N and 50 S, 5.6 miles (9 km) and at the poles 3.7 miles (6 km)
Atmosphere high.

What is Atmosphere? STRATOSPHERE


The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to its
The earth is surrounded by all kinds of gases. This layer is boundary (the Stratopause), 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's
surface. In this layer there is 19 percent of the atmosphere's gases
called the earth's Atmosphere. Without this atmosphere life on
and it contains little water vapour. Compared to the troposphere it
earth isn't possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and protects us
is calm in this layer. The movements of the gases are slow. Within
against harmful rays of the sun and against meteorites.
the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a band of ozone gas, which
This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The higher you get in
the atmosphere, the warmer the air gets. The temperature rises
'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The atmosphere is made up of
from -76 ºF (-60 ºC) at the bottom to a maximum of about 5 ºF(10
different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78 percent
ºC) at the stratopause.
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.93 percent argon, 0.03 percent
carbon dioxide and 0.04 percent of other gases.
MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere is the next layer above the stratopause and
The Troposphere is the layer where the weather happens. Above
extends to its upper boundary (the Mesopause), at 50 miles (80
this layer is the Stratosphere and in between them is the Ozone
km) above the ground. The gases in the mesosphere are too thin
layer, that absorbs the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Above the
to absorb much of the sun's heat. Although the air is still thick
Stratosphere is the Mesosphere, the Thermosphere including the
enough to slow down meteorites hurtling into the atmosphere.
Ionosphere - and the Exosphere. The atmosphere measures about
500 miles (800km). They burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. The
temperatures in the mesosphere drop to -184 ºF (-120 ºC) at the causes, together with the differences in temperature and
mesopause. circulation of air (wind), erosion of the earth's surface. By erosion
the outside of the earth changes through the years.
THERMOSPHERE
The Thermosphere is the layer above the mesopause. The Air
gases of the thermosphere are even thinner than those in the
mesosphere, but they absorb ultraviolet light from the sun.
AIR MOVEMENT
Because of this, the temperatures rise to 3,600 ºF (2,000 ºC) at
Warm air is less dense than cold air. Thus, warm air rises
the top. This is at a height of 430 miles (700 km) of the earth's
above cold air making the pressure below lower. The horizontal
surface. In the thermosphere is a separate layer, the Ionosphere.
movement of air from the high pressure area to the lower pressure
This layer extends from 62 miles (100 km) to 190 miles (300 km)
area produces wind.
of the earth's surface.

SEA BREEZES AND LAND BREEZES


IONOSPHERE
When spending a day at the beach, a noticeable drop in
The ionosphere is part of the thermosphere. It is made of
temperature may occur during the early afternoon as a cool breeze
electrically charged gas particles (ionised). The particles get this
begins to blow off of the water. This wind is known as the "sea
electric charge by ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ionosphere has
breeze", which occurs in response to differences in temperature
the important quality of bouncing radio signals, transmitted from
between a body of water and neighboring land.
the earth. That’s why places all over the world can be reached via
radio.
Sea-breeze circulations most often occur on warm sunny
days during the spring and summer when the temperature of the
EXOSPHERE
land is normally higher than the temperature of the water. During
The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and
the early morning hours, the land and the water start out at
extends from 430 miles (700 km) to 500 miles (800 km) above the
roughly the same temperature. On a calm morning, a given
ground. In this layer gases get thinner and thinner and drift off into
pressure surface will be at the same height above both the land
space.
and water.

What influence does the Atmosphere have?


A few hours later, the sun's energy begins to warm the land
The atmosphere is of vital importance for life on earth. Without
more rapidly than the water. By later in the day, the temperatures
atmosphere life would be impossible. It gives us air to breathe and
of the land increases while the temperature of the water remains
protects us from meteorites and ultraviolet rays from the sun. The
relatively constant. This occurs because water, especially large
atmosphere absorbs so much heat that temperatures on earth are
bodies of water like a lake or ocean, are able to absorb more
such that life is possible. The weather that exists by constant
energy than land without warming.
circulation of water to water vapor, to rain to water. This cycle
When a large amount of dust, soot, bacteria, and other
It is important to remember that the air is not heated harmful gases get into the air, air is being polluted. Today, the
directly from above by the sun. In fact, most of the incoming solar main sources of air pollution in the Philippines are: 1) industry and
energy actually passes right through the atmosphere. However, as 2) transportation.
the land absorbs this energy, heat is radiated back into the
atmosphere (from the earth), warming the overlying air. Some of Major Air Pollutants
this heat is transported to higher levels in the atmosphere through Pollutant Sources Effects
convection.
Ozone. A gas that can be Ozone is not created Ozone near the
found in two places. directly, but is ground can cause a
On the other hand, since the temperature of the water Near the ground (the formed when number of health
remains relatively constant throughout the day, the air over the troposphere), it is a nitrogen oxides and problems. Ozone
water is not heated from below (as over land), resulting in lower major part of smog. volatile organic can lead to more
Higher in the air compounds mix in frequent asthma
air temperatures over the water.
(the stratosphere), it sunlight. That is why attacks in people
helps block radiation ozone is mostly who have asthma
On clear, calm evenings, temperature differences between from the sun. found in the summer. and can cause sore
a body of water and neighboring land produce a cool wind that Nitrogen oxides throats, coughs, and
blows offshore. This wind is called a "land breeze". Land breezes come from burning breathing difficulty.
are strongest along the immediate coastline but weakened gasoline, coal, or It may even lead to
other fossil fuels. premature death.
considerably further inland. There are many Ozone can also hurt
types of volatile plants and crops.
Land-breeze circulations can occur at any time of year, but organic compounds,
are most common during the fall and winter seasons when water and they come from
temperatures are still fairly warm and nights are cool. sources ranging from
factories to trees.

On clear and calm evenings, the earth's surface cools by Carbon monoxide. A Carbon monoxide is Carbon monoxide
radiating (giving off) heat back into space, and this results in a gas that comes from the released when makes it hard for
cooling of the immediately overlying air. burning of fossil fuels, engines burn fossil body parts to get the
mostly in cars. It cannot fuels. Emissions are oxygen they need to
Since the air over land cools more rapidly than the air over be seen or smelled. higher when engines run correctly.
are not tuned Exposure to carbon
water, a temperature difference is established, with cooler air properly, and when monoxide makes
present over land and relatively warmer air located over water. fuel is not completely people feel dizzy
burned. Cars emit a and tired and gives
AIR POLLUTION lot of the carbon them headaches.
monoxide found
outdoors. Furnaces Elderly people with Sulfur dioxide. A Sulfur dioxide mostly Sulfur dioxide
and heaters in the heart disease are corrosive gas that comes from the exposure can affect
home can emit high hospitalized cannot be seen or burning of coal or oil people who have
concentrations of more often when smelled at low levels but in power plants. It asthma or
carbon monoxide, they are exposed to can have a “rotten egg” also comes from emphysema by
too, if they are not higher amounts smell at high levels. factories that make making it more
properly maintained carbon monoxide chemicals, paper, or difficult for them to
Nitrogen dioxide. A Nitrogen dioxide High levels of fuel. Like nitrogen breathe. It can also
reddish-brown gas that mostly comes from nitrogen dioxide dioxide, sulfur irritate people's
comes from the burning power plants and exposure can give dioxide reacts in the eyes, noses, and
of fossil fuels. It has a cars. Nitrogen people coughs and atmosphere to form throats. Sulfur
strong smell at high dioxide is formed in can make them feel acid rain and dioxide can harm
levels. two ways—when short of breath. particles. trees and crops,
nitrogen in the fuel is People who are damage buildings,
burned, or when exposed to nitrogen and make it harder
nitrogen in the air dioxide for a long for people to see
reacts with oxygen at time have a higher long distances.
very high chance of getting Lead. A blue-gray metal Outside, lead comes High amounts of
temperatures. respiratory that is very toxic and is from cars in areas lead can be
Nitrogen dioxide can infections. Nitrogen found in a number of where unleaded dangerous for small
also react in the dioxide reacts in the forms and locations. gasoline is not used. children and can
atmosphere to form atmosphere to form Lead can also come lead to lower IQs
ozone, acid rain, and acid rain, which can from power plants and kidney
particles. harm plants and and other industrial problems. For
animals. sources. Inside, lead adults, exposure to
Particulate matter. Particulate matter Particulate matter paint is an important lead can increase
Solid or liquid matter can be divided into that is small enough source of lead, the chance of having
that is suspended in the two types— coarse can enter the lungs especially in houses heart attacks or
air. To remain in the air, particles and fine and cause health where paint is strokes.
particles usually must particles. Coarse problems. Some of peeling. Lead in old
be less than 0.1-mm particles are formed these problems pipes can also be a
wide and can be as small from sources like include more source of lead in
as 0.00005 mm. road dust, sea spray, frequent asthma drinking water.
and construction. attacks, respiratory Toxic air pollutants. A Each toxic air Toxic air pollutants
Fine particles are problems, and large number of pollutant can cause cancer.
formed when fuel is premature death. chemicals that are comes from a slightly Some toxic air
burned in known or suspected to different source, but pollutants can also
automobiles and cause cancer. Some many are cause birth defects.
power plants. important pollutants in created in chemical Other effects
this category plants or depend on the
include arsenic, are emitted when pollutant, but can Greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is the The greenhouse
asbestos, benzene, and fossil fuels are include Gases that stay in the air most important effect can lead to
dioxin. burned. Some toxic skin and eye for a long time and greenhouse gas. It changes in the
air pollutants, like irritation and warm up the planet by comes from the climate of the planet.
asbestos and breathing problems. trapping sunlight. This burning of fossil fuels Some of these
formaldehyde, can be is called the in cars, power plants, changes might
found in building “greenhouse effect” houses, and industry. include more
materials and can because the gases act Methane is released temperature
lead to indoor air like the glass in a during the extremes, higher sea
levels, changes in
problems. greenhouse. Some of the processing of fossil
forest composition,
Many toxic air important greenhouse fuels, and also comes
and damage to land
pollutants can gases are carbon from natural sources near the coast.
also enter the food dioxide, methane, and like cows and rice Human health might
and water supply. nitrous oxide. paddies. Nitrous be affected by
Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air If the ozone in the oxide comes from diseases that are
depleters. Chemicals conditioners and stratosphere is industrial sources related to
that can destroy the refrigerators, since destroyed, people and decaying plants. temperature or by
ozone in the they work well as are exposed to more damage to land and
stratosphere. These coolants. They can radiation from the water.
chemicals include also be found in sun (ultraviolet
chlorofluorocarbons aerosol cans and fire radiation). This can
(CFCs), halons, and extinguishers. Other lead to skin cancer
other compounds that stratospheric ozone and eye problems.
include chlorine or depleters are used as Higher ultraviolet
bromine. solvents in industry. radiation can also Weather and Climate
harm plants and
animals. WEATHER- describes the condition of the atmosphere in a
particular time (cool and dry, humid, windy, rainy, or stormy)

CLIMATE- average weather in a region over a number of years or


usually decades (tropical)

CLOUDS - little drops of water or ice hanging in the atmosphere.


A ceilometer measures the height of clouds.
Cloud Type Descriptive Name Descriptive Name Thunderstorms
Cirrus Mare's tails Thin, feathery
Thunderstorms affect small areas when compared with
Cirrocumulus Mackerel sky Small patches of white hurricanes and winter storms. The typical thunderstorm is 15
miles in diameter and lasts an average of 30 minutes. Nearly
Cirrostratus Bed sheet clouds Thin, white sheets
1,800 thunderstorms are happening at any moment around the
Stratus High fogs Low, gray blanket world. That's 16 million a year!

Cumulus Cauliflower Flat-bottomed, white puffy


Despite their small size, all thunderstorms are dangerous.
Cumulonimbus Thunderheads Mountains of heavy, Every thunderstorm produces lightning, which kills more people
dark clouds each year than tornadoes. Strong winds, hail, and tornadoes
are also dangers associated with some thunderstorms.

Winds
You can estimate how many miles away a storm is by
counting the number of seconds between the flash of lightning
WIND SYSTEMS and the clap of thunder. Divide the number of seconds by five
to get the distance in miles. The lightning is seen before the
The major wind systems in the Philippines are thunder is heard because light travels faster than sound.
a. Northeast Trade Winds – from north, north east and
east Thunderstorms need three things:
b. Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from
Southeast Trade winds south of the equator • Moisture—to form clouds and rain.
c. Northeast monsoon (amihan) - from east, south east • Unstable Air—relatively warm air that can rise rapidly.
• Lift—fronts, sea breezes and mountains are capable of
CYCLONES – low pressure areas in the tropics lifting air to help form thunderstorms.

a. tropical depression- with wind speed of less than 63


kph Lightning
b. tropical storm – with wind speed of 63-118 kph
c. typhoon – with wind speed of more than 118 kph The action of rising and descending air within a
thunderstorm separates positive and negative charges. Water
and ice particles also affect the distribution of electrical charge.
Lightning results from the buildup and discharge of electrical
energy between positively and negatively charged areas. Most At any given time, ozone molecules are constantly formed
lightning occurs within the cloud or between the cloud and ground. and destroyed in the stratosphere. The total amount, however,
remains relatively stable. While ozone concentrations vary
The average flash of lightning could turn on a 100-watt naturally with sunspots, the seasons, and latitude, these processes
light bulb for more than 3 months. The air near a lightning are well understood and predictable. Each natural reduction in
strike is hotter than the surface of the sun! The rapid heating ozone levels has been followed by a recovery. Recently, however,
and cooling of air near the lightning channel causes a shock wave convincing scientific evidence has shown that the ozone shield is
that results in thunder. being depleted well beyond changes due to natural processes.

Your chances of being struck by lightning are estimated CFCs - are stable substances that only exposure to strong
to be 1 in 600,000 but those chances can be reduced by following UV radiation breaks them down. When that happens, the CFC
safety rules. Most lightning deaths and injuries occur when molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can destroy
people are caught outdoors and most happen in the summer. over 100,000 ozone molecules. The net effect is to destroy ozone
Many fires in the western United States and Alaska are started by faster than it is naturally created.
lightning. In the past 10 years, more than 15,000 fires have
been started by lightning.
Astronomy
The Ozone Layer The Universe
Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen atoms. It is
blue in color and has a strong odor. Normal oxygen, which we How old is the universe? What is it made of? For the first time,
breathe, has two oxygen atoms and is colorless and odorless. scientists have clarity.
Ozone is much less common than normal oxygen. Out of each 10
million air molecules, about 2 million are normal oxygen, but only • 13.7 billion years: Age of the universe
3 are ozone. • 200 million years: Interval between the Big Bang and the
appearance of the first stars
However, even the small amount of ozone plays a key role • 4%: Proportion of the universe that is ordinary matter
in the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the • 23%: Proportion that is dark matter
radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet's • 73%: Proportion that is dark energy
surface. Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of ultraviolet light
called UVB. UVB has been linked to many harmful effects, including COLORS OF THE UNIVERSE
various types of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to some crops,
certain materials, and some forms of marine life. Blue Planets - Earth, Neptune, and Uranus are all blue because
of gases in their atmosphere.
Blue Stars - These are the hottest stars, with a surface The solar system is made up of the Sun (solar means sun) at its
temperature of more than 37,000°F. center, the nine planets that orbit it, and the various satellites,
asteroids, comets, and meteorites that are also controlled by the
Yellow Stars - These are warm stars, such as the Sun. Their Sun's gravitational pull.
temperature is about 10,000°F.
The Sun is the closest star to Earth and the center of our solar
Red Stars- The coolest stars are red. Their surface temperature is system. Every second, it converts 49 million tons (45 million metric
less than 5,500°F. tons) of matter into pure energy, which reaches us in the form of
light. The Sun weighs more than 300,000 times as much as Earth
Red Shift - When light coming from a distant star is seen through and is 109 times larger.
a spectroscope (an instrument that separates light into its different
colors); the light we receive continues to shift toward the red area Sunspots appear as dark spots on the Sun, and are believed to
of the spectrum, which is the least powerful. This means that, since be cooler than the rest of the Sun. They appear in 11-year cycles.
the light is becoming weaker and weaker, the stars must be
traveling away from us. This makes scientists believe that our Planet is the term used for a body in orbit around the Sun. The
universe is expanding. word comes from the Greek planets, and means “wanderers.” Our
solar system has nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Red Spot - A swirling cloud on the planet Jupiter is a raging storm Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. An easy way to
of gases, mainly red phosphorus. remember their names in the correct order is to keep in mind the
following sentence: My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine
Space Glossary Pickles. The first letter of each word is the first letter of each planet.
Since 1994, evidence has been found that planets also exist
Galaxies are immense systems containing billions of stars. beyond our solar system. At least 10 planets existing in other solar
Astronomers have estimated that the universe could contain 40 to systems have been discovered.
50 billion galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes: some are spiral,
others are elliptical, or oval-shaped, and some are irregular. Satellite (or moon) is the term for a body in orbit around a
planet. As long as our own Moon was the only moon known, there
The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Just about all that you can see was no need for a general term for the moons of planets. But when
in the sky belongs to our galaxy—a system of roughly 200 billion Galileo Galilei discovered the four main moons of the planet
stars. The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about 100,000 light- Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a letter suggesting he call
years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years in thickness. them “satellites” (from the Latin “satelles”, which means
attendant). The word means the same thing as “moon.”
Orbit is the term for the path travelled by a body in space. It planets. Our Sun has a diameter of 865,400 miles—making it a
comes from the Latin “orbis”, which means circle. Some orbits are comparatively small star.
nearly circular, but the orbits of most planets are ellipses—shaped
like ovals. White dwarfs occur when a star runs out of energy and shuts
down. The force of gravity at its center pulls the mass of the star
Asteroids, also known as the minor planets, are small bodies in on itself, forcing it to collapse. It resembles the glowing cinders
orbiting the Sun that resemble planets. More than 5,000 asteroids of a fire that has died down. It is called a white dwarf because it
have been discovered, and most are found between Mars and emits a white glow.
Jupiter. Usually having an irregular shape, asteroids—at least
those discovered thus far—can range in size from 580 miles (940 Brown Dwarfs are also called failed stars. They lack enough
km) in diameter, which is the size of the asteroid Ceres, to just 33 energy to be true stars but are also too massive and hot to be
ft. (10 m) in diameter. planets.
Comets are made up of frozen dust and gases, and have been
described as large, dirty snowballs with icy centers. They often A supernova is an extremely large exploding star. Just before the
travel on extremely elongated orbits around the Sun. Some comets star dies, it releases huge amounts of energy, briefly becoming
have orbits that take just millions of times brighter than it was. Then it immediately shrinks.
10 years to circumnavigate while other comets have orbits that
take hundreds of thousands of years to circulate. The tail of a Neutron stars are formed after a supernova explodes and
comet, called a coma, forms when the comet comes within 100 shrinks. The shrunken form of the star becomes incredibly dense
million miles of the Sun. It is then affected by the solar wind and compact as gravity pulls all of its matter inward. It becomes
(hydrogen and helium that travel away from the Sun at high so compressed that a million tons of its matter would hardly fill a
speeds), which causes a tail of dust and gases to form behind the thimble. This density crushes together the electrons and protons
comet. that make up its atoms, turning them into neutrons.

Meteors are fragments of comets, planets, moons, or asteroids Pulsars are believed to be rapidly spinning neutron stars that give
that have broken off. It is estimated that a billion meteors enter off bursts of radio waves at regular intervals. Pulsar is a shortened
our atmosphere every day. Contact with our atmosphere causes version of Puls[ating st]ar.
most to disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do not
disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are called meteorites. Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to be the most
remote objects in the universe. Despite their small size they
Stars are composed of intensely hot gasses, deriving their energy produce tremendous amounts of light and microwave radiation:
from nuclear reactions going on in their interiors. Our Sun is the not much bigger than Earth's solar system, they pour out 100 to
nearest star. Stars are very large — some are even bigger than 1,000 times as much light as an entire galaxy containing a hundred
billion stars.
of the Sun's gravitational pull that Earth orbits the Sun in the
A black hole is created by the total gravitational collapse of a manner that it does.
massive star or group of stars. It is the final phase of some stars,
in which gravity sucks the star in on itself—it implodes rather than The Sun has several layers: the core, the radiation zone, the
explodes. This makes it so dense that not even light can escape its convection zone, and the photosphere (which is the surface of the
gravitational field. Sun). In addition, there are two layers of gas above the
photosphere called the chromosphere and the corona.
A nebula is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made up of dust
and gas. Nebulae were thought to have been galaxies that Events that occur on the Sun include sunspots, solar flares,
appeared as a blur because they were so far away, but as more solar wind, and solar prominences. Sunspots are magnetic storms
powerful telescopes were created, they showed that nebulae were on the photosphere that appear as dark areas. Sunspots regularly
not clumps of stars but in fact a hazy cloud of gasses. A nebula is appear and disappear in eleven-year cycles. Solar flares are
illuminated by bright stars nearby. More than 300 nebulae have spectacular discharges of magnetic energy from the corona.
been named. These discharges send streams of protons and electrons outward
into space. Solar flares can interrupt the communications network
here on Earth. Solar winds are the result of gas expansion in the
The Solar System corona. This expansion leads to ion formation. These ions are
hurled outward from the corona at over 500 kilometers per second.
THE SUN Solar prominences are storms of gas which erupt from the surface
in the form of columns which either shoot outward into space or
The diameter of our closest star, the Sun, is 1,392,000 twist and loop back to the Sun's surface.
kilometers. The Sun is thought to be 4.6 billion years old. The Sun
is a medium–size star known as a yellow dwarf. It is a star in the The Sun gives off many kinds of radiation other than light
Milky Way galaxy and the temperature in its core is estimated to and heat. It also emits radio waves, ultraviolet rays, and X-rays.
be over 15,000,000 degrees Celsius. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of the
ultraviolet rays and the X-rays.
In the Sun's core, hydrogen is being fused to form helium.
The energy created by this process radiates up to the visible The Sun does rotate, but because it is a large gaseous
boundary of the Sun and then off into space. It radiates into space sphere, not all parts rotate at the same speed. This is known as a
in the form of heat and light. differential rotation.

Because the Sun is so massive, it exerts a powerful Corona - The very hot outermost layer of a star's atmosphere. Our
gravitational pull on everything in our solar system. It is because Sun's corona can only be seen during a total solar eclipse.
Solar Flares - A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface which shows is also known as the “morning star” and “evening star” since it is
up as a sudden increase in brightness. visible at these times to the unaided eye. Venus appears as a
Solar Prominences - Gases trapped at the edge of the Sun which bright, white disk from Earth.
appear to shoot outward from the Sun's surface.
Solar wind - A continuous stream of charged particles which are Earth
released from the Sun and hurled outward into space at speeds up
to 800 kilometers per second. Solar winds are very prominent after Earth is not perfectly round; it bulges at the equator and is
solar flare activity. flatter at the poles. From space the planet looks blue with white
Sunspot - A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface which appears swirls, created by water and clouds.
as a dark area. A sunspot is approximately 1500 degrees Celsius • Size: Four planets in our solar system are larger and four
cooler than its surrounding material. The number of sunspots we are smaller than Earth
see on the Sun at any given time appears to cycle every 11 years. • Diameter: 7,926.2 miles (12,756 km)
• Surface: Earth is made up of water (70%), air, and solid
THE PLANETS ground. It appears to be the only planet with water
• Atmosphere: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), other gases
There are nine planets in our solar system including Earth. So far, • Rotation of its axis: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds
no life as we know it exists on any planet other than our own. • Rotation around the Sun: 365.2 days
• Mean Distance from Sun: 92.9 million miles (149.6 million
Mercury km)
• Satellites: 1
Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, has almost no • Rings: 0
atmosphere, and its dusty surface of craters resembles the Moon. Mars
The planet was named for the Roman god Mercury, a winged
messenger, and it travels around the Sun faster than any other Because of its blood-red color (which comes from iron-rich
planet. Mercury is difficult to see from Earth—in fact, the famous dust), this planet was named for Mars, the Roman god of war. Mars
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, for all his years of research and is the fourth planet from the Sun, situated between Earth and
observation, never once was able to see Mercury. Jupiter. Three-quarters red, Mars also has dark blotches on it and
white areas at the poles—these are white polar ice caps.
Venus
A belt of asteroids (fragments of rock and iron) between
Venus is often called Earth's twin because the two planets Mars and Jupiter separate the four inner planets from the five outer
are close in size, but that's the only similarity. The thick clouds that planets
cover Venus create a greenhouse effect that keeps it sizzling at
864°F. Venus, named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty,
Jupiter Neptune was discovered when astronomers realized that
something was exerting a gravitational pull on Uranus, and that it
Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, was named was possible that an unknown planet might be responsible.
for the most important Roman god because of its size. About 1,300 Through mathematical calculations, astronomers determined there
Earths would fit into it. Viewed through a large telescope, Jupiter was indeed an undiscovered planet out in space—a year before it
is stunningly colorful — it is a disk covered with bands of blue, was actually seen for the first time through a telescope (in 1846).
brown, pink, red, orange, and yellow. Its most distinguishing It has 13 satellites and 4 rings.
feature is “the Great Red Spot,” an intense windstorm larger in size
than Earth, which has continued for centuries without any signs of Pluto
dying down. It has 63 moons and 4 rings.
Pluto, named after the Roman and Greek god of the
Saturn underworld, is the coldest, smallest, and outermost planet in our
solar system. Pluto and its moon, Charon, are called “double
Saturn, the second-largest planet, has majestic rings planets” because Charon is so large it seems less of a moon than
surrounding it. Named for the Roman god of farming, Saturn was another planet. Pluto was predicted to exist in 1905 and discovered
the farthest planet known by the ancients. Saturn's seven rings are in 1930. It is the only planet that has not yet been studied closely
flat and lie inside one another. They are made of billions of ice by a space probe. During each revolution around the sun, Pluto
particles. It has 31 moons and about 1000 rings. passes inside Neptune's orbit for 20 years, making Neptune the
outermost planet for that time. Pluto passed inside Neptune's orbit
Uranus in 1979 and remained there until 1999.
THE MOONS
Uranus is a greenish-blue planet, twice as far from the Sun
as its neighbor Saturn. Uranus wasn't discovered until 1781. Its
Earth's Moon is a small ball of gray rock revolving 239,000
discoverer, William Herschel, named it Georgium Sidus (the
miles around Earth. It is just one of many in the solar system. The
Georgian star) after the English king, George III. Later its name
Moon has no air and no water. It is about one-fourth as large as
was changed to Uranus, after an ancient Greek sky god, since all
Earth.
the other planets had been named after Roman and Greek gods.
It has 27 moons and 11 rings.
The Moon travels around Earth in an oval orbit at 36,800
kilometers per hour. The Moon does not have an atmosphere,
so temperatures range from -184 degrees Celsius during its night
Neptune
to 214 degrees Celsius during its day except at the poles where
the temperature is a constant -96 degrees Celsius.
Neptune, named for an ancient Roman sea god, is a stormy
blue planet about 30 times farther from the Sun than Earth.
The Moon is actually a little lopsided due to the lunar crust believe that the moon count of Jupiter could go as high as 100.
being thicker on one side than the other. When you look at the The newer moons were named after members of the god Jupiter's
Moon, you will see dark and light areas. The dark areas are (Zeus to the Greeks) entourage, among them: Themisto,Iocaste,
young plains called maria and are composed of basalt. The basalt Harpalyke, Praxidike, Taygete, Chaldene, Kalyke, Callirrhoe,
flowed in and flooded the area created by a huge impact with an Megaclite, Isonoe, and Erinome.
asteroid or comet. The light areas are the highlands, which are
mountains that were uplifted as a result of impacts. The lunar The moons of Saturn: Saturn has 31 moons. 12 of them
surface is covered by a fine-grained soil called “regolith” were discovered in late 2000 and another one was announced in
which results from the constant bombardment of the lunar rocks 2003. The older moons were named after figures in Greek
by small meteorites. mythology (Pan, Atlas, Pandora, Calypso, etc.). The newer moons
of Saturn were named after Norse (Ymir, Thrym, Skadi, Suttung,
Scientists theorize that the Moon was the result of a Mundilfari), Celtic (Tarvos, Albiorix), and Inuit (Paaliaq, Siarnaq,
collision between Earth and an object the size of Mars. One theory Kiviuq, Ijiraq) legends.
states that the debris from the impact was hurtled into space
where, due to gravity, it combined. This resulted in the formation The moons of Uranus: Uranus has 27 moons.
of the Moon. Astronomers detected five of them between 1787 and 1948. The
space probe Voyager discovered 10 more in 1985 and 1986. The
The gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth affects the names of these moons are the names of characters from plays by
ocean tides on Earth. The closer the Moon is to Earth, the greater Shakespeare. They are: Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel, Miranda,
the effect. The time between high tides is about 12 hours and 25 Puck, Portia, Juliet, Cressida, Rosalind, Belinda, Desdemona,
minutes. Cordelia, Ophelia, and Bianca. Miranda, with its deep scars and
jumbled surface is one of the strangest objects in the solar system.
“Full Moon and No Moon describe two phases of the Moon It seems to have been shattered by a collision, then pulled back
as it orbits Earth. When the Moon is between the Sun and the together by gravity! In 1997, two more moons were discovered,
Earth, its sunlit side is turned away from the Earth and we say Caliban and Sycorax—also characters from Shakespeare. 1999
there is no Moon. When the Earth is between the Sun and Moon, brought Stephano, Prospero, and Setebos. A satellite discovered in
we can see the entire sunlit side of the Moon and call it a full Moon. 2001 was dubbed Trinculo.

The Far Side of the Moon is always facing away from Earth The moons of Neptune: Neptune has 13 moons, with
because of the force of gravity. So when we look at the Moon, we Triton the largest. It is covered with a frosty crust, where active
always see the same side. volcanoes shoot crystals of nitrogen that look like geysers. The
surface temperature of Triton is –390°F, making it the coldest
The moons of Jupiter: Jupiter has 63 moons. 45 of these object in the solar system. Five new Neptunian moons were
moons were discovered between 2000 and 2003. Astronomers discovered in 2002 and 2003.

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