General Science
General Science
General Science
John Dalton used experimental evidences to support his Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity
atomic theory. with a chosen standard. The International System (SI) is the
system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is
g. Creativity and critical thinking legally enforced in almost all parts of the world. There are
Albert Einstein did not just depend on established facts and seven basic quantities in this system:
accepted beliefs during his days.
QUANTITY UNIT
Rather, he used these to develop his own theory in a
different perspective. Length Meters (m)
VOLUME OF A LIQUID
Application:
Liquid volume is also measured in cubic meters but the use Calculate the volume of the block of
of liter (L) is widely accepted. Graduated cylinder is used to wood.
measure the volume of liquid. In reading the measurement of the Given : Solution:
volume of clear liquid, read the lower meniscus. For colored liquids, L = 2 cm Volume = L x W x T
read the upper meniscus. W = 2 cm = 8 cm3
T = 2 cm
VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID
D= Mass / Volume (g/cc) Nuclear Force- the strongest known force which holds
together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Force Electromagnetic Force- binds electrons to the atomic
- Normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull nucleus, atoms in the molecules, ions in solid matter, and
- Anything that changes the speed and direction of moving molecules into liquids and solids.
objects or that which causes a stationary object to start
moving in a straight line MASS vs WEIGHT
Energy
Machines
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial
Machine is any mechanical device that we use to help us (en meaning in and ergon, meaning work). Anything that is able
do our work, or make our work easier to do work possess energy. Energy is the ability to do work or the
ability to exert force on an object and make it move.
Simple Machines – machines that have only one or two
parts FORMS OF ENERGY
Compound Machines – machines that make use of or a. Mechanical Energy
more simple machines ● kinetic energy – energy possessed by an object or a
body in motion
● potential energy- energy possessed by a body
because of its position or state
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy transferred by Convection when a gas or liquid moves from one
coming from the attractive and repulsive forces of all the place to another.
particles or molecules in a body
c. Heat Energy – energy which flows from one body to Radiation
another due to a temperature difference between them, and Heat transfer when heat is given off in all directions around
the flow is always from the hotter to the colder body them is radiation. The sun and other hot objects radiate energy.
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of electrons
flowing through conductors, like copper wires and aluminum ENERGY RESOURCES
wires. a. Fossil Fuels
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to 1. Coal – being mined formed from trees and other
forces of attraction and to the arrangement of subatomic vegetation buried in swamps created by the encroaching
particles in atoms and of atoms in the molecules of sea
substances. 2. Petroleum - a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid
f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic waves hydrocarbons.
, radio waves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x 3. Natural Gas- composed entirely of carbon and
rays and gamma rays. hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane and other
g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear fusion hydrocarbons.
or fission of atomic nuclei of heavy element or light element. b. Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power pertains to the production of
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER electricity by means of generators driven by water turbines.
Converging plates
In many places the huge plates of the earth's surface are
slowly moving together with unimaginable force. Sometimes the
edge of one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision,
sometimes the impact simply crimps the plates' edges, thereby DIASTROPHISM – the process which involves movements of the
creating great mountain ranges. When one tectonic plate bends earth’s crust such that a portion is pushed up, push down or
beneath the other, it is called subduction. Most of the time this forced sideways
happens because a dense oceanic plate collides with a lighter
continental plate. You can see this along the Pacific coast of South- ● Folding – the process when the sideward forces acting on
America. The oceanic plate dips beneath into the Asthenosphere. rocks deform the rocks into wavelike folds after tilting,
Through the heat of the Asthenosphere the subducted plate melts. bending of wrinkling.
At the surface an ocean trench is created, followed by an arc of
islands. In this area also volcanic activities and earthquakes occur. ● Faulting sliding or moving over of rock layers over one
another along the break or fracture, may occur vertically or
Seafloor Spreading horizontally.
Studies show that volcanic activity under the sea causes magma
from beneath the earth’s crust to rise to the surface, forming a
Volcanoes
very long ridge along the middle of the oceans that separate the
A Volcano is a gap in the earth where molten rock and other
large continents.
materials come to the earth's surface. Some volcanoes are just
cracks in the earth's crusts. Others are weak places in the earth's
When continental plates collide, one of the plates splits up
crust, which occur on places where magma bubbles up through the
into two layers: a lower layer of dense mantle rock and an upper
crust and comes to the earth's surface. Magma is molten rock that
layer of lighter crystal rock. As the mantle layer subducts, the
occurs by partial melting of the crust and the mantle by high
upper layer is peeled off and crumples up against the other plate,
temperatures deep down in the ground. Once magma comes to the
thus forming mountain ranges, like the Alps. These are called
earth's surface it is called lava.
crumpled mountains.
ACTIVE AND NON-ACTIVE VOLCANOES Earthquakes
There are volcanoes in different phases of activity: Active An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused
volcanoes, which are likely to erupt at any moment, dormant by sudden movements in the earth's crust. The biggest
volcanoes, which lie dormant for centuries, but then erupt earthquakes are set off by the movement of tectonic plates. Some
suddenly and violently, and extinct volcanoes, ones no longer plates slide past each other gently, but others can cause a heavy
likely to erupt. pressure on the rocks, so they finally crack and slide past each
other. By this, vibrations or shock waves are caused, which go
TYPES OF VOLCANOES through the ground. It is these vibrations or seismic waves which
0-43 miles (0-70 km) below ground shallow earthquakes
The ordinary volcanoes can be divided in different types, relating
to their forms: 43-186 miles (70-300 km) below intermediate earthquakes
● The shield volcano: This is a broad, shallow volcanic cone, ground
which arises because the running lava, which is fluid and
hot, cools slowly. deeper than 186 miles (300 km) deep earthquakes
● The dome volcano: This one has a steep, convex slope below ground
from thick, fast-cooling lava cause an earthquake. The closer to the source of the earthquake
● The ash-cinder volcano: Throws out - besides lava - much (the focus or hypocenter), the more damage occurs. Earthquakes
ash into the air. Through this the volcanic cone is built up are classified according to the depth of the focus.
from alternate layers of ash and cinder.
● The composite volcano: These are also built up from
alternate layers of lava and ash but, besides its main crater, The closer the focus to the surface, the heavier the
it has many little craters on its slope. earthquake. The earthquake is always the most intense on the
● The caldera volcano: An older volcano with a large crater surface directly above the focus (Epicenter). In general big
which can be 62 miles (100km) wide. In this crater many earthquakes begin with light vibrations (foreshocks). These are the
little new craters are formed. initial fractures in the rocks. After the main shock, there may be
minor aftershocks, most of the time for months. This occurs as the
rocks settle down.
Rocks As melting proceeds with increasing temperatures and depths of
burial, eventually the rock becomes molten and becomes magma,
Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed. which cools and crystallizes to form plutonic igneous rock, or
a. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) which is erupted onto the Earth's surface as lava, and cools and
from within Earth cools and solidifies. There are two types: crystallizes to form volcanic igneous rock.
intrusive igneous rocks solidify beneath Earth's surface;
extrusive igneous rocks solidify at the surface. Examples: Further complications within the rock cycle include (1)
Granite, basalt, obsidian weathering of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (in addition to
b. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits of igneous rocks), and (2) metamorphism of igneous rocks and
rock plus material such as shells and sand) gets packed repeated metamorphism of metamorphic rocks.
together. They can take millions of years to form. Most rocks
that you see on the ground are sedimentary. Examples: WEATHERING – Breaking down of rocks brought about by either
Limestone, sandstone, shale physical or chemical means giving rise to sediments or ther rock
c. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks fragments
that have been transformed by heat, pressure or both.
Metamorphic rocks are usually formed deep within Earth, Types of Weathering
during a process such as mountain building. Examples:
Schist, marble, slate A. Physical or mechanical weathering
● Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes
THE ROCK CYCLE ● Exfoliation or unloading -
○ rock breaks off into leaves or sheets along joints
The three major types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and which parallel the ground surface;
metamorphic rocks are interrelated by a series of natural ○ caused by expansion of rock due to uplift and erosion;
processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and removal of pressure of deep burial;
crystallization of hot molten lava and magma. Igneous rocks ● • Thermal expansion -
undergo weathering and erosion to form sediments. ○ repeated daily heating and cooling of rock;
Sediments are deposited and lithified by compaction and ○ heat causes expansion; cooling causes contraction.
cementation to form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks ○ different minerals expand and contract at different
become buried by additional sedimentary deposition, and when rates causing stresses along mineral boundaries.
they are deep within the Earth, they are subjected to heat and
pressure which causes them to become metamorphic rocks. B. Chemical weathering
With further burial and heating, the metamorphic rocks begin to
melt. Partially molten metamorphic rocks are known as migmatite. Rock reacts with water, gases and solutions (may be acidic); will
add or remove elements from minerals.
❖ Dissolution (or solution) -
➢ Several common minerals dissolve in water
■ halite C. Biological weathering
■ calcite
➢ Limestone and marble contain calcite and are soluble Organisms can assist in breaking down rock into sediment or soil.
in acidic water 1. Roots of trees and other plants
➢ Marble tombstones and carvings are particularly 2. Lichens, fungi, and other micro-organisms
susceptible to chemical weathering by dissolution. 3. Animals (including humans)
Note that the urn and tops of ledges are heavily
weathered, but the inscriptions are somewhat EROSION- the process by which rock fragments and sediments
sheltered and remain legible. are carried along by such agents as wind and running water
➢ Caves and caverns typically form in limestone
■ speleothems are cave formations DEPOSITION- the process by which rock fragments and
■ speleothems are made of calcite sediments are carried by agents of erosion are dropped or
■ form a rock called travertine deposited in other places.
● stalactites - hang from ceiling
● stalagmites - on the ground COMPACTING – the process by which rock fragments and other
➢ Karst topography forms on limestone terrain and is materials that accumulated, usually at the bottom of a thick
characterized by: column of water, get cemented together and harden into rock
■ caves/caverns,
■ sinkholes, METAMORPHISM - a change in constitution of a rock brought
■ disappearing streams, about by pressure, heat and chemical action resulting in a more
■ springs compact and highly crystalline condition of the rock.
❖ Oxidation
➢ Oxygen combines with iron-bearing silicate minerals MELTING
causing "rusting" COOLING AND SOLIDIFYING
➢ Iron oxides are produced. Iron oxides are red,
orange, or brown in color Minerals and Gems
➢ Mafic rocks such as basalt (which may contain olivine,
pyroxene, or amphibole) weather by oxidation to an Minerals are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that are
orange color found in and on earth. Most are chemical compounds, which means
➢ "Georgia Red Clay" derives its color from the they are made up of two or more elements. For example, the
oxidation of iron bearing minerals mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum and oxygen. A few
❖ Hydrolysis
minerals, such as gold, silver and copper, are made from a single Layers of the Atmosphere
element. Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks.
Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals. THE TROPOSPHERE
Many minerals, such as gold and silver, are very valuable The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and
because they are beautiful and rare. Limestone, clay and quartz measures about 7 miles (12 km). It contains over 75 percent of all
are other examples of minerals. the atmosphere's gases and vast quantities of water and dust. As
the sun heats the ground, it keeps this thick mixture churning. The
Gems are minerals or pearls that have been cut and polished. They weather is caused by these churnings of the mass. The troposphere
are used as ornaments, such as jewelry. is normally warmest at ground level and cools higher up where it
Precious stones are the most valuable gems. They include reaches its upper boundary (the tropopause). The tropopause
diamonds, rubies and emeralds varies in height. At the equator it is at 11.2 miles (8 km) high, at
50 N and 50 S, 5.6 miles (9 km) and at the poles 3.7 miles (6 km)
Atmosphere high.
On clear and calm evenings, the earth's surface cools by Carbon monoxide. A Carbon monoxide is Carbon monoxide
radiating (giving off) heat back into space, and this results in a gas that comes from the released when makes it hard for
cooling of the immediately overlying air. burning of fossil fuels, engines burn fossil body parts to get the
mostly in cars. It cannot fuels. Emissions are oxygen they need to
Since the air over land cools more rapidly than the air over be seen or smelled. higher when engines run correctly.
are not tuned Exposure to carbon
water, a temperature difference is established, with cooler air properly, and when monoxide makes
present over land and relatively warmer air located over water. fuel is not completely people feel dizzy
burned. Cars emit a and tired and gives
AIR POLLUTION lot of the carbon them headaches.
monoxide found
outdoors. Furnaces Elderly people with Sulfur dioxide. A Sulfur dioxide mostly Sulfur dioxide
and heaters in the heart disease are corrosive gas that comes from the exposure can affect
home can emit high hospitalized cannot be seen or burning of coal or oil people who have
concentrations of more often when smelled at low levels but in power plants. It asthma or
carbon monoxide, they are exposed to can have a “rotten egg” also comes from emphysema by
too, if they are not higher amounts smell at high levels. factories that make making it more
properly maintained carbon monoxide chemicals, paper, or difficult for them to
Nitrogen dioxide. A Nitrogen dioxide High levels of fuel. Like nitrogen breathe. It can also
reddish-brown gas that mostly comes from nitrogen dioxide dioxide, sulfur irritate people's
comes from the burning power plants and exposure can give dioxide reacts in the eyes, noses, and
of fossil fuels. It has a cars. Nitrogen people coughs and atmosphere to form throats. Sulfur
strong smell at high dioxide is formed in can make them feel acid rain and dioxide can harm
levels. two ways—when short of breath. particles. trees and crops,
nitrogen in the fuel is People who are damage buildings,
burned, or when exposed to nitrogen and make it harder
nitrogen in the air dioxide for a long for people to see
reacts with oxygen at time have a higher long distances.
very high chance of getting Lead. A blue-gray metal Outside, lead comes High amounts of
temperatures. respiratory that is very toxic and is from cars in areas lead can be
Nitrogen dioxide can infections. Nitrogen found in a number of where unleaded dangerous for small
also react in the dioxide reacts in the forms and locations. gasoline is not used. children and can
atmosphere to form atmosphere to form Lead can also come lead to lower IQs
ozone, acid rain, and acid rain, which can from power plants and kidney
particles. harm plants and and other industrial problems. For
animals. sources. Inside, lead adults, exposure to
Particulate matter. Particulate matter Particulate matter paint is an important lead can increase
Solid or liquid matter can be divided into that is small enough source of lead, the chance of having
that is suspended in the two types— coarse can enter the lungs especially in houses heart attacks or
air. To remain in the air, particles and fine and cause health where paint is strokes.
particles usually must particles. Coarse problems. Some of peeling. Lead in old
be less than 0.1-mm particles are formed these problems pipes can also be a
wide and can be as small from sources like include more source of lead in
as 0.00005 mm. road dust, sea spray, frequent asthma drinking water.
and construction. attacks, respiratory Toxic air pollutants. A Each toxic air Toxic air pollutants
Fine particles are problems, and large number of pollutant can cause cancer.
formed when fuel is premature death. chemicals that are comes from a slightly Some toxic air
burned in known or suspected to different source, but pollutants can also
automobiles and cause cancer. Some many are cause birth defects.
power plants. important pollutants in created in chemical Other effects
this category plants or depend on the
include arsenic, are emitted when pollutant, but can Greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is the The greenhouse
asbestos, benzene, and fossil fuels are include Gases that stay in the air most important effect can lead to
dioxin. burned. Some toxic skin and eye for a long time and greenhouse gas. It changes in the
air pollutants, like irritation and warm up the planet by comes from the climate of the planet.
asbestos and breathing problems. trapping sunlight. This burning of fossil fuels Some of these
formaldehyde, can be is called the in cars, power plants, changes might
found in building “greenhouse effect” houses, and industry. include more
materials and can because the gases act Methane is released temperature
lead to indoor air like the glass in a during the extremes, higher sea
levels, changes in
problems. greenhouse. Some of the processing of fossil
forest composition,
Many toxic air important greenhouse fuels, and also comes
and damage to land
pollutants can gases are carbon from natural sources near the coast.
also enter the food dioxide, methane, and like cows and rice Human health might
and water supply. nitrous oxide. paddies. Nitrous be affected by
Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air If the ozone in the oxide comes from diseases that are
depleters. Chemicals conditioners and stratosphere is industrial sources related to
that can destroy the refrigerators, since destroyed, people and decaying plants. temperature or by
ozone in the they work well as are exposed to more damage to land and
stratosphere. These coolants. They can radiation from the water.
chemicals include also be found in sun (ultraviolet
chlorofluorocarbons aerosol cans and fire radiation). This can
(CFCs), halons, and extinguishers. Other lead to skin cancer
other compounds that stratospheric ozone and eye problems.
include chlorine or depleters are used as Higher ultraviolet
bromine. solvents in industry. radiation can also Weather and Climate
harm plants and
animals. WEATHER- describes the condition of the atmosphere in a
particular time (cool and dry, humid, windy, rainy, or stormy)
Winds
You can estimate how many miles away a storm is by
counting the number of seconds between the flash of lightning
WIND SYSTEMS and the clap of thunder. Divide the number of seconds by five
to get the distance in miles. The lightning is seen before the
The major wind systems in the Philippines are thunder is heard because light travels faster than sound.
a. Northeast Trade Winds – from north, north east and
east Thunderstorms need three things:
b. Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from
Southeast Trade winds south of the equator • Moisture—to form clouds and rain.
c. Northeast monsoon (amihan) - from east, south east • Unstable Air—relatively warm air that can rise rapidly.
• Lift—fronts, sea breezes and mountains are capable of
CYCLONES – low pressure areas in the tropics lifting air to help form thunderstorms.
Your chances of being struck by lightning are estimated CFCs - are stable substances that only exposure to strong
to be 1 in 600,000 but those chances can be reduced by following UV radiation breaks them down. When that happens, the CFC
safety rules. Most lightning deaths and injuries occur when molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can destroy
people are caught outdoors and most happen in the summer. over 100,000 ozone molecules. The net effect is to destroy ozone
Many fires in the western United States and Alaska are started by faster than it is naturally created.
lightning. In the past 10 years, more than 15,000 fires have
been started by lightning.
Astronomy
The Ozone Layer The Universe
Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen atoms. It is
blue in color and has a strong odor. Normal oxygen, which we How old is the universe? What is it made of? For the first time,
breathe, has two oxygen atoms and is colorless and odorless. scientists have clarity.
Ozone is much less common than normal oxygen. Out of each 10
million air molecules, about 2 million are normal oxygen, but only • 13.7 billion years: Age of the universe
3 are ozone. • 200 million years: Interval between the Big Bang and the
appearance of the first stars
However, even the small amount of ozone plays a key role • 4%: Proportion of the universe that is ordinary matter
in the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the • 23%: Proportion that is dark matter
radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet's • 73%: Proportion that is dark energy
surface. Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of ultraviolet light
called UVB. UVB has been linked to many harmful effects, including COLORS OF THE UNIVERSE
various types of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to some crops,
certain materials, and some forms of marine life. Blue Planets - Earth, Neptune, and Uranus are all blue because
of gases in their atmosphere.
Blue Stars - These are the hottest stars, with a surface The solar system is made up of the Sun (solar means sun) at its
temperature of more than 37,000°F. center, the nine planets that orbit it, and the various satellites,
asteroids, comets, and meteorites that are also controlled by the
Yellow Stars - These are warm stars, such as the Sun. Their Sun's gravitational pull.
temperature is about 10,000°F.
The Sun is the closest star to Earth and the center of our solar
Red Stars- The coolest stars are red. Their surface temperature is system. Every second, it converts 49 million tons (45 million metric
less than 5,500°F. tons) of matter into pure energy, which reaches us in the form of
light. The Sun weighs more than 300,000 times as much as Earth
Red Shift - When light coming from a distant star is seen through and is 109 times larger.
a spectroscope (an instrument that separates light into its different
colors); the light we receive continues to shift toward the red area Sunspots appear as dark spots on the Sun, and are believed to
of the spectrum, which is the least powerful. This means that, since be cooler than the rest of the Sun. They appear in 11-year cycles.
the light is becoming weaker and weaker, the stars must be
traveling away from us. This makes scientists believe that our Planet is the term used for a body in orbit around the Sun. The
universe is expanding. word comes from the Greek planets, and means “wanderers.” Our
solar system has nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Red Spot - A swirling cloud on the planet Jupiter is a raging storm Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. An easy way to
of gases, mainly red phosphorus. remember their names in the correct order is to keep in mind the
following sentence: My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine
Space Glossary Pickles. The first letter of each word is the first letter of each planet.
Since 1994, evidence has been found that planets also exist
Galaxies are immense systems containing billions of stars. beyond our solar system. At least 10 planets existing in other solar
Astronomers have estimated that the universe could contain 40 to systems have been discovered.
50 billion galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes: some are spiral,
others are elliptical, or oval-shaped, and some are irregular. Satellite (or moon) is the term for a body in orbit around a
planet. As long as our own Moon was the only moon known, there
The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Just about all that you can see was no need for a general term for the moons of planets. But when
in the sky belongs to our galaxy—a system of roughly 200 billion Galileo Galilei discovered the four main moons of the planet
stars. The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about 100,000 light- Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a letter suggesting he call
years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years in thickness. them “satellites” (from the Latin “satelles”, which means
attendant). The word means the same thing as “moon.”
Orbit is the term for the path travelled by a body in space. It planets. Our Sun has a diameter of 865,400 miles—making it a
comes from the Latin “orbis”, which means circle. Some orbits are comparatively small star.
nearly circular, but the orbits of most planets are ellipses—shaped
like ovals. White dwarfs occur when a star runs out of energy and shuts
down. The force of gravity at its center pulls the mass of the star
Asteroids, also known as the minor planets, are small bodies in on itself, forcing it to collapse. It resembles the glowing cinders
orbiting the Sun that resemble planets. More than 5,000 asteroids of a fire that has died down. It is called a white dwarf because it
have been discovered, and most are found between Mars and emits a white glow.
Jupiter. Usually having an irregular shape, asteroids—at least
those discovered thus far—can range in size from 580 miles (940 Brown Dwarfs are also called failed stars. They lack enough
km) in diameter, which is the size of the asteroid Ceres, to just 33 energy to be true stars but are also too massive and hot to be
ft. (10 m) in diameter. planets.
Comets are made up of frozen dust and gases, and have been
described as large, dirty snowballs with icy centers. They often A supernova is an extremely large exploding star. Just before the
travel on extremely elongated orbits around the Sun. Some comets star dies, it releases huge amounts of energy, briefly becoming
have orbits that take just millions of times brighter than it was. Then it immediately shrinks.
10 years to circumnavigate while other comets have orbits that
take hundreds of thousands of years to circulate. The tail of a Neutron stars are formed after a supernova explodes and
comet, called a coma, forms when the comet comes within 100 shrinks. The shrunken form of the star becomes incredibly dense
million miles of the Sun. It is then affected by the solar wind and compact as gravity pulls all of its matter inward. It becomes
(hydrogen and helium that travel away from the Sun at high so compressed that a million tons of its matter would hardly fill a
speeds), which causes a tail of dust and gases to form behind the thimble. This density crushes together the electrons and protons
comet. that make up its atoms, turning them into neutrons.
Meteors are fragments of comets, planets, moons, or asteroids Pulsars are believed to be rapidly spinning neutron stars that give
that have broken off. It is estimated that a billion meteors enter off bursts of radio waves at regular intervals. Pulsar is a shortened
our atmosphere every day. Contact with our atmosphere causes version of Puls[ating st]ar.
most to disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do not
disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are called meteorites. Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to be the most
remote objects in the universe. Despite their small size they
Stars are composed of intensely hot gasses, deriving their energy produce tremendous amounts of light and microwave radiation:
from nuclear reactions going on in their interiors. Our Sun is the not much bigger than Earth's solar system, they pour out 100 to
nearest star. Stars are very large — some are even bigger than 1,000 times as much light as an entire galaxy containing a hundred
billion stars.
of the Sun's gravitational pull that Earth orbits the Sun in the
A black hole is created by the total gravitational collapse of a manner that it does.
massive star or group of stars. It is the final phase of some stars,
in which gravity sucks the star in on itself—it implodes rather than The Sun has several layers: the core, the radiation zone, the
explodes. This makes it so dense that not even light can escape its convection zone, and the photosphere (which is the surface of the
gravitational field. Sun). In addition, there are two layers of gas above the
photosphere called the chromosphere and the corona.
A nebula is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made up of dust
and gas. Nebulae were thought to have been galaxies that Events that occur on the Sun include sunspots, solar flares,
appeared as a blur because they were so far away, but as more solar wind, and solar prominences. Sunspots are magnetic storms
powerful telescopes were created, they showed that nebulae were on the photosphere that appear as dark areas. Sunspots regularly
not clumps of stars but in fact a hazy cloud of gasses. A nebula is appear and disappear in eleven-year cycles. Solar flares are
illuminated by bright stars nearby. More than 300 nebulae have spectacular discharges of magnetic energy from the corona.
been named. These discharges send streams of protons and electrons outward
into space. Solar flares can interrupt the communications network
here on Earth. Solar winds are the result of gas expansion in the
The Solar System corona. This expansion leads to ion formation. These ions are
hurled outward from the corona at over 500 kilometers per second.
THE SUN Solar prominences are storms of gas which erupt from the surface
in the form of columns which either shoot outward into space or
The diameter of our closest star, the Sun, is 1,392,000 twist and loop back to the Sun's surface.
kilometers. The Sun is thought to be 4.6 billion years old. The Sun
is a medium–size star known as a yellow dwarf. It is a star in the The Sun gives off many kinds of radiation other than light
Milky Way galaxy and the temperature in its core is estimated to and heat. It also emits radio waves, ultraviolet rays, and X-rays.
be over 15,000,000 degrees Celsius. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of the
ultraviolet rays and the X-rays.
In the Sun's core, hydrogen is being fused to form helium.
The energy created by this process radiates up to the visible The Sun does rotate, but because it is a large gaseous
boundary of the Sun and then off into space. It radiates into space sphere, not all parts rotate at the same speed. This is known as a
in the form of heat and light. differential rotation.
Because the Sun is so massive, it exerts a powerful Corona - The very hot outermost layer of a star's atmosphere. Our
gravitational pull on everything in our solar system. It is because Sun's corona can only be seen during a total solar eclipse.
Solar Flares - A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface which shows is also known as the “morning star” and “evening star” since it is
up as a sudden increase in brightness. visible at these times to the unaided eye. Venus appears as a
Solar Prominences - Gases trapped at the edge of the Sun which bright, white disk from Earth.
appear to shoot outward from the Sun's surface.
Solar wind - A continuous stream of charged particles which are Earth
released from the Sun and hurled outward into space at speeds up
to 800 kilometers per second. Solar winds are very prominent after Earth is not perfectly round; it bulges at the equator and is
solar flare activity. flatter at the poles. From space the planet looks blue with white
Sunspot - A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface which appears swirls, created by water and clouds.
as a dark area. A sunspot is approximately 1500 degrees Celsius • Size: Four planets in our solar system are larger and four
cooler than its surrounding material. The number of sunspots we are smaller than Earth
see on the Sun at any given time appears to cycle every 11 years. • Diameter: 7,926.2 miles (12,756 km)
• Surface: Earth is made up of water (70%), air, and solid
THE PLANETS ground. It appears to be the only planet with water
• Atmosphere: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), other gases
There are nine planets in our solar system including Earth. So far, • Rotation of its axis: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds
no life as we know it exists on any planet other than our own. • Rotation around the Sun: 365.2 days
• Mean Distance from Sun: 92.9 million miles (149.6 million
Mercury km)
• Satellites: 1
Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, has almost no • Rings: 0
atmosphere, and its dusty surface of craters resembles the Moon. Mars
The planet was named for the Roman god Mercury, a winged
messenger, and it travels around the Sun faster than any other Because of its blood-red color (which comes from iron-rich
planet. Mercury is difficult to see from Earth—in fact, the famous dust), this planet was named for Mars, the Roman god of war. Mars
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, for all his years of research and is the fourth planet from the Sun, situated between Earth and
observation, never once was able to see Mercury. Jupiter. Three-quarters red, Mars also has dark blotches on it and
white areas at the poles—these are white polar ice caps.
Venus
A belt of asteroids (fragments of rock and iron) between
Venus is often called Earth's twin because the two planets Mars and Jupiter separate the four inner planets from the five outer
are close in size, but that's the only similarity. The thick clouds that planets
cover Venus create a greenhouse effect that keeps it sizzling at
864°F. Venus, named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty,
Jupiter Neptune was discovered when astronomers realized that
something was exerting a gravitational pull on Uranus, and that it
Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, was named was possible that an unknown planet might be responsible.
for the most important Roman god because of its size. About 1,300 Through mathematical calculations, astronomers determined there
Earths would fit into it. Viewed through a large telescope, Jupiter was indeed an undiscovered planet out in space—a year before it
is stunningly colorful — it is a disk covered with bands of blue, was actually seen for the first time through a telescope (in 1846).
brown, pink, red, orange, and yellow. Its most distinguishing It has 13 satellites and 4 rings.
feature is “the Great Red Spot,” an intense windstorm larger in size
than Earth, which has continued for centuries without any signs of Pluto
dying down. It has 63 moons and 4 rings.
Pluto, named after the Roman and Greek god of the
Saturn underworld, is the coldest, smallest, and outermost planet in our
solar system. Pluto and its moon, Charon, are called “double
Saturn, the second-largest planet, has majestic rings planets” because Charon is so large it seems less of a moon than
surrounding it. Named for the Roman god of farming, Saturn was another planet. Pluto was predicted to exist in 1905 and discovered
the farthest planet known by the ancients. Saturn's seven rings are in 1930. It is the only planet that has not yet been studied closely
flat and lie inside one another. They are made of billions of ice by a space probe. During each revolution around the sun, Pluto
particles. It has 31 moons and about 1000 rings. passes inside Neptune's orbit for 20 years, making Neptune the
outermost planet for that time. Pluto passed inside Neptune's orbit
Uranus in 1979 and remained there until 1999.
THE MOONS
Uranus is a greenish-blue planet, twice as far from the Sun
as its neighbor Saturn. Uranus wasn't discovered until 1781. Its
Earth's Moon is a small ball of gray rock revolving 239,000
discoverer, William Herschel, named it Georgium Sidus (the
miles around Earth. It is just one of many in the solar system. The
Georgian star) after the English king, George III. Later its name
Moon has no air and no water. It is about one-fourth as large as
was changed to Uranus, after an ancient Greek sky god, since all
Earth.
the other planets had been named after Roman and Greek gods.
It has 27 moons and 11 rings.
The Moon travels around Earth in an oval orbit at 36,800
kilometers per hour. The Moon does not have an atmosphere,
so temperatures range from -184 degrees Celsius during its night
Neptune
to 214 degrees Celsius during its day except at the poles where
the temperature is a constant -96 degrees Celsius.
Neptune, named for an ancient Roman sea god, is a stormy
blue planet about 30 times farther from the Sun than Earth.
The Moon is actually a little lopsided due to the lunar crust believe that the moon count of Jupiter could go as high as 100.
being thicker on one side than the other. When you look at the The newer moons were named after members of the god Jupiter's
Moon, you will see dark and light areas. The dark areas are (Zeus to the Greeks) entourage, among them: Themisto,Iocaste,
young plains called maria and are composed of basalt. The basalt Harpalyke, Praxidike, Taygete, Chaldene, Kalyke, Callirrhoe,
flowed in and flooded the area created by a huge impact with an Megaclite, Isonoe, and Erinome.
asteroid or comet. The light areas are the highlands, which are
mountains that were uplifted as a result of impacts. The lunar The moons of Saturn: Saturn has 31 moons. 12 of them
surface is covered by a fine-grained soil called “regolith” were discovered in late 2000 and another one was announced in
which results from the constant bombardment of the lunar rocks 2003. The older moons were named after figures in Greek
by small meteorites. mythology (Pan, Atlas, Pandora, Calypso, etc.). The newer moons
of Saturn were named after Norse (Ymir, Thrym, Skadi, Suttung,
Scientists theorize that the Moon was the result of a Mundilfari), Celtic (Tarvos, Albiorix), and Inuit (Paaliaq, Siarnaq,
collision between Earth and an object the size of Mars. One theory Kiviuq, Ijiraq) legends.
states that the debris from the impact was hurtled into space
where, due to gravity, it combined. This resulted in the formation The moons of Uranus: Uranus has 27 moons.
of the Moon. Astronomers detected five of them between 1787 and 1948. The
space probe Voyager discovered 10 more in 1985 and 1986. The
The gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth affects the names of these moons are the names of characters from plays by
ocean tides on Earth. The closer the Moon is to Earth, the greater Shakespeare. They are: Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel, Miranda,
the effect. The time between high tides is about 12 hours and 25 Puck, Portia, Juliet, Cressida, Rosalind, Belinda, Desdemona,
minutes. Cordelia, Ophelia, and Bianca. Miranda, with its deep scars and
jumbled surface is one of the strangest objects in the solar system.
“Full Moon and No Moon describe two phases of the Moon It seems to have been shattered by a collision, then pulled back
as it orbits Earth. When the Moon is between the Sun and the together by gravity! In 1997, two more moons were discovered,
Earth, its sunlit side is turned away from the Earth and we say Caliban and Sycorax—also characters from Shakespeare. 1999
there is no Moon. When the Earth is between the Sun and Moon, brought Stephano, Prospero, and Setebos. A satellite discovered in
we can see the entire sunlit side of the Moon and call it a full Moon. 2001 was dubbed Trinculo.
The Far Side of the Moon is always facing away from Earth The moons of Neptune: Neptune has 13 moons, with
because of the force of gravity. So when we look at the Moon, we Triton the largest. It is covered with a frosty crust, where active
always see the same side. volcanoes shoot crystals of nitrogen that look like geysers. The
surface temperature of Triton is –390°F, making it the coldest
The moons of Jupiter: Jupiter has 63 moons. 45 of these object in the solar system. Five new Neptunian moons were
moons were discovered between 2000 and 2003. Astronomers discovered in 2002 and 2003.