Theory

Hysteresis 
 
Hysteresis means “remaining” in Greek, an effect remains after its cause has disappeared. Hysteresis,
a term coined by Sir James Alfred Ewing in 1881, a Scottish physicist and engineer (1855-1935),
defined it as: When there are two physical quantities M and N such that cyclic variations of N cause
cyclic variations of M, then if the changes of M lag behind those of N, we may say that there is
hysteresis in the relation of M to N". The most notable example of hysteresis in physics is magnetism.
Iron maintains some magnetization after it has been exposed to and removed from a magnetic field. 
 

Magnetic Hysteresis
 
Consider a magnetic material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The graph intensity of
magnetization (M) vs. magnetizing field (H) gives a closed curve called M-H loop.   Consider the
portion AB of the curve given below. The intensity of magnetization M does not become zero when the
magnetizing field H is reduced to zero. Thus the intensity of magnetization M at every stage lags
behind the applied field H. This property is called magnetic hysteresis. The M-H loop is called
hysteresis loop. The shape and area of the loop are different for different materials.
 

 Hysteresis Loop
 
 An initially unmagnetized material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The values of intensity of
magnetization M and the magnetizing field H are calculated at every stage and a closed loop is
obtained on plotting a graph between M and H as shown in the figure. The point ‘O’ represents the
initial unmagnetized condition of the material. As the applied field is increased, the magnetization
increases to the saturation point ‘A’ along ‘OA’. As the applied field is reduced, the loop follows the
path ‘AB’. ‘OB’ represents the intensity of magnetization remaining in the material when the applied
field is reduced to zero. This is called the residual magnetism or remanence. The property of retaining
some magnetism on removing the magnetic field is called retentivity.  OC represents the magnetizing
field to be applied in the opposite direction to remove residual magnetism. This is called coercive field
and the property is called coercivity. When the field is further increased in the reverse direction the
material reaches negative saturation point ‘D’. When the field is increased in positive direction, the
curve follows path ‘DEF’. 
 
 
 

  Figure 1 Magnetic hysteresis loop

showing coercive force OC, residual magnetism OB, saturation point A
 
 

 Hysteresis Loop Tracer Design Principle

 
When a cylindrical sample is placed coaxially in a periodically varying magnetic field produced by the
solenoid, the magnetisation in the sample undergoes a periodic variation. The pickup coil placed
coaxially with the sample picks up this variation.
For the uniform field Ha produced by the solenoid, the effective field H acting on the cylindrical sample
will be,
                                                                                     H = Ha – NM ---------------------- (1)
 
Where M is magnetization, or H = Ha – NJ/μo , where N is the normalized demagnetization factor and
J is the magnetic polarization defined by, B = μoH + J with B = μH = μo(H+M) as magnetic induction. 
The signal corresponding to the applied field, Ha, can be written as,
                      E1 = C1Ha -------------- (2) where C1 is a constant.
 
 Further the flux linked with the pick-up coil of area Ac due to the sample of area As will be
   φ = μ(Ac – As)H’+ AsB
 
Here H’ is the magnetic field, in the free from sample area of the pickup coil, will be different from H
and the difference will be determined by the magnitude of the demagnetizing field. However, when the
ratio of the length of the sample rod to the diameter of the pickup coil is more than 10, the difference
between H and H’ is too small, so we have 
    φ = μ(Ac – As)H’+ AsB
 = μ0AcH+ As(B- μ0H)
                        φ= μ0AcH+ AsJ ---------------- (3)
 
The signal e2 induced in the pickup coil will be proportional to dφ/dt. After the integration the signal
(e3) will therefore be 
                                         e3 = C3φ = C3μ0AcH+ C3AsJ------------------ (4)
 
 Solving (1),(2) and (4) for J and H gives:
                                     C1C3Ac(As/Ac - N)J = C1e3 – μ0C3Ace1-----------------------(5.1)
                                     C1C3Ac(As/Ac - N)H = C3A3e1 –NC1e3/μ0 ------------------- (5.2)
 
In case the sample contains a number of magnetically different constituents, the loop obtained is the
algebraic sum of individual loops of different phases. The separation of these is not easy in a J-h
loop,while in a second derivative of J with respect to time, d2j/dt2, the identification can be made very
clear. Now the aim is to produce electrical signals corresponding to J and H as defined above by
equations (5.1) and (5.2) so that they can be displayed on the CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope).
Moreover, it s to display dφ/dt and d2φ/dt2 as a function of H.
 The magnetic field is obtained with a multilayered solenoid driven by the AC mains at 50 Hz and by a
variable transformer arrangement. The instantaneous current producing the field is passed through a
resistor R1 in series with the solenoid.
The signal e2 corresponding to the rate of change of flux is obtained from a pickup coil wound on a
non conducting tube. Necessary arrangements have been made to place the sample coaxially with the
pickup winding and in uniform magnetic field.
The signals e1 and e3 are added and its output which is proportional to J is applied to Y-input of CRO.
Fractions of these signals corresponding to the demagnetization factor and area ratio are added,
amplified and the output is fed to the X-input input of CRO which gives H.
 The selector switch can change the Y-input of CRO to J, dj/dt , or d2j/dt2. The dj/dt 
Signal is directly taken from the pick-up coil while  d2j/dt2 is obtained through the differentiator.
Now the magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid for current I flowing through it will be, Ha = Ki or
e1 = R1i
                                               E1 = R1/K Ha
 
 Substituting φ from Equation (3) above we get, e2 = nμ0Ac(dH/dt)+nAs(dJ/dt)
 Now as mentioned earlier integrating e2 gives e3. So,

 
Where G1 is the gain of the integrator and phase shifter combination. Again as mentioned above out
of phase signals e1 and –e3 are added and after suitable amplification Gy, becomes,
 

 
If we adjust C1 = H , then

                           .-----------------------(6)
Fraction α and β of e1 and –e3 respectively, are added together and amplified (let us say by the factor
Gx) for the X-input. So we get,

After substituting C1 =g1nµ0 Ac  ,J is eliminated from the right hand side and by adjusting α and   β
such that 

We get, 

 -----------------------(7)
Equations (6) and (7) can be written as: 

-----------------------(8.1)
Where 

-----------------------(8.2)
Equations (8.1) and (8.2) define the physical quantities H and J in terms of electrical signals ex and ey
respectively.

Procedure
   

Lab Experiment Overall Goals

 
The goal of this lab exercise is to study the phenomena of magnetic hysteresis and calculate the
retentivity, coercivity and saturation magnetization of a material using a hysteresis loop tracer (HLT-
111). The remote trigger equipment allows you to control the applied magnetic field (H). By varying
this parameter, the J-H loop, dJ/dt and d2J/dt2 loop will be produced.
  

Instructions For Simulator

1. Select Sample A or B.
2. Click Plot and the MH curve is displayed on the screen.
3.  Vary the material parameters and observe the characteristics of the material.
4. Reset clears the input field and Reset Figure clears the graph.
 

Lab Apparatus
 
This remote trigger experiment performs experiments on actual hysteresis loop tracer equipment
(HLT-111). The experimental setup is housed at Amrita University, Amritapuri Campus and has the
following features:
1.The Hysteresis Loop tracer used in this experiment is HLT-111.
2. Observations.
 Diameter of the pick-up coil – 3.21 mm .
 Gx = 100.
 Gy = 1Sample Used: Thin cylindrical rod made of Commercial Nickel.
 Length of the sample = 37 mm.
 Diameter of sample = 1.17mm.
 Demagnetization factor β= N= 0.0029.
 
3.The device has been already calibrated.   
 
A. CALIBRATION (SETTINGS): 
  No sample in the pick-up coil
 H balance, DC balance and Phase adjusted for horizontal line in the centre
 Demagnetization (N) at zero
 Area Ratio As/ Ac at 0.399
 Root mean square value of applied magnetic field (Ha) is 209 Gauss
 B.CALIBRATION (OBSERVATIONS)
  Observed value of ex= 7 volts
 Since, the area ratio for the given sample is so small the signal ex was enhanced by
multiplying area ratio and demagnetization by three. The finally obtained value of the intercept
(below) is divided by this same factor, 3, to give the correct value of coercivity.
 Similarly for calculating G0 we set Area ratio As/Ac to 1.000 and other settings remain as
calibrated, the signal ex obtained is, ex = 18 volts.
 
G0 can be calculated using the relation

 
 

Lab Procedures
  
1. Power on the device.
2. Slowly vary the applied magnetic field using magnetic field slider. M-H graph corresponding to the
field will be plotted, whenever the slider is stopped.
3. Tabulate the loop width, the tip-to-tip height and positive intercept to negative intercept distance
for each magnetic field as shown in the table below.
 
 
SL Magnetic Loop Tip-To-Tip Positive Intercept to Negative
No Field(Gauss) Width(mm) Hieght(V) Intercept Distance(V)
         
         
         
         
Table 1: For calculation of coercivity, saturation magnetization and retentivity for the given sample
from the loop width, the tip-to-tip height and the positive intercept to negative intercept distance of
hysteresis loop respectively
 
4. Calculation of coercivity: 
 Plot the loop width of hysteresis loop against magnetic field.
The intercept of the straight line fit on the J-axis gives loop width.
Coercivity,

5. Calculation of saturation magnetisation:

 Plot the positive intercept to negative intercept distance against magnetic field.
 Find the asymptote and use the equation below:
Saturation magnetisation,

6. Calculation of retentivity:
Plot the tip-to-tip separation against the magnetic field.
Draw asymptote
Retentivity, 

 
7.  Select the M., M.. radio buttons  to observe dJ/dtand d2J/dt2   .
 

 Inferences:
1. The obtained value of the coercivity for the given sample is ________ oersted.
2. The obtained value of the saturation magnetisation for the given sample is ________gauss.
3. The obtained value of the retentivity for the given sample is ________ gauss.

References
 
 User manual for Hysteresis Loop Tracer (Model: HLT-111)
 Jiles, D.C: Thoelke, J.B; Devine, M.K: “Numerical Determination of Hysteresis Parameters for
the Modeling of Magnetic Properties Using theTheory of Ferromagnetic Hysteresis”, IEEE Transactions
on Magnetics, pp.27-28, Vol. 28, No. 1, January 1992.
 Kasap S O., Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, 3rd Ed, Mcgraw Hill ,2006 (ISBN
0072957913).
 Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis)

A digital hysteresis loop

experiment
T. L. Francavilla J. H. Claassen M. A. Willard
View Affiliations
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4819169

hysteresis and hysteresis loops

Tweet

A hysteresis loop is
a closed curve
obtained by plotting
a graph of the
magnetic induction
of
a ferromagnetic sub
stance (as ordinate)
against the
A hysteresis loop such as that obtained by plotting magnetometer
external magnetic deflection against current supplied to a coil of wire wrapped round an iron
field. The shape of or steel bar. Initially, the current is zero, and the magnetometer deflection
the curve is is also zero. As the current is increased, the deflection increases up to a
maximum value. The iron bar is then magnetically saturated. The current
characteristic of the is reduced, and even when it is zero again, the magnetometer stays
magnetic properties deflected to some extent (point A). To reduce the magnetometer deflection
of the material and to zero, the current has to be pushed around the coil in the opposite
direction (point B).
shows the ease with
which it is
magnetized and the ability to retain magnetization. 

Introduction to hysteresis
When an electric current is passed through a coil of wire, the coil acts like a
bar magnet with a north pole at one end and a south pole at the other. In other
words, it acts like an electromagnet. If a bar of soft iron is placed inside the
coil, the strength of the electromagnet is much increased. This is because the
piece of soft iron is itself converted into a magnet by the effect of the current in
the coil, and the strength of the magnet is added to that of the coil "magnet." 

This effect can be demonstrated in a series of simple experiments. An electric

current is passed through the coil of wire, and an instrument which measures
strengths of magnetic fields, a deflection magnetometer, is placed some
distance from the solenoid, along the axis of the coil. As the current through
the coil is increased, the deflection of the magnetometer needle increases,
showing that the magnetic field around the coil is increasing. 

By putting an iron bar in the coil, the magnetometer deflection is found to be

very much greater. This shows that the combined magnetic field of coil and
bat are much greater than the field of the coil itself. 

Electromagnets, which are simply iron bars with a coil of wire wrapped round
them, are often used in electric motors, and in many other kinds of electric
machinery. They are used because they can provide very strong magnetic
fields, controllable just by switching the electric current on and off. Generally
speaking, the bigger the current, the more powerful the electromagnet. 

Many electromagnets are powered by alternating current (AC). The current

increases in one direction up to a maximum, then decreases to zero and
starts to increase in the opposite direction. It reaches its maximum in this
direction, and then drops back again to zero. Current from the AC mains
repeats this and to-and-fro cycle 50 or 60 times a second. 

As the current in the coil surges to-and-fro, the iron bar is magnetized first in
one direction and then in the other direction. But electromagnets are reluctant
to change their direction of
magnetization. The direction does
change, but lags behind the change in
current. Energy is wasted in forcing the
bar to change its direction of
magnetization and the name given to
this energy loss is hysteresis. 

Energy losses are always important in

electric machinery. Obviously they must
be reduced as much as possible if the
machine is to work efficiently as
possible. This is why hysteresis is so
important. 

Investigating hysteresis in
the lab
Hysteresis can be investigated using
simple laboratory apparatus – a source
of direct current, a deflection
magnetometer, and a coil of wire to

Steel has a "fat" hysteresis loop. It is difficult to

demagnetize, so steel is used for permanent
magnets. Substances, such as soft iron, with thin
hysteresis loops, are used for transformer cores.
wrap around the iron bar under investigation. The direct current is increased
step by step in one direction, then decreased to zero and increased in the
other direction. This is rather like pushing one complete cycle of alternating
current through the coil, but the steps are slowed down so that the behavior of
the magnet can be studied (with the magnetometer) at each stage. The
results are plotted on a graph with the current supplied to the coil along the
horizontal (x) axis and the magnetometer deflection (a measure of the
strength of the electromagnet produced by the current) along the vertical (y)
axis. 

It is found that, as the current increases, the magnetometer deflection

increases, but only up to a certain value. Then, no matter how the current is
increased, the magnetometer reading stays the same. The strength of the
electromagnet increases to a maximum, and the magnet is then said to be
saturated. 

When the current is reduced, the magnetometer deflection is reduced. But the
iron bar tends to retain its magnetism, and even when the current is reduced
to zero, its field continues to deflect the magnetometer needle. A considerable
current must be pushed through the coil in the opposite direction before the
bar finally loses its magnetism. Then, as the current is increased in the
opposite direction, the bar is magnetized in the opposite direction. As one
cycle is completed and the next one started, the graph becomes a loop, called
a hysteresis loop. 

The "fatness" of the loop is a measure of the amount of energy wasted in

changing the direction of magnetization (i.e., the hysteresis loss). Soft iron
hysteresis loops are thin, because soft iron is easily magnetized,
demagnetized, and remagnetized in the opposite direction. Steel loops, on the
other hand, are fat because steel is far more reluctant to change its direction
of magnetization. 

What causes hysteresis?

Why is there a maximum saturation value of the magnetism of the magnet,
and what is happening inside it to cause hysteresis? The answer is that the
iron bar is made up of thousands of tiny magnets, and when the bar is
unmagnetized, the magnets are pointing in all directions, so that their effects
cancel each other. The magnets are the individual atoms of iron, but groups of
many atoms called domains. Each atom of iron acts like a magnet, with its
own north and south pole. In a domain the atoms are arranged in an orderly
fashion, so that they reinforce each other. The domain acts like a magnet, but
in unmagnetized soft iron the directions of magnetizations of groups of
domains are so arranged that their effective magnetization is zero. 

The effect of the current is to swivel round the domains so that they are all
pointing in the same direction. When they are all pointing in the same
direction, no amount of current increase can strengthen them any more. The
iron bar is magnetically saturated. 

As the current is increased, one domain after another swivels around. It is

found that the amount of magnetization
does not increase smoothly (as
indicated by the hysteresis loop), but in
tiny steps as the direction of
magnetization of each domain swivels
round into line. When the magnetic field
suddenly changes in this way, it causes
an electromagnetic wave in the radio
wave region of the spectrum. This wave
can be picked up, amplified, and turned
into an audible sound. It is possible to
actually listen to the movement of the Hysteresis loops are not really smooth, as the
iron is magnetized in little steps, each one the
domains. Each domain movement is movement of a domain.
heard as a faint click. This is called the
Barkhausen effect. 

The domains are not entirely free to swivel around. Hysteresis is a measure of
the amount of magnetic "friction" they have to overcome. While most of the
electrical energy from the electric current is stored as the magnetic energy of
the piece of iron and is available for use, the hysteresis loss cannot be
reclaimed. As with most kinds of "friction" energy, it is converted into heat. 
BH CURVE

A graphical curve showing the relation between magnetic induction B and magnetizing force H for a
magnetic material. Also known as magnetization curve. The set of magnetisation curves, M above
represents an example of the relationship between B and H for soft-iron and steel cores but every type of
core material will have its own set of curves. You may notice that the flux density increases in proportion
to the field strength until it reaches a certain value were it can not increase any more becoming almost
level and constant as the field strength continues to increase. This is because there is a limit to the
amount of flux density that can be generated by the core as all the domains in the iron are perfectly
aligned. Any further increase will have no effect on the value of M, and the point on the graph where the
flux density reaches its limit is called Magnetic Saturation also known as Saturation of the Core and in our
simple example above the saturation point of the steel curve begins at about 3000 ampere-turns per
metre.
Saturation occurs because as we remember from the previous Magnetism tutorial which included Weber's
theory, the random haphazard arrangement of the molecule structure within the core material changes as
the tiny molecular magnets within the material become "lined-up". As the magnetic field strength, (H)
increases these molecular magnets become more and more aligned until they reach perfect alignment
producing maximum flux density and any increase in the magnetic field strength due to an increase in the
electrical current flowing through the coil will have little or no effect.

The Hysteresis Loop

In the case of a typical recording medium the hysteresis loop gives the relation between the
magnetization M and the applied field H. A hysteresis loop of a magnetic recording medium is illustrated
schematically in Figure 1. The parameters extracted from the hysteresis loop that are most often used to
characterize the magnetic properties of magnetic media include; the saturation magnetization Ms, the
remanence Mr, the coercivity Hc, the squareness ratio SQR, S* which is related to the slope at Hc , and
the switching field distribution SFD. The loop illustrated in Figure 1 shows the behavior for the easy axis
of magnetization (i.e., in the anisotropy direction). The loop has a rectangular shape and exhibits
irreversible changes of the magnetization. The hard axis loop, where the hard axis is at right angles to the
easy axis, is more or less linear and generally hysteresis free, i.e., the magnetization is reversible.
Magnetic materials that show a preferential direction for the alignment of magnetization are said to be
magnetically anisotropic. When a material has a single easy and hard axis, the material is said to be
uniaxially anisotropic
The intrinsic saturation is approached at high H, and at zero-field the remanence is reached. The
squareness ratio is given by the ratio of (Mr/Ms) and is essentially a measure of how square the
hysteresis loop is. In general large SQR values are desired for recording medium. The formal definition of
the coercivity Hc is the field required to reduce the magnetization to zero after saturation. The physical
meaning of Hc is dependent on the magnetization process, and may be the nucleation field, domain wall
coercive field, or anisotropy field. Hc is a very complicated parameter for magnetic films and is related to
the reversal mechanism and the magnetic microstructure, i.e., shape and dimensions of the crystallites,
nature of the boundaries, and also the surface and initial layer properties, etc.