OVERVIEW:

We start this chapter with development of thermodynamics and real-life applications of

thermodynamics. A good foundation on studying thermodynamics is an accurate definition of the concepts
will prevent us possible misunderstandings. Studying first the basic concepts and properties of the system,
reviewing the dimension and unit, temperature scales and pressure are vital for the subsequent lessons.

LESSON OUTLINE:

1. History of Thermodynamics

2. Real-life Applications of Thermodynamics

3. Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

4. Properties of the System

5. Dimension and Units

6. Temperature and Temperature Scales

7. Pressure and Pressure Measuring Device

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, the students must be able to:

a) Trace the history of thermodynamics

b) Discuss the different real-life applications of thermodynamics.
c) Familiarize the basic concepts in thermodynamics
d) Discuss properties of a system
e) Review the dimension and units and define density, specific gravity, and specific weight
f) Review of the concepts of Temperature and Temperature Scales
g) Review of the concepts of Pressure and Pressure Measuring Device

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PRE-TEST:

Answer the following statements below. Determine what is being asked for in the following statements.
Write your answers on the blanks provided.

1. Who is the father of Thermodynamics?

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2. An office worker claims that a cup of cold coffee on his table warmed up to 80°C by picking up energy
from the surrounding air, which is at 25°C. Is there any truth to his claim? Does this process violate any
thermodynamic laws?
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3. When analyzing the acceleration of gases as they flow through a nozzle, what type of system is this?
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4. What is specific gravity? How is it related to density?
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5. What is the weight, in N, of an object with a mass of 200 kg at a location where g=9.6 m/s2?
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6. What is the temperature of the heated air at 150°C in °F and R?
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7. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 750 mmHg. Take the
density of mercury to be 13,600 kg/m3.
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8. At sea level, the weight of 1 kg mass in SI units is 9.81 N. The weight of 1 lbm mass in English units is
(a) 1 lbf (b) 9.81 lbf (c) 32.2 lbf (d ) 0.1 lbf (e) 0.031 lbf
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___________________________________________________________________________________
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9. Consider a 2-m deep swimming pool. The pressure difference between the top and bottom of the pool
is (show your solution)
(a) 12.0 kPa (b) 19.6 kPa (c) 38.1 kPa (d ) 50.8 kPa (e) 200 kPa
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 1.1 Historical Milestones

Let us explore the long history of Thermodynamics; unfortunately, it was not blessed with the
crispness of development that mechanics realized with Newton. In fact, its growth is filled with false steps,
errors, and debate which continues to this day. Some of the milestones of its development are given here:

➢ About 3000 BC TO 500 BC- Egyptian and then Greek scientists speculated that heat energy was a
fluid that they called phlogiston.
➢ 500 BC-Greek scientists were debating whether a vacuum could be possibly exists or be created.
➢ 17th and 18th centuries- saw the transformation from the primitive magic of alchemy to the subject
of thermochemistry
➢ 1662- Boyle’s Law was published- a special case of the ideal gas -Law
➢ 1697 - construction of the first successful atmospheric steam engines in England by Thomas Savery
and Thomas Newcomen in 1712. These engines were very slow and inefficient, but they opened
the way for the development of a new science.
➢ 1769 – The first engine , a steam engine was patented by James Watt
➢ 1802- Charles’s law and Guy-Lussac’s Law were published
➢ 1824 - Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, which
detailed his research and presented a well-reasoned theoretical treatment for the perfect (but
unattainable) heat engine, now known as the Carnot cycle.* With his multiple scientific
contributions, including the Carnot heat engine, Carnot theorem, and Carnot efficiency, Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot is often described as the "Father of Thermodynamics." His concept of the
idealized heat engine led to the development of a thermodynamic system that could be quantified,
a key success that enabled many of the future discoveries that lay ahead.
➢ 1849 - The term thermodynamics was first used in a publication by Lord Kelvin.
➢ 1850s -The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged, primarily out of the works of William
Rankine, Rudolph Clausius, and Lord Kelvin (formerly William Thomson).
➢ 1859 -The first thermodynamic textbook was written by William Rankine, a professor at the
University of Glasgow.

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Activity 1:
Create a graphic organizer in line with the development of Thermodynamics.

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 1.2 Real-life Applications of Thermodynamics

Before I introduced you to the basic concepts of Thermodynamics, let us know first what is really
Thermodynamics and its real-life applications.

THERMODYNAMICS is derived from the Greek Word “therme”, meaning heat, and “dynamis”,
meaning strength, particularly applied to motion 1, (The word heat implies as the heat liberated by burning
of wood, coal, or oil). It deals with energy transformation, the conversion of heat into work, or of chemical
energy into electrical energy. Also, it is the science that deals with the relations between heat, work and
properties of the systems.

Why do we study Thermodynamics?

➢ Thermodynamics is used by engineers who work in a wide variety of fields, mainly by chemical and
mechanical engineers. The one responsible for the design, construction and operation of Power
Plant are Mechanical Engineers. They also design engines used in cars, boats, airplanes and ships.
➢ Chemical and Mechanical Engineers apply thermodynamics in the design of manufacturing
processes to produce consumers products, pharmaceuticals, and food products.
➢ Using thermodynamics, engineers develop new sources of energy to replace fossil fuels.

The following are some applications of thermodynamics:

• All types of vehicles that we use, cars, motorcycles, trucks, ships, airplanes, and many other types
work on the basis of second law of thermodynamics and Carnot Cycle. They may be using petrol
engine or diesel engine, but the law remains the same.
• All the refrigerators, deep freezers, industrial refrigeration systems, all types of air-conditioning
systems, heat pumps, etc work on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.
• All types of air and gas compressors, blowers, fans, run on various thermodynamic cycles.
• One of the important fields of thermodynamics is heat transfer, which relates to transfer of heat
between two media. There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation.
The concept of heat transfer is used in wide range of devices like heat exchangers, evaporators,
condensers, radiators, coolers, heaters, etc.
• Thermodynamics also involves study of various types of power plants like thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants, power plants based on renewable energy sources
like solar, wind, geothermal, tides, water waves etc,
• Renewable energy is an important subject area of thermodynamics that involves studying the
feasibility of using different types of renewable energy sources for domestic and commercial use

Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis

STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS.
• A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of large groups of individual particles.
It is sometimes called Microscopic Thermodynamics – we must look at every molecule and analyze
collective molecular action by statistical methods.
CLASSICAL THERMODYNAMICS
• This macroscopic approach to study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual particles. It is sometimes called Macroscopic Thermodynamics – we concern
ourselves with the overall effect of the individual molecular interaction. It provides a direct and
easy way to the solution of engineering problems.

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Activity 2:
Enumerate some applications of thermodynamics and discuss how it works and how the energy is
converted. Shown below is an example of your activity to be done.

Applications of thermodynamics:
1. Steam Power Plants
Fuel is burned to release heat in a steam generator, it converts the fuel’s chemical energy
to the thermal energy of combustion gases. The heat is used to boil water under pressure
in the steam generator (boiler). The steam leaves the generator and passes through
superheater tubes, where more heat is added to the steam; it passes through the turbine.
The turbine is coupled to a generator, which is used to generate electric power. In turbine,
some transform thermal energy of the steam into mechanical work. The steam is then
condensed, liquified, and pumped back to the steam generator. The Second law of
thermodynamics- tells us how much thermal energy can be converted into work

FIGURE 1. Steam Power Plant

Retrieved from
https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/po
wer-generating-plants-use-evaporation-
cool-their-hot-water (Credit: Alan
Cressler, US Geological Survey. Public
domain.)

2. Internal Combustion Engine

Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) used to power automobiles and machine. In an IC engine,
the transformation of fuel energy into vehicle motion processes: fuel is burned, the energy
from burning of fuel is transferred to the pistons, whose gears turn the wheels, thus moving
the automobile.The processes of converting energy are different depending on the mechanical
structure, but the laws of thermodynamics governing energy conversion remains the same.

FIGURE 2. Internal Combustion Engine

Retrieved from
http://engineersacademy.net/551/internal-
combustion-engine-ppts

References: Burghardt, David M. and Harback, J.A.. Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th Edition

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 1.3 Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

For better understanding of the subject, you must be able to familiarize the following terms and
concepts:

The system is separated from the surroundings by the system boundary.

Figure NO.3 A Thermodynamic System

System / Thermodynamic System
• It is defined to be a fixed mass that occupies a space, a space that may or may not be
changing in volume or shape.
• Defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space upon which attention is concentrated
in analysis of a problem.
Surroundings (or the Environment)
• Include everything external to the system
• The mass or region outside the system
Boundary
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable
• the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings
Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain
any mass nor occupy any volume in space.
Three classes of systems, depending on whether a fixed mass or fixed volume in space;
1. Closed System (also known as a control mass)
▪ A system of fixed mass;
▪ There is no mass transfer across the system boundary
▪ There maybe energy transfer into or out of the system
▪ the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed
Example: a certain quantity of fluid on a cylinder bounded by a piston continues a closed system

Figure NO.4 A closed System (No mass transfer)

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 2. Open System (control volume)
▪ Matter crosses the boundary of the system
▪ There may be energy transfer also.
▪ Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
▪ A control volume can be fixed in size and shape,
Example:
A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and,
therefore, are modeled as control volumes. The boundaries of a control volume are called
a control surface, and they can be real or imaginary.
Engineering devices are generally open systems- air compressor in which air enters at
low pressure and leaves at high pressure and there are energy transfers across the system
boundary.

Figure NO.5 An Open System

3. Isolated system
▪ There is no interaction between the system and the surroundings.
▪ It is of fixed mass and energy
▪ There is no mass or energy transfer across the system boundary.

Figure NO.6 An Isolated System

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 1.4 Properties of the System

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. The property of a system is a characteristic

quality of the entire system and depends on not how the system changes state but only on the final
system state. Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general types, intensive and extensive.
1. INTENSIVE PROPERTY
➢ one that does not depend on the mass of the system; independent of the size of the
system. Temperature and pressure are examples.
2. EXTENSIVE PROPERTY
➢ one that does depend on the mass of the system; depends on the size or extent of the
system. Mass, volume, momentum, and kinetic energy are examples.

Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties can be measured
or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes
the condition, or the state, of the system. Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.

EQUILIBRIUM

▪ implies a state of balance. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from
its surroundings
➢ If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system (the system involves no
temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow), the system is in Thermal
Equilibrium.
➢ If the pressure at any point of the system with time has no change, the system is in
Mechanical Equilibrium.
➢ If a system involves two phases, it is in Phase Equilibrium when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
➢ If its chemical composition does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur,
the system is in Chemical Equilibrium

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process, and
the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the
process.
Process – a change in the system; When a system changes from one equilibrium state to another,
the path of successive states through which the system passes
Path – describes infinite number of system states that occur when a system undergoes a particular
process from state 1 to state 2.see figure below

Figure NO.7 A process between states 1 and 2 and the process path.

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Thermodynamic Cycle – a collection of two or more processes for which the initial and final state are the
same.

Processes
➢ If a system would undergo a large change in its properties when subjected to some small
disturbance, it is said to be in Metastable Equilibrium.
➢ If, in the passing from one state to the next, the deviation from equilibrium is small, and
thus negligible, a Quasiequilibrium process occurs; in this case, each state in the process
can be idealized as an equilibrium state.
➢ If the system, however, goes from one equilibrium state to another through a series of
nonequilibrium states (as in combustion) a Nonequilibrium process occurs

Figure NO.8 A) Quasiequilibrium process B) Nonequilibrium process

The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant.

o Isothermal Process -a process during which the temperature T remains constant;

o Isobaric Process - a process during which the pressure P remains constant;
o Isochoric (Or Isometric) Process - a process during which the specific volume v remains
constant.

The Steady-Flow Process

➢ steady implies no change with time. (opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient)

➢ uniform, however, implies no change with location over a specified region. It is a process
during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily

A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions. Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such as turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems. The fluid properties can change from
point to point within the control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the same during
the entire process

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Activity 3:

Answer the following statements below. Determine what is being asked for in the
following statements. Write your answers on the blanks provided.

1. A large fraction of the thermal energy generated in the engine of a car is rejected to the
air by the radiator through the circulating water. Should the radiator be analyzed as a
closed system or as an open system? Explain.
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the difference between intensive and extensive properties?

____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________

3. Is the weight of a system an extensive or intensive property?

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____________________________________________________________________________

4. What is a quasi-equilibrium process? What is its importance in engineering?

____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5. Define the isothermal, isobaric, and isochoric processes.

____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

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 1.5 Dimension and Units

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units.

Primary Or Fundamental Dimensions Secondary Dimensions, Or Derived Dimensions

mass, length, time and temperature velocity, energy, volume

Two sets of units are still in common use today: the English system, which is also known as the
United States Customary System (USCS), and the metric SI (from Le Système International d’ Unités),
which is also known as the International System.

Fundamental Dimensions:
Length – the distance between two points in space
Time – period between two events or during which something happens
Mass – quantity of matter that a substance is composed of.
In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and second (s), respectively.
The Seven Fundamental (or Primary) Dimensions and their units in SI
Dimension Unit
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Electric current ampere (A)
Amount of light candela (cd)
Amount of matter Mole (mol)
The respective units in the English system are the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s).
1 lbm =0.45359 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
In the English system, force is usually considered to be one of the primary dimensions and is
assigned a nonderived unit. This is a source of confusion and error that necessitates the use of a
dimensional constant in many formulas. To avoid this nuisance, we consider force to be a secondary
dimension whose unit is derived from Newton’s second law, that is, F =ma.

ⅆ
Force is equal to the time rate of change of momentum and is given by : 𝐹 = (𝑚𝑣)
ⅆ𝑡
Where v is the velocity and m is the mass of the body.
ⅆ𝑚 ⅆ𝑣
𝐹=𝑣 +𝑚
ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡

Most often the mass is constant, and the change of velocity is acceleration.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 where F is measured in pounds force (lbf), m is measured in pounds (lbm), and a is
measured in feet per second squared (ft/sec2).

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 One lbf is defined as 1 lbm accelerated 32.174 ft/sec2 . Force unit is the pound-force (lbf) and is
defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of 1 ft/s2.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Unit balance of the equation:

lbf = (lbm)( ft / sec2 ) , units on one side is not equal on the other side,

so we multiply the equation 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, by a constant, 𝒌 to balance the equation.

𝐹 = 𝒌𝑚𝑎 , lbf = 𝒌 (lbm)( ft / sec2 )

Then, 𝒌 must be in lbf-sec2/lbm-ft. Solving For 𝒌 ,

1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘=
32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑓𝑡

Newton (N) is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2.

1 N = 1 kg·m/s2

1 lbf = 32.174 lbm·ft/s2

The term weight is often incorrectly used to express mass, particularly by the “weight watchers.”
Unlike mass, weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude
is determined from Newton’s second law, 𝑊 = 𝒎𝒈 (𝑵)

Weight - It is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from Newton’s
second law, W = mg (N), where m is the mass of the body, and g is the local gravitational acceleration
(g is 9.807 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 45° latitude).

• At sea level a mass of 1 kg weighs 9.807 N. A mass of 1 lbm, however, weighs 1 lbf, which misleads
people to believe that pound-mass and pound-force can be used interchangeably as pound (lb),
which is a major source of error in the English system

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The density 𝛒 of any substance is its mass (not weight) per unit volume.
𝐦
𝛒= , (kg/m3)
𝐕

The specific volume 𝛖 is the volume per unit mass. It is also the reciprocal of density.

𝐕 𝟏
𝛖 = 𝐦 = 𝛒 , (m3 /kg)

Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known substance.
Then it is called specific gravity, 𝐒𝐆 or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of
a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water
at 4°C, for which 𝛒 H2O =1000 kg/m3). Note that the specific gravity of a substance is a
dimensionless quantity. That is,

𝛒
𝐒𝐆 =
𝛒𝑯𝟐𝟎

The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight and is expressed as

𝑾 𝑵
𝛄𝑺 = 𝐕
, (𝒎𝟑 ) or 𝛄𝑺 = 𝛒𝐠

The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus they can often be approximated as being
incompressible substances during most processes without sacrificing much in accuracy.

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Examples:

1. The mass of a given airplane at the sea level (g = 32.10 fps2) is 10 tons. Find its mass in lbm,
slugs, and kg and its (gravitational) weight in lbf and N when it is traveling at 50,000-ft elevation.
The acceleration due to gravity g decreases by 3.32 x 10-6 fps for each foot of elevation
Solution:
2000 𝑙𝑏𝑚
Mass in lbm 10 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 ( ) = 20,000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
Mass in slugs 20,000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 (32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚) = 621.62 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

1𝑘𝑔
Mass in kg 20,000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 (2.205 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ) = 9070 𝑘𝑔 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)

Weight 𝑔 = 32.10 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2 − (3.33𝑥10−6 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2 )(𝐻)

𝑔 = 32.10 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2 − (3.33𝑥10−6 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2 )(50,000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑔 = 31.9335 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑓𝑡
In lbf 𝑊 = (621.62 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠) (31.9335 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2)
𝑊 = 19,850 𝑙𝑏𝑓(𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑓𝑡 1𝑚
In N 𝑊 = (9070 𝑘𝑔) (31.9335 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2) (3.281 𝑓𝑡) = 88,277 𝑁 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)

2. A cylindrical drum (2-ft diameter, 3-ft height) is filled with a fluid whose density is 40 lb/ft3.
Determine a) the total volume of the fluid, b) the total mass in pounds and slugs and c) its specific
volume, d) it's a specific weight where g=31.9 fps2 and e) Specify which of the following properties
are extensive and which intensive.
Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
a) total volume of fluid 𝑉 = 4 𝐷 2 𝐿 = 4 (2 𝑓𝑡)2 (3 𝑓𝑡) = 9.425 𝑓𝑡 3
b) total mass in pounds and slugs
In pounds,
𝑙𝑏
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = (40 ) (9.425 𝑓𝑡 3 ) = 377 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑓𝑡 3
In slugs,
m 377 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑚= = = 11.72 = 11.72 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝑘 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚. 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑙𝑏𝑓. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
c) specific volume
1 1
𝑣= = = 0.025 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑙𝑏
𝜌 40 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
d) specific Weight
𝑓𝑡
𝑚𝑔 (11.72 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠)(31.90 𝑠 2 )
𝛾= = = 39.7 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 9.425 𝑓𝑡 3

e) total volume (extensive), total mass (extensive), specific volume (intensive),specific

weight(intensive)

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Activity 4:

Answer the following problems below. Determine what is being asked for in the following
problems. Write your answers on the blanks provided.

1. A system has a mass of 30 lb. What total force is necessary to accelerate it 15 fps2 :
a) if it is moving on a horizontal frictionless plane; b) if it is moving vertically upward
at the point where local gravity is g=31.5 fps2 ?

2. What is the mass in kg and weight in Newtons (g= 9.65 m/s2) of a) a 4000-lbm
automobile b) a 235-lbm fullback? Find the mass in grams and the weight in dynes of
c) 77 grains of moisture, and d) 12 oz of salt.

3. If a pump discharges 75 gallon per minute of water whose a specific weight is 61.5
lb/ft3 (g=31.95 fps2) find the mass flow rate in lb/min, and b) the total time required
to fill a vertical cylindrical tank 10 ft in diameter and 10 ft height.

4. It is estimated that the mass of the earth is 5.98 x 1024; its mean a radius is 6.38 x
106 m. Find its density in gm/cm3 and lbm/ft3. Compare this value to the density of
water (62.4 lbm/ft3).

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 1.6 Temperature and Temperature Scales

Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or “coldness,” it is

not easy to give an exact definition for it. Based on our physiological sensations, we express the
level of temperature qualitatively with words like freezing cold, cold, warm, hot, and red-hot.
It is a common experience that a cup of hot coffee left on the table eventually cools off
and a cold drink eventually warms up. That is, when a body is brought into contact with another
body that is at a different temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher temperature to
the one at lower temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature. At that point, the
heat transfer stops, and the two bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium. The
equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

➢ states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
➢ By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are
in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

The zeroth law was first formulated and labeled by R. H. Fowler in 1931. It was named the zeroth
law since it should have preceded the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.

All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling
points of water, which are also called the ice point and the steam point, respectively.

The temperature scales used today:

➢ Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were originally assigned the values of 0 and 100°C,
respectively.
➢ The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212°F.

In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is independent of the

properties of any substance or substances. Such a temperature scale is called a Thermodynamic
Temperature Scale, which is developed later in conjunction with the second law of thermodynamics.

The thermodynamic temperature scale :

➢ in the SI is the Kelvin scale, which is designated by K (not °K; the degree symbol was officially
dropped from kelvin in 1967). The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, or
0 K.
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by:
T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15
➢ in the English system is the Rankine scale, The temperature unit on this scale is the rankine,
which is designated by R.
The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by:

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 T(R) = T(oF) + 459.67

The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by:

T(R)= 1.8T(K)

T(oF)= 1.8T(oC) + 32

Also, ∆T(K) = ∆T (oC)

∆T (R) = ∆T (oF)

Example: Convert the following a) 122℉ to ℃ and to K, b) 40 ℃ to ℉ and to 0R, c) 942 0R to ℃ and to
K,and d) 373 K to ℉ and to 0R,

a) 122℉ to ℃ and to K,
5
to ℃ = 9 (122 − 32) = 50 ℃
to K = 50 + 273.15 = 323.15 𝐾

b) 40 ℃ to ℉ and to 0R,
9
to ℉ = 5 (40) + 32 = 104 ℉
to 0R =104 + 459.67 = 563.67 0R

c) 942 0R to ℃ and to K,
= 942 − 459.67 = 482.33 ℉
5
to ℃ = 9 (482.33 − 32) = 250.18 ℃
to K = 250.18 + 273.15 = 523.33 𝐾

d) 373 K to ℉ and to 0R,

= 373 − 273.15 = 99.85℃
9
to ℉ = (99.85) + 32 = 211.73 ℉
5
to 0R =211.73 + 459.67 = 671.4 0R

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 1.7 Pressure and Pressure Measuring Devices

Pressure
➢ defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Since pressure is defined as force
per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa).
That is, 1 Pa= 1 N/m2
Atmospheric Pressure,𝑷atm
➢ The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg or 29.92 inHg at 32℉, or
14.696 psia, or 1 atm. 1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 atm =101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
Absolute Pressure,𝑷abs
➢ The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure,𝑃 abs and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage Pressure, 𝑷gage
➢ Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere
and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure, 𝑃gage.
Vacuum Pressure, 𝑷vac
➢ The gage pressure can be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric pressure are
sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.

Figure NO.9 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures.

Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related to each other by:
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 =𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 =𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

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 Pressure in a static fluid increases linearly with depth. For a given fluid, the vertical distance
∆z is sometimes used as a measure of pressure, and it is called the pressure head.
The pressure at a certain depth h below the free surface becomes:
𝑃=𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡 or 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝛒𝐠𝐡

Figure no.10 Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the free surface.

Pascal’s law

➢ A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction is that
the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
➢ Pascal also knew that the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the surface area.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

The following are the pressure measuring devices:

1. Barometer
➢ Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer.𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Figure no.11 Basic Barometer

The unit mmHg is also called the torr in honor of Torricelli. Therefore, 1 atm=760 torr and
1 torr =133.3 Pa.

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2. Manometer
➢ A device where a fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences. It is commonly
used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
➢ A manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
➢ Heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated.

Figure no.12 Simple U-tube Manometer

Inclined Manometers

➢ a slanted or inclined tube in order to increase the resolution (precision) when reading the
fluid height.

Figure no.13 Inclined Manometers

3. Bourdon tube
➢ Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure measurement device, named after
the French engineer and inventor Eugene Bourdon (1808–1884), which consists of a bent,
coiled, or twisted hollow Metal tube whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator
needle.

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 Figure no.14 Bourdon tube

When the tube is open to the atmosphere, the tube is undeflected, and the needle
on the dial at this state is calibrated to read zero (gage pressure).
When the fluid inside the tube is pressurized, the tube stretches and moves the
needle in proportion to the applied pressure.

4. Pressure Transducers
➢ Modern pressure sensors that use various techniques to convert the pressure effect to an
electrical effect such as a change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance
➢ Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts. They can measure pressures from less than a
millionth of 1 atm to several thousands of atm.

•Gage pressure transducers use the atmospheric pressure as a reference by venting the back side
of the pressure-sensing diaphragm to the atmosphere, and they give a zero-signal output at
atmospheric pressure regardless of altitude.
•Absolute pressure transducers are calibrated to have a zero-signal output at full vacuum.

Figure no. 15 Absolute pressure transducers

•Differential pressure transducers measure the pressure difference between two locations directly
instead of using two pressure transducers and taking their difference

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 Figure no. 16 Differential pressure transducers
•Strain-gage pressure transducers work by having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers open
to the pressure inputs. As the diaphragm stretches in response to a change in pressure
difference across it, the strain gage stretches and a Wheatstone bridge circuit amplifies the
output. A capacitance transducer works similarly, but capacitance change is measured instead
of resistance change as the diaphragm stretches.

Figure no. 17 Strain-gage pressure transducers

•Piezoelectric transducers, also called solid-state pressure transducers, work on the principle that
an electric potential is generated in a crystalline substance when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure. This phenomenon, first discovered by brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880, is
called the piezoelectric (or press-electric) effect. Piezoelectric pressure transducers have a much
faster frequency response compared to diaphragm units and are very suitable for high-pressure
applications, but they are generally not as sensitive as diaphragm-type transducers, especially
at low pressures.

5. Deadweight Tester
➢ used primarily for calibration and can measure extremely high pressures.
➢ a deadweight tester measures pressure directly through application of a weight that provides
a force per unit area—the fundamental definition of pressure

Figure no. 5. Deadweight Tester

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Trivia…

• Atmospheric pressure P atm changes from 101.325 kPa at sea level to 89.88, 79.50, 54.05, 26.5,
and 5.53 kPa at altitudes of 1000, 2000, 5000,10,000, and 20,000 meters

• Cooking takes longer at high altitudes since water boils at a lower temperature at lower atmospheric
pressures.

• Nose bleeding is a common experience at high altitudes since the difference between the blood
pressure and the atmospheric pressure is larger in this case, and the delicate walls of veins in the
nose are often unable to withstand this extra stress.

• For a given temperature, the density of air is lower at high altitudes, and thus a given volume
contains less air and less oxygen. So it is no surprise that we tire more easily and experience
breathing problems at high altitudes. To compensate for this effect, people living at higher altitudes
develop more efficient lungs.

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 Since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal
direction within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the
pressure at point 1, 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟏 .

The differential fluid column of height h is in static

equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere. Then the pressure at
point 2 is determined directly from 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉, where 𝜌 is
the density of the manometer fluid in the tube.

• Some manometers involve multiple immiscible fluids of different

densities stacked on top of each other. Such systems can be
analyzed easily by remembering that:

(1) the pressure change across a fluid column of height h is

∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ ,

(2) pressure increases downward in a given fluid and

decreases upward (i.e., Pbottom > Ptop),

(3) two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid

at rest are at the same pressure. (Pascal’s law,)

𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏 + 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝟑 𝒈𝒉𝟑 = 𝑷𝟏

The working fluid can be either a gas or a liquid whose

density is ρ1.

The density of the manometer fluid is ρ2, and the

differential fluid height is h.

The two fluids must be immiscible, and ρ2 must be

greater than ρ1.

A relation for the pressure difference P1 - P2 can be

obtained by starting at point 1 with P1, moving along the tube by
adding or subtracting the ρgh terms until we reach point 2, and
setting the result equal to P2:

𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝟏 𝒈(𝒂 + 𝒉) − 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉 − 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒂 = 𝑷𝟐

𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = (𝝆𝟏 − 𝝆𝟐 )𝒈𝒉

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Examples:

1. The absolute pressure in water at a depth of 9 m is read to be 185 kPa. Determine ( a) the local
atmospheric pressure, and (b) the absolute pressure at a depth of 5 m in a liquid whose specific
gravity is 0.85 at the same location.

P atm

h
P abs

Solution:

a) Density of Water, 𝜌ℎ20 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Pabsolute=P= 185 kPa
𝑃=𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡 or 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝛒𝐠𝐡
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 =𝑃 − 𝛒𝐠𝐡
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
=185 𝑘𝑃𝑎 − (1000 ) (9.81 ) (9 m ) ( 𝑁 ) = 96.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚3 𝑠2 1000 2
𝑚

b) The absolute pressure at a depth of 5 m in the other liquid is

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆𝐺 𝑥 𝜌ℎ20 = 0.85 𝑥 1000 3 = 850 3
𝑚 𝑚

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃=𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡 = 96.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + (850 𝑚3) (9.81 𝑠 2 ) (9 m) ( 𝑁 ) = 171.8 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1000 2
𝑚

Note that at a given depth, the pressure in the lighter fluid is lower, as expected.

2. A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 35 kPa at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 92 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

Solution:

The absolute pressure in the chamber is determined from 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 =𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 =𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 92 𝑘𝑃𝑎 − 35 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 57 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)

3. A mercury manometer (𝜌 =13,600 kg/m3) is connected to an air duct to measure the pressure
inside. The difference in the manometer levels is 15 mm, and the atmospheric pressure is 100
kPa. (a) Judging from Figure, determine if the pressure in the duct is above or below the
atmospheric pressure. (b) Determine the absolute pressure in the duct.

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Solution:

a) The pressure in the duct is above atmospheric pressure since the fluid column on the duct side is
at a lower level.
b) The absolute pressure in the duct is determined from 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 =𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 =𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡
kg 𝑚 1𝑁 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 100 kPa + (13,600 ) (9.81 2 ) (0.015 𝑚) ( 𝑚) ( ) = 102 𝑘𝑃𝑎
m3 𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔 2 𝑁
𝑠 1000 2
𝑚
4. The pressure in a natural gas pipeline is measured by the manometer shown in Figure with one of
the arms open to the atmosphere where the local atmospheric pressure is 14.2 psia. Determine
the absolute pressure in the pipeline.

Assumptions:

1. All the liquids are incompressible.

2. The effect of air column on pressure is negligible.

3. The pressure throughout the natural gas (including the

tube) is uniform since its density is low.

Solution:

Starting with the pressure at point 1 in the natural gas pipeline, and moving along the tube by
adding (as we go down) or subtracting (as we go up) the 𝜌gh terms until we reach the free surface of oil
where the oil tube is exposed to the atmosphere, and setting the result equal to Patm gives:

𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝐻𝑔 − 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝐻20 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝐻𝑔 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝐻20 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ; 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔ℎ𝐻𝑔 + 𝜌𝐻20 𝑔ℎ𝐻20 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 𝑆𝐺 𝑥 𝜌𝐻20 = 13.6 𝑥 62.4 𝑓𝑡 3
= 848.64 𝑓𝑡 3
; 𝜌𝐻20 = 62.4 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑓𝑡
𝑃1 = [(848.64 3
) (32.174 2 ) (6 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )
𝑓𝑡 𝑠 12 𝑖𝑛
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 1 𝑓𝑡 2
+ (62.4 ) (32.174 2 ) (27 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )] [ ][ ] + 14.2 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑠 12 𝑖𝑛 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 144 𝑖𝑛2
𝑠2

𝑃1 = 3.92 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 + 14.2 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 = 18.12 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 (𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)

Note that jumping horizontally from one tube to the next and realizing that pressure remains the
same in the same fluid simplifies the analysis greatly. Also, it can be shown that the 15-in high air column
with a density of 0.075 lbm/ft3 corresponds to a pressure difference of 0.00065 psi. Therefore, its effect on
the pressure difference between the two pipes is negligible.

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Activity 5:

Answer the following problems below. Determine what is being asked for in the following problems.
Write your answers on the blanks provided

1. Calculate the absolute pressure, P1, of the manometer shown in Figure in kPa. The local
atmospheric pressure is 758 mmHg.

2. Consider a U-tube whose arms are open to the atmosphere. Now water is poured into the U-tube
from one arm, and light oil (𝜌 = 790 kg/m3) from the other. One arm contains 70-cm-high water,
while the other arm contains both fluids with an oil-to-water height ratio of 4. Determine the
height of each fluid in that arm.

3. A manometer containing oil (𝜌 =850 kg/m3) is attached to a tank filled with air. If the oil-level
difference between the two columns is 80 cm and the atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa, determine
the absolute pressure of the air in the tank.

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CHAPTER TEST:

Answer the following problems below. Determine what is being asked for in the following problems.

1. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g=32.088 fps2 and that its variation is
-0.003 fps2/1000 ft ascent. Find the height in miles above this point for which a) the gravity
acceleration becomes g=30.504fps2, b) the weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. c) what is
the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?

2. A beer barrel has a mass of 20lbm and a volume of 5 gallons. Beer’s density is 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Determine the total mass and weight of the barrel when it is filled with beer.

3. A gasoline line is connected to a pressure gage through a double-U manometer, as shown in Figure.
If the reading of the pressure gage is 370 kPa, determine the gage pressure of the gasoline line.

4. Consider the system shown in Figure. If a change of 0.7 kPa in the pressure of air causes the
brine–mercury interface in the right column to drop by 5 mm in the brine level in the right column
while the pressure in the brine pipe remains constant, determine the ratio of A2/A1.

5. The basic barometer can be used to measure the height of a building. If the barometric readings
at the top and at the bottom of a building are 675 and 695 mmHg, respectively, determine the
height of the building. Take the densities of air and mercury to be 1.18 kg/m3 and 13,600 kg/m3,
respectively.

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REFERENCES:

American Society for Testing and Materials. Standards for Metric Practice. ASTM E 380-79, January 1980.

A. Bejan. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006.

Cengel and Boles. (2014). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition. McGraw-Hill.

J. A. Schooley. Thermometry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1986.

Potter, Merle C. and Somerton, Craig W. (2014). Thermodynamics for Engineers. Third Edition.
McGraw-Hill.

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