H a n d a n d Wr i s t I n j u r i e s i n

the Pediatric Athlete

a,b,c,d, a
Dan A. Zlotolow, MD *, Scott H. Kozin, MD

KEYWORDS
 Gymnast wrist  Scaphoid fracture  Galeazzi fracture  Salter-Harris fracture
 Wrist fracture  Distal radius fracture

KEY POINTS
 Children are increasingly susceptible to adult-type injuries as their sports participation
intensifies.
 Intra-articular fractures are unlikely to remodel to within acceptable parameters, and
should merit an anatomic or nearly anatomic reduction with stable fixation whenever
possible.
 Avoid crossing the physes with anything other than a smooth pin, and avoid multiple
passes with the pin.
 Intraphyseal fractures warrant an anatomic reduction within 7 days whenever possible.

INTRODUCTION

Gone are the days when children were allowed free play to develop their motor skills at
their own pace. Today, children are being encouraged or even pushed to pursue
sports at higher and higher levels at younger and younger ages. As a result, adult-
type injuries have become the norm in the pediatric population. One example is
scaphoid fractures, which a few decades ago were rare and mostly limited to the distal
pole, but are now being seen more frequently and in the same configurations as adult
injuries.1
The increasing rate of adult-type injuries are in addition to the pediatric-specific in-
juries more commonly seen, such as physeal injuries and ligamentous avulsions. Chil-
dren are not just small adults. The growth plate serves as a stress riser in the distal
radius and ulna, resulting in injuries that can impact overall growth, joint alignment,
and/or differential ulnar/radial length. Ligamentous injuries in children usually present

a
The Sidney Kimmel Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University, Shriners Hospital for
Children Philadelphia, 3551 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA; b Shriners Hos-
pital for Children Greenville, Greenville, SC, USA; c The Hospital for Special Surgery, New York,
NY, USA; d The Philadelphia Hand to Shoulder Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
* Corresponding author. The Sidney Kimmel Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University,
Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia, 3551 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140.
E-mail address: [email protected]

Clin Sports Med 39 (2020) 457–479

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2020.01.001 sportsmed.theclinics.com
0278-5919/20/ª 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
458 Zlotolow & Kozin

as avulsion injuries rather than midsubstance tears. Special attention should be given
to understanding the soft tissue attachments of any bony fleck seen on radiographs. In
very young children with incompletely ossified epiphyses and carpal bones, avulsions
may be purely cartilaginous, making radiographic diagnosis without an MRI or ultra-
sound impossible. Radiographs weeks to years later may reveal the true extent of
the injury as the cartilaginous avulsion ossifies.
There is a bias among orthopedic surgeons to undertreat fractures in children, with
the common refrain that “it will just remodel.” There is an almost magical belief in the
power of a child to erase any evidence of traumatic insult. However, joint dislocations
and subluxations do not remodel. Ligamentous injuries likewise do not remodel. It is
precisely those ligamentous and soft tissue attachments that may help to guide bony
remodeling, and their loss can lead to worsening deformity as the child grows. Galeazzi
fractures have been seen that worsen, rather than improve over time because the distal
radius becomes untethered from and grows independent of the distal ulna (Fig. 1).
Remodeling occurs by two methods: periosteal remodeling and physeal, or Hueter-
Volkmann, remodeling (Fig. 2). Periosteal remodeling allows straightening of the bone
by laying down bone in the gap created by elevated periosteum, while removing bone
where the bone no longer sees compressive load. This occurs in response to Wolff’s
law. Periosteal remodeling does nothing to change where the joint is in space; howev-
er. Hueter-Volkmann remodeling occurs at the physis because of the enhanced
growth of a partially offloaded physis and the restricted growth of a partially over-
loaded physis. Ligamentous/tendinous tethering and joint motion work in concert to
steer the joint back to where it was in space relative to the native axis of the bone.
Lack of motion or, in the case of the wrist, disruption of the triangular fibrocartilage
complex (TFCC) can minimize remodeling.
This review examines the most common problematic hand and wrist injuries in pe-
diatric athletes. Special emphasis is placed not on just returning children to their sport
quickly, but also on the long-term effects of their injuries and treatment on the long-
term life goals of the child.

FINGER AND THUMB INJURIES

Finger and thumb fractures, sprains, and dislocations most commonly occur in ball
sports, but is seen in nearly all contact and noncontact sports. Finger proximal

Fig. 1. Galeazzi fracture malunion. A child with a Galeazzi fracture malunion presented
with worsening deformity and DRUJ instability. Three-dimensional computer modeling
demonstrated the deformity (A) and allowed for surgical planning of the osteotomy (B).
(Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 459

Fig. 2. Periosteal versus Hueter-Volkmann remodeling. Periosteal remodeling, whereby the

intact periosteum fills in the gap between the periosteum and the cortical bone while the
side with torn periosteum loses bone (A), occurs more quickly than Hueter-Volkmann re-
modeling, where the offloaded physeal cartilage grows faster than the compressed physeal
cartilage (B). Periosteal remodeling is independent of joint motion, whereas Hueter-
Volkmann remodeling requires joint motion and therefore has a greater impact in the direc-
tion of joint motion. (Courtesy of Dan A. Zlotolow.)

interphalangeal (PIP) joint sprains are perhaps the most common, often from a direct
blow with another athlete, the ground, or a ball. The long finger is the most exposed
and therefore the most likely to be injured. Examination of the PIP joints is fairly
straightforward: (1) radiographs should always be obtained with any PIP joint injury
before physical examination because fractures and sprains can look identical clini-
cally, (2) the collateral ligaments and the volar plate should be tested gently for compe-
tence, and (3) the integrity of the central slip should be assessed with an Elson test.2 If
there is no fracture and the ligaments and tendons are intact, we buddy tape or strap
the injured to its adjacent digit and begin early motion with no period of immobilization
to prevent contractures. Ligament injuries require immobilization for up to 4 weeks.
Central slip avulsions require at least 6 weeks of immobilization in PIP joint extension
with the distal interphalangeal joint free. We use low-temperature plastic to quickly
manufacture the splint in the office without the need for a therapist (Fig. 3).
Sprains of the distal interphalangeal joint are examined and treated in like manner,
with the exception that the terminal tendon replaces the central slip. Acute mallet
fractures and deformities without a fracture are treated equally. Late-presenting mallet
deformities are also commonly well-managed with just immobilization. Late-
presenting fractures require a takedown of the malunion site and pinning if the defor-
mity is not tolerated.
The most common type II phalangeal neck fractures (Fig. 4) are most easily treated
using the Strauch technique (Fig. 5) (https://youtu.be/2ADhL2AOYMU). In their series
of four patients, all regained near full painless motion.3 We attempt an osteoclasis4 for
late injuries up to 2 weeks old or if they remain tender and painful (Fig. 6). Older injuries
are effectively healed and are mobilized after 4 weeks from injury. There is evidence
that malunions remodel if more than 2 years of growth remain. All eight patients in
one study regained full motion after 1 year.5 Although the sagittal deformities
completely remodeled in all patients, coronal deformities showed less remodeling
potential, correcting only 7 on average.
460 Zlotolow & Kozin

Fig. 3. Finger splinting. Finger splints are easily manufactured in the office using low-
temperature thermoplastic material. (Courtesy of Steven J. Thompson and Dan A. Zlotolow.)

Intercondylar fractures are nearly always unstable and require fixation. Open treat-
ment is risky because of the high risk of avascular necrosis of the condyles. Closed
reduction and pinning is therefore recommended. A towel clamp or pointed reduction
forceps is applied above the midaxial line to effect a reduction while minimizing neuro-
vascular injury risk. Fingertrap traction also is helpful. There should be a minimum of

Fig. 4. Classification of phalangeal neck fractures. Type I fractures are nondisplaced. Type II
fractures are displaced with some remaining cortical contact. Type III fractures are displaced
with no cortical contact. (From Karl JW, White NJ, Strauch RJ. Percutaneous reduction and
fixation of displaced phalangeal neck fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop.
2012;32(2):156-161; with permission.)
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 461

Fig. 5. Strauch pinning technique for phalangeal neck fractures. Engage the single K-wire
on the reduced phalangeal head with the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint maximally flexed
(A). Drive the K-wire across the fracture and out skin through a flexed PIP joint (B). The
reduction is adjusted at this time (C) before extending the DIP and directing the wire distally
(D, E). (From Karl JW, White NJ, Strauch RJ. Percutaneous reduction and fixation of displaced
phalangeal neck fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2012;32(2):156-161; with
permission.)

Fig. 6. Displaced phalangeal neck nascent malunion. Displaced phalangeal neck fractures
that have begun to heal (A) are treated with osteoclasis (B) and pinning (C). (Courtesy of
Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)
462 Zlotolow & Kozin

two Kirschner (K)-wires in each fragment to maintain reduction. Intercondylar frag-

ment rotation is difficult to correct but we are willing to accept slight intercondylar mal-
rotation provided that there is no overall malrotation of the digit and that the middle
phalanx articulation is supported by the condyles and will not collapse into either varus
or valgus.
Fracture of the base of the proximal phalanx, including extraoctave fractures of the
small finger, is managed with closed reduction and splinting, but there is a risk of loss
of reduction that is difficult to monitor with radiographs in the splint/cast. We therefore
treat all complete fractures at the base of the proximal phalanx with closed reduction
and pinning.
Diaphyseal fractures in the hand often present with minimal angulation,
displacement, or rotational deformity. More angular deformity is tolerated in chil-
dren younger than 8 years of age, with up to 30 in the fingers and 45 in the
hand in the coronal plane. In older children, 20 is acceptable in the fingers and
30 in the hand. Sagittal plane deformities of more than 5 to 10 are unlikely to
remodel. Shortening of up to 5 mm is also acceptable at any age. Rotational de-
formities are not well tolerated and do not remodel.6–8 Phalangeal and metacarpal
shaft fractures outside of acceptable parameters are best treated with closed
reduction and pinning whenever possible. However, we always consent for open
reduction and internal fixation, because reduction by closed means is not possible
in all fractures. Care needs to be taken not to dissect through the perichondral ring
or to otherwise damage or cross the physis. We use interfragmentary screws for
long oblique or spiral fractures and small plates for transverse or short oblique
fractures (Fig. 7). Metacarpal neck fractures, including boxer’s fractures, are
treated using the same criteria as adults, because these commonly occur near
skeletal maturity. We prefer a single pin through the head and the physis and
down the shaft (Fig. 8).
An often missed injury is the Seymour fracture, a physeal fracture of the distal pha-
lanx (Fig. 9). Given that the nail plate and bed are the only barriers to the distal phalanx,
any displacement of the nail plate that accompanies displacement or angulation of the
distal fragment results in an open fracture. The nail bed and nail plate fragments can
become interposed, leading to difficulty with reduction. Emergent irrigation and
debridement is required as for any other open fracture. The nail bed needs to be
tucked back under the eponychial fold. Pinning is optional, depending on stability after
debridement. Delays in treatment risk malunion with permanent nail plate deformity,
osteomyelitis, and in severe cases amputation. Subacute treatment includes nail plate
removal, extrication of debris within the fracture, open reduction, wound culture fol-
lowed by antibiotics, and stabilization of the fracture.
Thumb metacarpophalangeal joint injuries in a child usually manifest as avulsions of
the ligament insertion onto the epiphysis of the proximal phalanx (Fig. 10). These are
most commonly seen in skiers and football players. Any displacement of more than a
few millimeters or rotation of the fragment can lead to long-term instability of the joint.
The fragment tends to be larger than what is visible on radiographs and can make up a
sizable percentage of the articular surface. We therefore opt for open reduction and
fixation of the bony fragment in most cases. The approach is equivalent to the
approach in adults for a metacarpophalangeal collateral ligament injury.9 Branches
of the radial sensory nerve always cross the field and can lead to a painful neuroma
if overly retracted or cut. The fragment is reduced and fixed either with a K-wire, a
small transepiphyseal screw (that does not cross the physis), or a suture anchor in
the epiphysis. Depending on fixation, 4 to 6 weeks of postoperative immobilization
is suggested.
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 463

Fig. 7. Interfragmentary screw fixation. Long oblique and spiral diaphyseal fractures are un-
stable injuries usually treated with interfragmentary screw fixation. (Courtesy of Shriners
Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)

SCAPHOID FRACTURES

The scaphoid is not fully ossified until approximately 15 years of age. It is the fifth car-
pal bone to begin to ossify, at between 4 and 6 years of age. The ossification center is
distal, and ossification is retrograde following the blood supply. Fractures of the waist
and proximal pole are therefore unlikely, and even less likely to be detected, before
464 Zlotolow & Kozin

Fig. 8. Metacarpal neck fracture. Metacarpal neck fractures are stabilized with a sin-
gle pin across the physis as long as there is no rotational deformity. (A–C) Posteroan-
terior, oblique, and lateral radiographs, respectively, of the pin configuration. (From
Cassel S, Shah AS. Metacarpal Fractures. In Scott H. Kozin, Joshua Abzug, Dan A.
Zlotolow, Editors. The Pediatric Upper Extremity. Springer, 2014. p. 982-1003; with
permission.)

8 years of age. The so-called “bipartite” scaphoid (Fig. 11) has been previously
described, and is a normal anatomic variant (Dormans).10 The true atraumatic bipartite
scaphoid is likely to be bilateral. A unilateral bipartite scaphoid may be the result of a
cartilaginous fracture that went on to a nonunion, but this remains controversial.
Regardless of congenital or traumatic cause, the bipartite scaphoid may not be a
benign finding. Degenerative changes analogous to a scaphoid nonunion advanced
collapse have been reported.11

Fig. 9. Seymour fracture. The Seymour fracture is an often missed open fracture of the distal
phalanx best seen on lateral radiographs (A). Clinical appearance can be underwhelming
and contributes to the underdiagnosis (B). (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children
Philadelphia.)
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 465

Fig. 10. Thumb metacarpophalangeal ligament avulsion. Thumb metacarpophalangeal lig-

ament avulsion injuries are more common than ligament ruptures in children. (A) The frac-
ture is usually a Salter-Harris IV injury with intra-articular involvement seen best on
posteroanterior radiographs. (B) Treatment of displaced fractures is anatomic reduction
and fixation. In this case, the physis was nearly closed, so screws traversing the physis
were chosen for better fixation. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)

Scaphoid fractures are still uncommon in children, making up 0.34% of pediatric

fractures, but are the most common carpal fracture.12 Up until the turn of the century,
most pediatric scaphoid fractures occurred at the distal pole. The benign location of
scaphoid fractures historically has created a prevailing sense among orthopedic sur-
geons that all scaphoid fractures in children will heal if provided a course of immobi-
lization.13,14 More recent studies have shown not only that fracture patterns have

Fig. 11. Bipartite scaphoid. (A) Anteroposterior radiographs show bilateral bipartite scaph-
oids. (B) This is confirmed on sagittal computed tomography image. (Courtesy of Shriners
Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)
466 Zlotolow & Kozin

changed to mirror adult injuries, but that nonunion rates approach those of adults
depending on status of the growth plates and the location of the fracture.1,15–17 In chil-
dren with open physes, 68% of scaphoid fractures occurred at the waist and 17% of
fractures occurred at the proximal pole. Acute nondisplaced waist fractures treated in
a cast had a nonunion rate of 8%.1
Management of scaphoid fractures is therefore similar in children as in adults, with
some notable exceptions. Acute, nondisplaced fractures are treated with either cast
immobilization or percutaneous screw fixation. There are no convincing data in chil-
dren to indicate whether a long- or a short-arm cast is optimal, or whether thumb
immobilization is required. Because of the low risk of motion loss in a child or adoles-
cent, we tend to favor a thumb spica long-arm cast for the first 6 weeks and short-arm
cast thereafter.
Percutaneous screw fixation is achieved through either a volar or a dorsal approach,
provided that the scaphoid is fully ossified. If the proximal pole is cartilaginous with
incomplete ossification on the radiograph, we prefer to place a retrograde volar screw
(Fig. 12).18 Care should be taken not to displace the fracture when placing a percuta-
neous screw. The screw lengths are also shorter than for adults for obvious reasons
but particularly short if the scaphoid is incompletely ossified.
Displaced fractures have a high risk of nonunion, particularly if they are across the
proximal pole.1 We treat all displaced fractures with open reduction and screw fixa-
tion. Using traction, the proximal pole of the scaphoid is brought distalward, obviating
division and repair of the radioscapholunate ligament (Fig. 13H). Preservations of

Fig. 12. Nondisplaced scaphoid fracture. Nondisplaced scaphoid fractures in children are
treated with immobilization, or if the needs or wishes of the child and family require it, percu-
taneous screw fixation. Lateral (A) and posteroanterior (B) radiographs demonstrate a retro-
grade screw placed via an anterior approach because of incomplete ossification of the
proximal pole in this 13-year-old boy. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 467

Fig. 13. Scaphoid fracture nonunion. Posteroanterior (A) and lateral radiographs (B) and
coronal (C) and sagittal MRIs (D) confirmed a nonunion with a humpback deformity. The pa-
tient underwent open reduction and internal fixation using traction through the thumb us-
ing a fingertrap and a traction table (E). The superficial volar branch of the radial artery (F)
was placed into the nonunion site and covered with cancellous bone graft from the distal
radial metaphysis (G) with care not to injure the physis. A cortical fragment from the volar
distal radius was then used to contain the bone graft and lend structural support to the
volar scaphoid during screw compression (H). Six weeks later, the nonunion has healed on
posteroanterior (I) and lateral radiographs (J). (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children
Philadelphia.)

carpal ligaments in children may be more important than in adults, because disrup-
tions may change the kinematics and growth patterns of the wrist. We also routinely
use a vascular pedicle from the superficial volar branch of the radial artery to inset
into the fracture site.19–21 This artery is otherwise sacrificed routinely during the
approach.
468 Zlotolow & Kozin

Nonunions typically develop humpback deformities just as in adults (Fig. 13). We

therefore favor a volar approach that allows correction of the deformity (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v5C43O3m6UzNM). Dorsal vascularized bone grafts that
are used for adults are not an option in children, because the graft harvest site is
too close or may cross the physis.22 The volar vascularized bone graft described by
Mathoulin and Haerle23 is also not appropriate for children, because this removes
the volar artery to the physis along the watershed line (Fig. 14). We therefore use
the same vascular pedicle described previously from the superficial volar branch of
the radial artery in cases of nonunion. The only published series on the vascularized
pedicle technique is of four cases with a 75% union rate for nonunions with humpback
deformity. The one nonunion was in a patient with a severely comminuted fracture and
questionable compliance. The vascularity of the proximal pole was not defined.20

DISTAL RADIUS FRACTURES

Distal radius fractures are among the most common sports injuries and the most com-
mon fractures in children,24,25 with an increasing incidence over the past 40 years.26,27
The distal radial epiphysis does not begin to ossify until at least 6 months of age, oc-
casionally with a secondary ossification center at the radial styloid. The distal ulnar
epiphysis does not begin to ossify until at least 6 years of age. Growth from the distal
radius and ulna contributes to approximately 80% of the length of the forearm. The
distal ulnar physis closes typically 6 months ahead of the distal radius, at 16 years
of age in girls and 17 years of age in boys.28
Although most are treated with closed reduction and immobilization, some under-
treated injuries can result in lifelong deformity and disability. It is important to recog-
nize and mitigate the sequelae of the “bad actors” of the pediatric wrist, while not
overtreating fractures that will remodel. Angulation in the plane of motion of the wrist
can remodel at an average rate of 10 per year of growth remaining.29
True buckle, or torus, fractures with minimal angulation are treated in a splint or a
cast for 3 weeks.30 A true buckle fracture has anterior and posterior cortices intact,
with a slight buckling on one cortex and a nearly imperceptible plastic deformation
of the other side. Salter-Harris II fractures can look like buckle fractures if nondis-
placed, but there is usually a fracture line to the physis or a slight misalignment of
the epiphysis and the metaphysis. These occult Salter-Harris II fractures can displace,

Fig. 14. Volar vascularized bone graft. Intraoperative photograph showing the volar vascular-
ized bone graft described by Mathoulin and Haerle.23 Note that the pedicle is the volar blood
supply to the physis and the bone is adjacent to the physis, and therefore cannot be used in
skeletally immature children. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 469

so a well-molded plaster short-arm cast and close observation with weekly radio-
graphs is recommended.
More displaced Salter-Harris type II fractures generally require a reduction. The best
scenario is a timely closed reduction and either plaster sugar-tong splint or long-arm
cast on the day of injury. However, because many emergency departments are not
able to provide this service, patients typically present with still displaced fractures in
a tightly bandaged poorly made splint31 many days after injury. Initial evaluation in-
cludes orthogonal radiographs before splint removal to evaluate for any further
displacement. If the splint is adequate, retain the splint. If not, the splint has to be
changed. Before splint removal, we prefer to place the child in linear traction via the
thumb only with the elbow bent 90 and 5 lb of weight on the brachium, which is par-
allel to the floor (Fig. 15).18,32 Traction reduces the risk of further fracture displacement
and minimizes the number of assistants required for the splint change.
If the Salter-Harris II fracture is less than 7 days old, we take the child to the oper-
ating room for a closed reduction and casting (Fig. 16). Fractures older than 7 days old
are best left unreduced. It is better to have a deformity than a physeal arrest. Large
Thurston-Holland fragments render fractures unstable and usually require percuta-
neous pinning for stability. Fractures with smaller metaphyseal fragments are usually

Fig. 15. Traction for distal radius fracture. Both a cast or splint change and a closed reduc-
tion are most easily achieved using elbow flexion and traction across only the thumb to
neutralize the primary deforming force of the brachioradialis. (Courtesy of Steven J. Thomp-
son and Dan A. Zlotolow.)
470 Zlotolow & Kozin

Fig. 16. Salter-Harris II fracture with small Thurston-Holland fragment. Posteroanterior (A)
and lateral (B) radiographs demonstrate a displaced Salter-Harris II fracture of the distal
radius with a small Thurston-Holland fragment. These injuries typically are treated with a
closed reduction and casting in a well-molded plaster long-arm cast (C, D). Note that the
plaster has no visible onion-skinning (layering) and that the mold is deep and in the appro-
priate location. The padding is minimal and the cast index is less than 0.7. Posteroanterior
(E) and lateral (F) radiographs 4 weeks later confirmed union and the patient was nontender
at the fracture site. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)

stable and rarely require fixation. However, every fracture must be assessed individ-
ually for stability. Long-arm, well-molded plaster casts are preferred if no fixation is
used because there is no opportunity for rereduction. Follow-up is 1 week later with
radiographs. If there is any redisplacement, the incidence of physeal arrest is too great
to attempt a rereduction in most cases. Salter-Harris III and IV fractures are intra-
articular and require a reduction even at the risk of physeal arrest. Type III fractures
develop a bar if not anatomically reduced. Type IV fractures also have a high risk of
growth arrest, regardless of reduction. Physeal injuries of the distal radius carry a
5% risk of growth arrest. By contrast, ulnar physeal injuries carry a 50% risk.
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 471

Extra-articular, extraphyseal fractures in the metaphysis are unlikely to go on to phys-

eal arrest, but associated ligamentous and/or distal ulnar fractures can lead to long-
term instability. It is difficult to define an acceptable reduction, because so many factors
play a role, including the risk of loss of reduction. A quarter of all complete metaphyseal
fractures in children redisplace after closed reduction and immobilization. The risk is
greater if initial angulation was greater than 30 in the sagittal plane or the fracture
was more than 50% displaced.33–35 Associated ulnar fractures increase the risk of
redisplacement. We therefore attempt a closed reduction and cast/splint in children
younger than 10 years of age regardless of initial angulation if there is no ulnar fracture
and there is minimal displacement, so long as the fracture does not have a long oblique
orientation. Given that these long oblique shear fractures are inherently unstable, we
rigidly fix any displaced fracture that has a shear component (Fig. 17). Transverse meta-
physeal fractures are stable once reduced and merit at least an attempt at closed man-
agement. Risk factors for redisplacement of metaphyseal fractures include greater than
50% initial translation and poor cast technique. We recommend minimal padding, plas-
ter sugar-tong splint or below the elbow cast with a good mold, and a cast index of less
than 0.7.18,32 Despite evidence of the success of short-arm cast, we do not hesitate to
place a long-arm cast if rotational stability is in question. In children younger than 5, a
long-arm cast with the elbow at 90 is usually required to keep the cast on.
If there is evidence of distal radioulnar ligamentous injury, such as initial or persistent
distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) subluxation on radiographs, a large ulnar styloid fracture
fragment, or intraoperative instability of the DRUJ, we advocate for rigid fixation and
anatomic reduction. Although most metaphyseal fractures are not true Galeazzi in-
juries,36 a high index of suspicion should be maintained.
Follow-up for metaphyseal fractures treated with closed reduction without fixation
should be reimaged weekly to assess reduction. Rereduction in the operating room
is recommended if angulation exceeds 20 of dorsal tilt or 10 loss of inclination in chil-
dren with more than 2 years of growth remaining. Less angulation is tolerated in older
children and adolescents.

GYMNAST WRIST

Humans are the only primate to walk on their hands, and we only do it regularly as gym-
nasts. Our closest relatives, the other great apes, walk on their forelimbs but weight bear
either across their middle phalanges or proximal phalanges, with the wrist in neutral.
They rarely place all of their weight on a single forelimb. High-level gymnasts are ex-
pected not only to repeatedly walk on their hands, but also to bear loads at multiples
of body weight on a daily basis, and to do so on the palm of the hand with the wrist in
terminal extension. This highly nonphysiologic loading pattern causes concentration
of supraphysiologic load across the wrist. Because this type of weight bearing begins
at a young age in girls, and particularly because puberty is delayed in this demographic,
the physis of the distal radius responds with hypertrophy, edema, and eventually arrest.
Wrist pain in a gymnast, particularly a young girl, should merit at least radiographs of
the wrist regardless of the examination (Fig. 18). Contralateral comparison film may be
necessary. Any widening of the physis on radiograph requires cessation of gymnastics
training and splinting or, if severe, immobilization in a cast until the pain resolves. The
athlete may return to gymnastics once the radiographs normalize, the patient is pain
free, and there is no tenderness about the distal radius. The timing can vary greatly but
6 weeks is minimal.
Longstanding or severe physiolysis can lead to complete or, more commonly, par-
tial physeal arrest (Figs. 19 and 20). This is difficult to manage in the young girl who still
472 Zlotolow & Kozin

Fig. 17. Salter-Harris II fracture with large oblique Thurston-Holland fragment. Posteroante-
rior (A) and lateral (B) radiographs demonstrate a displaced Salter-Harris II fracture of the
distal radius with a large oblique Thurston-Holland fragment. These fractures are inherently
unstable and require buttress plating. Posteroanterior (C) and lateral (D) radiographs
6 weeks later confirmed union and the patient was nontender at the fracture site. (Courtesy
of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)

has many years of growth remaining. Girls generally reach skeletal maturity 2 years af-
ter menarche, usually around 14 years of age. Boys reach skeletal maturity around
16 years of age. Partial growth arrest of the distal radius results in angular deformity
and ulnar-positive variance. Bowing of the radial and ulnar diaphyses is common.
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 473

Fig. 18. Gymnast wrist. Posteroanterior (A) and lateral (B) radiographs of a gymnast with
wrist pain demonstrate widening of the physis with irregular calcification. There is already
evidence of radial growth arrest or slowing with a markedly ulnar-positive variance. (Cour-
tesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)

Fig. 19. Chronic gymnast wrist with physeal arrest. A 16-year-old female gymnast presented
with wrist deformity (A) and pain. Radiographs showed a “Madelung” type deformity with
growth arrest of the distal radial volar/ulnar corner in a skeletally mature wrist (B, C). MRI
did not show a Vicker ligament (D, E), consistent with her history. The absence of a Vicker
ligament confirms that her etiology was not a true Madelung case, but rather most likely
the result of repetitive trauma or acute injury to the physis. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital
for Children Philadelphia.)
474 Zlotolow & Kozin

Fig. 20. (A and B) demonstrate sequential coronal T1 weighted MRI images of the wrist in a
patient with Leri-Weill Dischondrosteosis with a clearly visible Vicker’s ligament (white
arrows).

An MRI is used to determine the percentage of remaining open physis. Anything less
than 70% of the physis remaining is highly unlikely to respond to bar resection. In our
experience, even if 85% of the physis remains open by MRI criteria, physeal bar resec-
tion may recover a year or 2 of growth but eventually the physis closes prematurely
and radioulnar growth discrepancy remains.
Complete growth arrest leads to early ulnar-positive variance and late ulnar bowing
if the ulna is allowed to grow while the radius does not. Caught early, before positive
ulnar variance is noted, and in a child near skeletal maturity, an ulnar epiphyseodesis is
performed to prevent length discrepancy between the radius and the ulna. We prefer
to use a small 2-cm transverse incision over the subcutaneous border of the ulna at the
level of the physis. Blunt dissection is performed down to the capsule to identify and
protect the dorsal sensory branch of the ulnar nerve. A guidewire is inserted into the
physis under fluoroscopic guidance and a 1.7-mm cannulated drill is used to enter
the physis (Fig. 21). We then use a small curette to remove the physeal cartilage
without further violating the perichondral ring. Fixation is not required. A short arm
splint is used for 2 weeks and the child is allowed to return to sports when bridging
bone is seen, typically 6 weeks after surgery.
Young patients with an arrest that is picked up before radioulnar length discrepancy
becomes symptomatic are difficult to manage. The patient and the family need to
decide between two treatment strategies: serial radial lengthenings with an external
fixator to keep up with a growing ulna performed approximately every 2 years until
skeletal maturity; or ulnar epiphyseodesis with the acceptance of a potentially very
short forearm at skeletal maturity. This is a difficult decision, and both likely result in
cessation of athletic competition.
Radial lengthening is more complicated to perform than ulnar lengthening, because
there is no subcutaneous border of the radius. We prefer a Thompson approach37 to
the midshaft radius with use of a monoplanar external fixator (Fig. 22). In two case
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 475

Fig. 21. Epiphyseodesis. Epiphyseodesis is performed with a 1.7-mm cannulated drill

(shown) and expanded with a curette. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children
Philadelphia.)

series of four patients each, radial lengthening showed good clinical outcomes with a
postoperative DASH score of 11 and 2 and a Mayo wrist score of 76 and 89. Length of
distraction was not reported in either study. A circular frame was used in both studies
for a total of 106 and 150 days, respectively.38,39
Patients who present late or are underdiagnosed initially that already have a radio-
ulnar length discrepancy require either a radial lengthening, ulnar shortening, or both.
Again the decision to either undergo potentially multiple complex operations or to live
with a short forearm is highly personal and has long-term consequences. Correction of
any ulnar deformity, when present, is performed at the same time with a closing wedge
osteotomy. For complex deformities, computed tomography–based computer
modeling may be used.
If the radiographs are normal, a period of 2 weeks of immobilization in a cast or splint
is recommended. If the pain is resolved, gradual return to full activities is permitted. If

Fig. 22. Radial lengthening. The radius is lengthened with a monoplanar external fixator via
the Thompson approach. (Courtesy of Shriners Hospital for Children Philadelphia.)
476 Zlotolow & Kozin

the pain continues, MRI examination of the wrist may be necessary. Early changes in
the physis are seen on MRI, and occult fractures, stress fractures, carpal avascular ne-
crosis, ulnocarpal impaction, TFCC tears, and redundancy of the dorsal capsule with
synovitis.

ULNAR-SIDED WRIST PAIN

Injuries to the TFCC of the wrist can occur in the setting of distal radial and/or ulnar
fractures or in isolation.40,41 It is rare for a child to develop longstanding DRUJ insta-
bility from a TFCC tear unless there is an associated malunion of the forearm or wrist.
However, true DRUJ instability can lead to pain, disability, and potentially erosion of
the growing sigmoid notch. Children may also develop ulnocarpal impaction as a
result of radial growth arrest/delay or ulnar overgrowth.
Traumatic TFCC injuries with associated wrist fractures are uncommon36 and typi-
cally heal if the bony anatomy is restored. Patients may present many years after injury
with a history of fracture but no evidence of a fracture or a malunion on radiographs. In
these patients, remodeling will have erased the evidence, but the sequelae of the frac-
ture malunion remain with malalignment of the DRUJ. In these patients, it is important
to assess the injury and immediate postunion films to determine the degree of mal-
union. MRI has been shown to have a 50% false-negative rate for diagnosing a
TFCC tear in children.41 In our practice, we perform diagnostic/therapeutic steroid in-
jections after rest, splinting, and activity modification have failed to relieve symptoms.
If the pain improves immediately after injection of the TFCC but recurs, an arthroscopy
is recommended.
Oftentimes, restoration of the bony alignment without a soft-tissue procedure is suf-
ficient to stabilize the DRUJ.42 Patients with persistent DRUJ instability after a fracture
are difficult to treat because even a small degree of malunion, which is often the case
with any initially displaced or angulated pediatric wrist fracture not treated with an
open reduction, can lead to symptomatic DRUJ microinstability and subtle but clini-
cally significant sigmoid notch dysplasia. We agree with Miller and colleagues42 that
restoration of bony anatomy is necessary and sufficient for stabilization of the DRUJ
in children. Likewise, in the absence of a fracture, DRUJ instability is rare. There
may be a history of trauma leading to an undiagnosed fracture or plastic deformation.
The typical adult DRUJ ligament reconstruction using volar and dorsal constructs
passed through the ulnar head43 is not possible in children because it crosses the
distal ulnar physis. We have performed delayed TFCC repairs in adolescents after
restoration of bony anatomy did not stabilize the DRUJ, with good results in a limited
number of patients. Most tears are Palmer 1B. Both open and arthroscopic repair
techniques have yielded good results. Out of 22 open repairs, all but 7 had complete
resolution of their symptoms.41 In another series of 12 patients with an average of
16 years, patients treated with an arthroscopically assisted TFCC repair for Palmer
1B tears decreased their pain score from an average of 7 to less than 2, and had a
DASH of 16 at final follow-up.44 If a repair is not possible or fails, delayed ligament
reconstruction after skeletal maturity is recommended.
Another common source of ulnar-sided wrist pain in athletes is ulnocarpal or sty-
locarpal impaction. Most commonly there is a history of a wrist injury that likely
resulted in either a growth disruption of the distal radius or an overgrowth of the
ulna. However, idiopathic ulnar-positive variance can occur. Contralateral true post-
eroanterior radiographs in idiopathic cases often reveal identical variance on the
symptomatic and nonsymptomatic sides, raising the question of why only one side
hurts.
 Hand and Wrist Injuries in the Pediatric Athlete 477

Regardless of cause, restoring a neutral to slightly negative variance has worked well
in our practice. There is currently no study on ulnar shortening in children, with or
without arthroscopic TFCC debridement, so the optimal treatment remains controver-
sial. In skeletally immature patients who are near the end of growth but have open
physes at the radius and the ulna, epiphyseodesis of the ulna is considered, allowing
the radius to grow longer than the ulna. Regular interval follow-ups with radiographs
every 4 to 6 months are required to ensure that the radius does not overgrow. If the
radius reaches the desired length but growth remains, an epiphyseodesis is performed.
In younger patients, it may be best to wait and observe with interval follow-up again
every 4 to 6 months. The variance may self-correct with time, and ulnar epiphyseod-
esis in a young child’s arm leads to a tethering of the distal radius and potentially risks
excessive radial inclination and bowing, and radial head dislocation. The forearm also
remains short. If the radius and ulna seem to be growing at the same rate and the vari-
ance has not changed after a year, consider ulnar shortening without an epiphyseod-
esis and continue to observe the patient until skeletal maturity. Overcorrection of the
variance by a few millimeters may be performed, because the osteotomy may lead to
acceleration of growth at the ulna.

SUMMARY

The hand and wrist of the pediatric athlete merit special considerations for the remod-
eling potential of fractures and the long-term sequelae of malunited fractures, growth
arrest, early joint degeneration, and ligamentous instability. The success of remodel-
ing cannot be overestimated, because not all fractures remodel. However, the
tolerance for malunion must be higher in children with growth remaining than in adults,
unless joint instability, articular incongruity, or physeal malalignment are at risk.

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