Class 12-Biology (CHSE &CBSE) Chapter-01: Reproduction in Organisms

Class 12- Biology (CHSE &CBSE)
CHAPTER-01
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Reproduction: The ability to reproduce is one of the fundamental characteristics of living

organisms. Reproduction is a biological process of formation of new off springs from the pre-existing
organism. Reproduction becomes a vital process without which species cannot survive for long. It
ensures continuity of species generation after generations as older individuals undergo senescence
and ultimately they die.
Life span - The period from birth to the natural death of an organism represents its life span. Life span of
organisms varies from few days (Butterfly-1to 2 weeks) to thousands of years (Banyan tree).
Modes of Reproduction:
Based on whether there is one or two organisms taking part in the process of reproduction
• ASEXUAL REPRODUCTON: When the offspring is produced by single parents with or without
the involvement of gamete formation, the reproduction is called Asexual reproduction.
o Usually followed by organisms with relatively simpler organizations.

o Off springs produced by single parent.
o With/without involvement of gamete formation.
o Off springs produced are genetically and morphologically similar to each other and to the parent,
i.e. they are clones.
o In Protista and Monera, the parent cells divides into two to give rise to new individuals. Thus, in
these organisms cell division is the mode of reproduction itself.
• Binary fission- In this method of asexual reproduction, a cell divides into two halves
and rapidly grows into an adult. Ex- amoeba, paramecium.
• Multiple fission- In some organisms parent nucleus undergoes parent nucleus

undergoes repeated divisions followed by division into many daughter cells.
By Kajol Rath Page 1

• Budding- small buds are produced that remain attached initially with parents
and get separated on maturation. Ex. Yeast.
Fungi and simple plants like algae reproduce through special reproductive structures
like zoospores (motile structure), conidia (penicillium), buds (hydra) and gemmules
(sponges).
• Vegetative propagation: Regeneration or formation of a new individual from any

vegetative part of plant body. In plants, vegetative reproduction occurs by vegetative
propagules like runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset and bulb.
• Fragmentation: It is the breaking of an organism into two or more parts, each of

which grows to form a new individual. Also known as regeneration.
• Sporulation: It is the formation of small unicellular bodies called spores. Spores

are formed by encystation.

✓ Asexual reproduction is the most common method of reproduction in organisms having
simpler body like in algae and fungi but during unfavorable condition they shift to sexual
reproduction.
• SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: When two parents (opposite sex)participates in reproduction

process and also involves the fusion of male and female gametes, it is called sexual
reproduction. Gametes are haploid and provide the link between two generations. The
gametes fuse to form the fertilized egg or zygote, which eventually develops into a new
organism.
By making possible the genetic recombination of inherited traits of two parents,

sexual reproduction gives rise to off springs that may be able to survive better that parents.
DIFFERENT PHASES IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

• Juvenile phase - The period between birth and sexual maturity is called juvenile phase. In plants it
is known as vegetative phase.The end of juvenile/vegetative phase marks the beginning of the
reproductive phase.
• Reproductive phase- Some plants show flowering in particular season and some other flowers in
all seasons. Some other plants like bamboo species flowers once in life time (after 50-100 years),
Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelakuranji) flowers once in 12 years. The female placental animals
exhibit cyclic change in activities ovaries and accessary glands as well as hormone during the
reproductive phase.
Menstrual cycle
• It occurs in monkeys, apes and human beings.
• Cycle consists of 3 phases-menstrual, proliferative and secretory phase.
• Blood flows in the last few days of the cycle. The broken endometrium is passed out during
menstruation.
• Female does not permit copulation during menstrual phase of the cycle.
Oestrous cycle
• It occurs in non-primates like cow, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger etc.
• It consists of a short period of oestrous or heat. it is 12-24 hours in cow followed by an oestrous
or passive period.
• Blood does not flow in this cycle. The broken endometrium is reabsorbed.
• Female permits copulation only during oestrous period.

• Both in plants and animals, hormones are responsible for the transition between different phases of
life cycle. Interaction between hormones and environmental factors regulate the reproductive
processes.
• Senescent phase –
• It is the end of reproductive phase.
• Old age ultimately leads to death
EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION : PRE-FERTILISATION, FERTILISATION,

POST-FERTILISATION
Pre-fertilisation- All the events prior to fusion of gametes are included in it. It includes gametogenesis
and gametetransfer.
a. Gametogenesis is the process of formation of male and female gametes. Gametes are haploid cells
which may be similar or dissimilar in structure. In algae, both gametes are similar in structure called
homogametes (isogametes). In higher organism that reproduces sexually, two morphologically
distinct gametes are formed called heterogametes, male gametes are called antherozoid or sperm
and female gametes are called ovum or egg.
• In fungi and plants, homothallic and monoecious terms are used to denote the bisexual
condition and heterothallic and dioecious are used for unisexual condition. In flowering
plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate, i.e., bearing stamens, while the female is pistillate
or bearing pistils.
• In animals, species which possess both male and female reproductive organs in same individual
are called bisexual or hermaphrodites (earthworm, sponges, tapeworm etc.) and both having
either male or female reproductive organs are called unisexual (cockroach, human).
• Gametes are always haploid( having half set of chromosome ), although organisms may be
haploid and diploid. Diploid organisms form gametes by meiotic division. The organisms
belonging to algae, fungi, and bryophytes have haploid plant body and pteridophytes,
gymnosperms, angiosperms and most of animals are diploid ( having double set of
chromosome )
• In diploid organisms, gamete mother cell (meiocyte) undergoes meiosis in which one set of
chromosome is present in gametes.

b. Gamete Transfer – In majority of organisms, male gametes are motile and females
gametes are non-motile, except in fungi and algae in which both gametes are motile.
• In simple plants like algae, fungi, bryophytes and pteridophytes water is the medium
through which male and female gametes moves. The number of male gametes are much
more than number of female gametes as most of male gametes fail to reach the female
gametes.
• In higher plants pollen grains are carrier of male gametes and ovule has eggs. Pollen grains
must be transferred from anther to stigma to facilitate fertilisation. The transfer of pollen
grains from anther to stigma is called pollination. Pollination may be self (anther to
stigma of same flower) or cross (anther to stigma of different flower).
• Pollen grains germinate on stigma to produce pollen tube that delivers the male gametes
near the ovule.
c. Fertilisation – The fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization or syngamy.
• It results in the formation of diploid zygote.
• The process of development of new organisms without fertilisation of female gametes is called
parthenogenesis. For example honey bee, rotifers, and lizards.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Syngamy occurs outside the body of the organism Syngamy occurs inside the body of the
Large numbers of gametes are released in the organism Numbers of ova produced are less, but
surrounding medium. large numbers of male gametes are released and
Ex. Bony fishes and Amphibians. theytraveltowards the ovum.
Ex. Birds and Mammals.
d. Post Fertilisation Events- Events in the sexual reproduction after formation of zygote.
Zygote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species between organisms of one generation and
the next. Every sexually reproducing organism, including human beings begin life as a single cell–the
zygote.
• In the organisms, having external fertilisation, zygote is formed in external medium (water) and
those having internal fertilisation zygote is formed inside the body of female.
• In algae and fungi, zygote develops a thick wall resistant to desiccation and damage. This
germinates after a period of rest.

• In the organisms having haplontic life cycle, zygote divides to form haploid spores that
germinate to form haploid individual.
Embryogenesis – The process of development of embryo from the zygote. During this, zygote
undergoes mitotic division and cell differentiation. Cell division increase the number and cell
differentiation help in formation of new group of cells and organs.
Oviparous Viviparous
Development of zygote takes place outside the Development of zygote takes place inside
body of organisms and lay fertilized of the body of organisms and produces
unfertilized eggs. young ones.
Ex - Reptiles and birds. Ex- Human, dog, horse etc.
• In flowering plants, zygote is formed inside the ovule. After fertilisation, sepals, petals and
stamens of flower fall off. The zygote develops into embryo and ovules into seeds. The ovary
develops into fruits which develop a thick wall called pericarp, protective in function.
• After dispersal, seeds germinate under favorable condition to produce new plants.

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Class 12- Biology (CHSE &CBSE)

Reproduction: The ability to reproduce is one of the fundamental characteristics of living

o Usually followed by organisms with relatively simpler organizations.

• Multiple fission- In some organisms parent nucleus undergoes parent nucleus

By Kajol Rath Page 1

• Vegetative propagation: Regeneration or formation of a new individual from any

• Fragmentation: It is the breaking of an organism into two or more parts, each of

• Sporulation: It is the formation of small unicellular bodies called spores. Spores

By Kajol Rath Page 2

• SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: When two parents (opposite sex)participates in reproduction

By making possible the genetic recombination of inherited traits of two parents,

DIFFERENT PHASES IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

By Kajol Rath Page 3

EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION : PRE-FERTILISATION, FERTILISATION,

By Kajol Rath Page 4

• It results in the formation of diploid zygote.

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

By Kajol Rath Page 5

Ex - Reptiles and birds. Ex- Human, dog, horse etc.

By Kajol Rath Page 6

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