IT 101 Introduction to Computers and Computer

Applications

IT 101 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

AND COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

MODULE

GREAT ZIMBABWE

FACULTY OF COMMERCE

DEPARTMENT OF ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE

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DEFINE A COMPUTER
An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept, process & output
data/information for use by the operator.
 A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program, generates
results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and control units.
 A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous arithmetic
operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
Computer program:
 A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer follows in
processing data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem. See also software.
 A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a
computer in order to bring about a certain result.
STATE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
 Input unit
 Output unit
 Main memory
 Central processing unit [ALU & CU]

A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.

CPU Control unit-

issues commands to computer
elements & interpret stored
instructions

Arithmetic &
logic unit- performs
arithmetic & logic
Input Unit operations Output Unit
Data & Information after
instructions processing

Main Memory-
Holds data & instructions &
results of processing
-RAM -ROM

Backing/Auxiliary
Storage- supplements
the main storage.

The CPU consists of the ALU & CU

KEY
Data Instructions

Command Flow

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DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.

DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT?

PROCESSING DEVICE

The only processing device on a computer is The Central Processing unit known as the CPU.
It is the main part of the computer as all other devices are built around it. It can be referred to
as the heart or brain behind the computer.

Functions of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)

a) It interprets the instruction in the program according to the type and sequence of
processing operations that are to be performed on input data.
b) Performs the varied arithmetic and logic operations that are necessary to convert
input data into output information.
c) Stores intermediate results of data being processed on its registers.
d) Directs or controls output to all other devices (input, output, auxiliary storage units),
telling each what to do and when to do it.

CPU COMPONENTS

It consists of the control unit (CU) and Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). In most
computers the two components - CU and ALU units - are combined in a unit called the
microprocessor (CPU).

The Control Unit

The Control Unit manages input/output to and from the main memory and to and from
auxiliary storage units and output devices. It interprets instructions in their sequence, It
determines what is to be done to follow the instruction and, transmits to the appropriate
device directions specifying the work to be done. For example, it advises each input
device what data to transfer, when to transfer it, and when to send the data. It arranges
for data to move from the main memory to the ALU and spells out the calculating and
logic operations that are to be performed, and then arranges to send the processed
results to main storage or to an output device for printing or display.

The ALU
The Arithmetic Logical Unit has 2 functions i.e. to perform calculations and logic
operations at a fast speed (measured in nanoseconds, i.e. billionths of a second). It
consists of registers (special storage locations to hold the data to be processed), and an
accumulator to store intermediate results of operations. Logic operations compare values
for greater, smaller or equal.

CPU speed
The CPU speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz) being millions of instructions that can be
executed per second (MIPS). Each computer has specified, the processor speed.

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STORAGE DEVICES
These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as Auxiliary
storage devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:-

a) THE HARD DISK

A fixed device for storing information within the computer system unit. The disk is not
moveable and is also referred to as the C:\ drive. The amount of disk space a computer
has determines the power of a computer. It provides fast access known as Random
access and has high-speed storage.

b) FLOPPY DISKETTE
An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be deleted and rewritten
and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The disks are either
High density or double density disks because data is stored more densely/ compactly
than on regular density disks. Common size of disk is 3 1/2inches.

ADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES

1. They are cheaper than Hard disks and CD-ROMS
2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to
another
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes

DISADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES

1. They are prone to viruses
2. They are difficult to handle
3. They can easily be corrupted
4. They have a relatively short life span
5. They hold relatively small amounts of data
6. They are not always 100% reliable

CARE AND HANDLING OF A FLOPPY DISKETTE

1. Don’t put the diskette near any magnetic field.
2. Don’t put the diskette near any electronic motor.
3. Don’t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
4. Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
5. Don’t spill liquid onto the diskette.
6. Don’t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
7. Don’t bend or fold a diskette.
8. Don’t staple labels onto the diskette.
9. Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of a
ballpoint may leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your
fingerprints may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk .

c) CATRIDGE TAPE
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a plastic
tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar to
audiotapes. Access of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus slow.

d) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

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Beams of laser light are used to write on optical disks by magnetic means. After writing,
the disk can only be read from and not written to. Access to information is direct and
very fast.

e) WORM (Write Once, Read Many)

WORM Disks allow microcomputers with the proper drive known as a CD Rewriters (or a
burner) to record own data on a blank CD. Once the recording is done, the disk can only
be read from and cannot be rewritten.
Erasable optical disks are also available and are known as EPROM. The major advantage
of optical disks is their storage capacity. The information on one optical requires multiple
floppies.

f) DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)

A form of optical disks similar to CD ROMS but has much more storage
capacities of up to 3.9GB. They support audio and video as well as
data on the same disk.

g) ZIP DISKS
These are high capacity removable diskettes. They have gained favor for back-up
purposes. Some zip disks use magnetic technology and others use laser. They have a
capacity of about 100MB.

Storage devices differ in terms of capacity, cost and access methods. For any device to
be used there is a need for the device drive on the computer e.g. A floppy disk drive.

DISK CARE

1) Do not expose them to sun or a hot environment.

2) Keep them away from moisture or water.
3) Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors, magnetized
items etc..
4) Do not touch the actual tape.
5) Keep them away from dust.
6) Do not place heavy objects on them.
7) Write on a floppy disk label only with a felt-tip pen, or write before sticking the label
8) Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips and erasers on floppy disks

HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer
of hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.

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DEFINE HARDWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
 Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished
from the data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides
instructions for the hardware to accomplish tasks.
DEFINE SOFTWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
 Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer
programs and data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose.
 Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by
directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input
to another piece of software.

TYPE OF COMPUTERS/COMPUTER CATEGORIES

 Supercomputers
 Mainframes
 Minicomputers
 Microcomputers
Supercomputers
 Describes a category of extremely powerful computers specifically designed for high-
speed numeric computation.
 The computers can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
 High capacity computers capable of executing instructions faster than main frame &
are extremely expensive.
 The speed of executing these instructions generates extreme heat, and therefore the
computers require special cooling system to operate.
 Uses include weather forecasting, scientific and mathematical research, and design
of high-speed aircraft and space exploration.
Mainframes
 Are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and
usually have one or more central processors with faster instruction processing
speeds?
 They typically process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
 Mainframes have large primary storage capacities.
 Many mainframe models have the ability to service hundreds of users at once.
 Some commercial organizations require large amounts of data to be processed in the
list possible time.
 Mainframes allow one to perform such functions
 Uses of mainframes include: data warehousing, commercial airline ticketing &
reservations, government record keeping & financial servicing
 Application categories: Host computers, Database servers, and Transaction
processors.
Minicomputers
 Are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less
powerful than most mainframe computer systems.
 Serve in industrial process-control manufacturing plant computers and play a
major role in CAM.
 Also take the form of powerful technical workstations for CAD applications.
 Often used as front-end processors/computers to help mainframe computers control
data communications networks with large numbers of data entry terminals.
 Also used as powerful Network servers to help manage large interconnected LANs
that tie together many workstations
 Downsizing is a term that was commonly used in the early nineties when smaller
computers, capable of much of the functions of mainframes, began capturing the
computer market.

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 Minicomputers are suitable for mid-sized companies that require the computing
power of mainframes to be efficient and at the same time be cost effective.
 Users of mini-computers would be smaller banks & financial institutions,
supermarket chains and departmental stores.
 Application categories: Network servers, and Application systems
Microcomputers
 We refer to a microcomputer as a personal computer or PC.
 Microcomputers categorized by size include: Desktops, Laptops for example.
 Most microcomputers are single user computers.
 The late nineties have seen a huge influx of microcomputers whose sole aim was to
provide affordable computing power to the general public.
 They are now used as Network servers. The demand for microcomputers and the
changes in microchip technology have produced cheaper computers that are
affordable to students and the general public.
 Can support CAD.
 Users of microcomputers range from students, who use them for word processing,
to a salesperson. Who depend on the microcomputer for information?
 Application categories: PCs, Network servers.
 Network servers are powerful microcomputers that controls & coordinates
communication & resource sharing in LANs of interconnected PCs & other devices.

The main differences among the above computer types are in:
 Processing speed,
 Memory capacity
 Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the computer
 Usage.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.
b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health- Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design- desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home education
etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines (ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A PERSONAL COMPUTER

Shopping for a personal computer (PC) can be enjoyable, or it can be frustrating. Unfortunately,
some shoppers believe all personal computers are alike so their main objective is to find the
cheapest one. Doing so can be a mistake. The old saying "You get what you pay for" is true.
Many buyers have later discovered the computer they purchased lacked important components
and features. Avoid making this mistake. The following sections provide some useful guidelines to
help you in your search for the right PC.

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• Plan Before You Buy
Before spending your money, prepare a written list of your computing needs and
how and where you will be using your new system. Following is a list of questions
that will help you identify your needs.
1. How much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal computers range
from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more feature-rich PCs are
usually more expensive. Also, personal computers soon become obsolete. Within a
few years you may want or need one that is faster and more versatile.

2. Where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in your home or office, a
desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need to take it with you, you
should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer weighing 4 pounds or less.

3. Which applications will I run on my computer? Make a list of applications for which
you plan to use your PC. For example, will you use your PC to prepare letters and
reports? Analyze numeric and financial data? Prepare visual presentations? Access
the Internet? Listen to music? Create and work with graphics?

4. How long will I keep this computer? Try to estimate the length of time (years) you will
use your computer before buying the next one. If you expect use your PC for several
years or if you think you may later want to add new applications, consider one that is
expandable, so you can add new components, such as a modem, printer, or add-on
boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so you can connect these devices to
your PC.

5. Check out the manufacturers and seller’s reputations and warranties and become
familiar with various brands and models. Talk with friends, co-workers, classmates,
teachers, and others about their PCs. Ask about the performance of their PCs and
get recommendations from persons you trust. Eventually you may need to have your
PC serviced. Ideally, the vendor has a service department that can repair your PC. If
not, you may need to locate a third-party to provide this service.

6. PC architecture. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of the PC and

its system unit, and not all architectures are the same. For example, the architecture
of an Apple Macintosh differs from that of an IBM or compatible PC. Therefore,
software written for an Apple Macintosh PC may not run on an IBM or IBM-

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compatible PC. Although some users prefer a Macintosh PC, more software is
available for IBM and IBM-compatible PCs.

7. Microprocessor. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely important.

Processing speed, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), is probably the
first consideration. The higher the number of MHz or GHz, the faster the processor
will manipulate data. If speed is important, consider choosing a microprocessor with a
speed of 866 MHz or more. PCs containing microprocessors with speeds up to 1.5
GHz and higher are available.

8. Main memory. Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary storage of
programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application software
requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer software
versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now come with
64 megabytes (MB), 128 MB, or more of RAM. Make certain the PC has sufficient
RAM to run the software you will be using.

9. Secondary storage. What type(s) and amounts of secondary storage are you likely to
need? Typical computers come with a floppy disk drive and a hard disk drive already
installed. A standard floppy disk can store up to 1.44 MB of data, although other
types of floppy disks are available that provide greater storage capacity. A hard disk
drive contains one or more rigid storage platters and provides for the permanent
storage of considerably more data. However, the disk itself cannot be removed from
the drive. The storage capacity of a hard disk is an important consideration because
it is used to store all system and application software. Typical hard disk capacities
are 20, 40, or 60 GB and more. Be certain the PC you are considering has sufficient
secondary capacity for your needs.Other secondary storage devices and media are
available. CD-ROM drives provide high storage capacities. Most software publishers
store their programs on CD-ROM because of the high capacity and because CD-
ROMs operate faster than floppy disks. If you will use your PC to play movies, your
purchase should include a DVD (digital video disk) drive. If you will work with large
files, consider purchasing a computer that includes a CD-RW drive. A CD-RW disk is
a reusable high-capacity disk that allows you to store huge amounts of data and to
erase data no longer needed.

10. Ports. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines the
number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For example,

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you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer is equipped with
an appropriate port (slot). Be sure the PC contains the necessary slots for the add-on
boards and peripheral devices you will be using with your computer.

11. Input Devices. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although other
kinds of input devices are available. Most keyboards and mice operate similarly.
However, there are slight differences in how each "feels" to the user. Before buying a
PC, you may want to test the keyboard and mouse for comfort and ease of use.
Some sellers will allow you to exchange the keyboard or mouse that comes with the
computer for a different one.

12. Output Devices. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard copy form.
Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have to purchase a
hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.

13. Monitors. There are wide differences among PC monitors, with resolution being
perhaps the most important variable. Resolution refers to the clarity of the text and
images being displayed. Before making a purchase, carefully evaluate the monitor’s
resolution. Many vendors allow you to choose from monitors with varying resolutions.
A resolution of 1,024 by 1,024 is considered high-resolution, in which text and
images display exceptionally clearly. High-resolution monitors are typically more
expensive.Monitor size is another important consideration. Viewing areas range from
15 diagonal inches to 21 inches and higher. Larger monitors are usually more
expensive, but may be worth the extra cost. For example, an individual with weak
vision may prefer a larger monitor. If your desktop space is limited, consider
purchasing a flat-panel monitor, which occupies less space. Flat-panels are more
expensive than standard monitors, however.

14. Printers. Two popular types of printers are inkjet and laser, both of which are
versatile and capable of producing high-quality output in color. Examine a variety of
printers and models and check the price and output quality of each type and model.
Most inkjet printers are quiet, produce high-quality output, and are relatively
inexpensive, although the ink cartridges they use can be expensive. Print
resolution is an important factor to consider. Some offer impressive
resolution and can produce output of amazing color.
Laser printers are fast and can produce high-quality output in both black and
color tones. Color laser printers are more expensive than those using only

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black toner. The cost of color laser printers ranges from a few hundred to
thousands of dollars. Choose Software to Match Your Needs List

PRINTERS
What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers?
Impact Non impact
Makes noise when printing Quiet printers
Print head makes contact with the paper No contact creates an image without striking a
ribbon against the paper. Creates images on a
surface without contacting it.
Strike ribbon against the paper Use a laser beam which form an image onto paper
using toner
Slow printer Fast printers
Use ribbons or ink Use toner
Has too many moving parts hence unreliable Has fewer moving parts hence they are
reliable.
Impact printers are relatively inexpensive, and the Very expensive computers
cost of printing is also low because ink ribbons are
inexpensive.

Give two advantages of non-impact printers over impact printers.

 Have high print quality
 They are fast and do not make noise
 They are reliable because they have less moving parts
 See above [non impact section]
Give three examples of impact printers & three examples of non-impact printers.
Impact printers Non impact printers
Dot matrix Laser
Daisy wheel printers Inkjet
Line printers LED
Chain printers Thermal
Magnetic
Electrostatic
Xerographic

Printers are divided into two groups: impact and nonimpact. An impact printer works by banging a
head or needle against an ink ribbon to make a mark on the paper. This includes dot-matrix
printers, daisy-wheel printers, and line printers. In contrast, laser and ink-jet printers are
nonimpact printers. The distinction is important because impact printers tend to be considerably
noisier than nonimpact printers, but are useful for multipart forms such as invoices. The following
highlights some of the most commonly used printing methods.

Nonimpact Printers

Laser printer - A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum.
The light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then

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rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum.
Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure.
Advantages
-Monochrome or four color
-High-quality print
-Capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts
-Quiet operation
Disadvantages
-Color laser printers tend to be about five to ten times as expensive as
monochrome
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper

Ink-jet printer - A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper.
Magnetized plates in the ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet
printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers.
Advantages
-Inexpensive way to print full-color document
-Easily portable due to smaller mechanical parts than laser printers
-Quiet operation
Disadvantages
-Slow output
-Require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper

Thermal transfer printers - A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the image
or barcode is then transferred to labels or tags. This technology produces a higher quality, longer
lasting image on the tag or label.
Advantages
-1 to 2 years media shelf life
-Media is not heat sensitive
-Medium to high image quality
-Wide range of available types
-Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
-Special ribbons required
-Average operational cost
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
-Single-pass ribbons only

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Direct thermal printers - A type of printer that applies heat directly to specially treated
paper, labels or tags to form the image or barcode.
Advantages
-No ribbon required
-Low operational cost
Disadvantages
-Short media shelf life
-Very heat sensitive media
-Limited image quality
-Limited number of available types
-Not recommended for use in industrial, outdoor, or harsh environments
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
Impact Printers
Dot-matrix printer - A type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking
pins against an ink ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape.
Advantages
-Can print to multi-page forms-
-Moderately priced
-Multi-pass ribbons (saves money)
Disadvantages
-Noisy operation
-Low-quality output
-Slow print speed
-Multi-pass ribbons (decrease in quality with each pass)

Daisy wheel printers - Round disk found on older computer printers that extends a portion
of the wheel making contact with ink ribbon that makes contact with paper creating the character.
This procedure is repeated for each key pressed. Daisy Wheel printer - A printer that uses a
wheel with all the characters on it to produce output. The wheel spins to the desired character
and makes an imprint, then spins to go to the next character. It sounds like a little machine gun.
These printers generally aren't used much anymore due to the decreased cost of other printers
that can produce graphics as well as text. The one good thing about a daisy-wheel printer is that
the text is generally very crisp, but even that advantage is nullified now with laser printers that
can produce very crisp characters as well.
Advantages
-Best print quality of impact printers
Disadvantages
-Very slow
-Only one font can be used at a time because you must change out the Daisy

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Wheel to change fonts.
-Cannot print graphics

Chain and band printers - Uses characters on a band or chain that is moved into place
before striking the characters onto the paper.
Advantages
Very fast
Disadvantages
-Very loud
-Very expensive

You have been delegated the task of selecting a new printer from a range of different
options currently on the market. The machine has to serve a small network of
microcomputers in your office. Software used includes a word processing package,
database, spreadsheet, and presentation packages. Assuming that cost is not a major
constraint, list 10 features of the printers, which you would investigate in your
evaluation.

1. Print quality, for example the print from dot matrix printers varies with the
number of pins and even the best are inferior to laser printers.
2. Character formation, whether made from dots as in matrix printer, or full characters as with
daisywheel or laser printer
3. Multi-part, i.e. whether several copies can be printed at once, as with an impact printer.
4. Fonts or type style; early computer users were satisfied with any quality whatsoever, but the
advances into areas such as word processing and desk top publishing have stimulated a demand
for varying type faces or fonts within the same document
5. Letter quality, whether the quality is equivalent or superior to that of a good typewriter and so
acceptable for the word processing of mail. Some printers have a choice of two print modes, draft
quality and letter quality.
6. Speed, in terms of characters per second.
7. Graphics capabilities.
8. Flexibility, for example is it suitable for one task only, such as good letter quality but not
graphics, as with daisywheel printers, or good graphics but slow speed and indifferent letter
quality, as with some dot matrix printers.
9. Sheet feeding, in terms of single sheets, friction feed or sprocket feed.
10. Capital cost or what it costs to buy.
11. Running cost or what it costs in ribbons, print toner, special stationery & maintenance.
12. Compatibility with standard packages; many programs support a range of printers by generating
the correct control characters for fonts, features like italics and underline, and for graphics.
13. Robustness; some very cheap printers are ideal at home but would not last very long in an office.
14. Reputation of the manufacturer as a supplier of printers.

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NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.

1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire
easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not
exposed to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power
failures, which may be fatal.

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DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF COMPUTER PERSONNEL
 Computer support specialists provide technical assistance, support, and advice to customers and other
users. This occupational group includes technical support specialists and help-desk technicians. These
troubleshooters interpret problems and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They
answer telephone calls, analyze problems by using automated diagnostic programs, and resolve recurring
difficulties. Support specialists may work either within a company that uses computer systems or directly for a
computer hardware or software vendor. Increasingly, these specialists work for help-desk or support services
firms, for which they provide computer support to clients on a contract basis.
 Technical support specialists answer telephone calls from their organizations’ computer users and may run
automatic diagnostics programs to resolve problems. Working on monitors, keyboards, printers, and mice, they
install, modify, clean, and repair computer hardware and software. They also may write training manuals and
train computer users in how to use new computer hardware and software. In addition, technical support
specialists oversee the daily performance of their company’s computer systems and evaluate software
programs with regard to their usefulness.
 Help-desk technicians assist computer users with the inevitable hardware and software questions that are
not addressed in a product’s instruction manual. Help-desk technicians field telephone calls and e-mail
messages from customers who are seeking guidance on technical problems. In responding to these requests
for guidance, help-desk technicians must listen carefully to the customer, ask questions to diagnose the nature
of the problem, and then patiently walk the customer through the problem-solving steps.Help-desk technicians
deal directly with customer issues, and companies value them as a source of feedback on their products. These
technicians are consulted for information about what gives customers the most trouble, as well as other
customer concerns. Most computer support specialists start out at the help desk.
 Network administrators and computer systems administrators design, install, and support an
organization’s local-area network (LAN), wide-area network (WAN), network segment, Internet, or intranet
system. They provide day-to-day onsite administrative support for software users in a variety of work
environments, including professional offices, small businesses, government, and large corporations. They
maintain network hardware and software, analyze problems, and monitor the network to ensure its availability
to system users. These workers gather data to identify customer needs and then use the information to
identify, interpret, and evaluate system and network requirements. Administrators also may plan, coordinate,
and implement network security measures.
 Systems administrators are the information technology employees responsible for the efficient use of
networks by organizations. They ensure that the design of an organization’s computer site allows all of the
components, including computers, the network, and software, to fit together and work properly. Furthermore,
they monitor and adjust the performance of existing networks and continually survey the current computer site
to determine future network needs. Administrators also troubleshoot problems reported by users and by
automated network monitoring systems and make recommendations for enhancements in the implementation
of future servers and networks.
 In some organizations, computer security specialists may plan, coordinate, and implement the
organization’s information security. These workers may be called upon to educate users about computer
security, install security software, monitor the network for security breaches, respond to cyber attacks, and, in
some cases, gather data and evidence to be used in prosecuting cyber crime. The responsibilities of computer
security specialists has increased in recent years as there has been a large increase in the number of cyber
attacks on data and networks. This and other growing specialty occupations reflect an increasing emphasis on
client-server applications, the expansion of Internet and intranet applications, and the demand for more end-
user support.
 Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed instructions, called programs, that computers
must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also conceive, design, and test logical structures for
solving problems by computer. Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined
primarily by computer software engineers and systems analysts.After the design process is complete, it is the
job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can
follow. The programmer codes these instructions in a conventional programming language such as COBOL;
an artificial intelligence language such as Prolog; or one of the most advanced object-oriented languages, such
as Java, C++, or ACTOR. Different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the
program.
 Data preparation staff
Are those people responsible for the translation of data into machine readable form.
 Computer scientists work as theorists, researchers, or inventors. Their jobs are distinguished by the higher
level of theoretical expertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of
new technology. Those employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging from complexity theory to
hardware to programming-language design. Some work on multidisciplinary projects, such as developing and
advancing uses of virtual reality, extending human-computer interaction, or designing robots. Their
counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory; developing specialized languages or
information technologies; or designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or even computer
games.
 Data entry and information processing workers help ensure the smooth and efficient handling of
information. By keying in text, entering data into a computer, operating a variety of office machines, and

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performing other clerical duties, these workers help organizations keep up with the rapid changes that are
characteristic of today’s “Information Age.” In addition to the job titles discussed below—such as word
processors, typists, and data entry keyers—data entry and information processing workers are known by
various other titles, including electronic data processors, keypunch technicians, and transcribers.
 Data entry keyers usually input lists of items, numbers, or other data into computers or complete forms that
appear on a computer screen. They also may manipulate existing data, edit current information, or proofread
new entries into a database for accuracy. Some examples of data sources include customers’ personal
information, medical records, and membership lists. Usually, this information is used internally by a company
and may be reformatted before other departments or customers utilize it.
 DATA CONTROL is our customer services area for all agencies that utilize Information Technology's services
for reports of any kind. This section receives and distributes all incoming data for appropriate processing; they
set up batch reporting for all agencies and submit schedules for processing to Computer Operations. After
processing has occurred, they check and distribute reports to all customers. This area interacts with agency
customers and other Information Technology areas to resolve processing problems. This area maintains all tape
media including updating the tape inventory system and it also has responsibility for off site tape storage.
Updating the Information Technology web page using HTML and other software tools is done by Data
Control. Data Control is also responsible for all data preparation prior to centralized processing. Assisting
the paper peripheral area and reception area are also functions of this section.
 COMPUTER OPERATORS are responsible for the operation of all enterprise, Unix, NT, and Windows 2000
servers, Unix and personal computers that are utilized to service the County's customer base. This area
receives all hardware service calls, assists in terminal and communication equipment installation and
software/hardware trouble diagnosis. Processing of all batch production work as well as all paper peripheral
processing are also functions of Computer Operations.
 A position as a Network Manager, for example, managing a Trusts IT network infrastructure and providing
technical support and advice to the client organisations. This type of post would usually require the postholder
to be educated to degree level or equivalent standard and to have considerable experience of network
management and protocols including TCP/IP. Additional requirements might include experience in the
management of industry standard network operating systems such as Novell NetWare, UNIX and MS Windows
NT & 2000 server, together with skills in the use of database applications, such as Oracle, email server
applications such as MS Exchange 5.5 or 2000 and PC applications such as MS Office & XP.
DATA SECURITY /PROTECTION
 Data Security/Protection
 Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural
hazards, deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by
malicious or terrorist acts, illegal access to data by hackers [people who
break into the system] & accidental destruction of data by hardware or
software failure [operator error].
MEASURES TO ENSURE DATA SECURITY
1. Data Encryption/Decryption- Data is coded before transmission over a WAN & decrypted only if you have
the key & code to decrypt the data on the receiving end. The process of transforming a message in ordinary
language i.e. plain text to produce what is called cipher text which is then send along a communication
line/link. The receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the message.
a. Definitions of decryption on the Web:
 The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the process of converting cipher text
to plaintext. Decryption is the opposite of encryption.
 Definitions of encryption on the Web:
 Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order to prevent anyone except the
intended recipient from reading that data. There are many types of data encryption, and they are the basis of
network security. Common types include Data Encryption Standard and public-key encryption.
 Definitions of cipher text on the Web:
 Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information content (ie, its meaning) is no
longer intelligible or directly available.

2. Firewall- a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC or network through a
connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to and from the PC and comparing the data with a set of
user-defined security criteria. Any data that does not meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also process encrypted
data. They verify the validity of the user. User would require access to the firewall before they can transmit data. Latest
firewalls also have the ability to detect virus software in packets of data that is sent through the network. Firewalls
disallow data transmission if it detects strains of virus on the data being transmitted.

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3. Usernames & Passwords-Passwords restrict only authorized personnel/users to have access to
the data or computer rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is
deleted, the person with the password will be reported as the culprit through logging. Passwords
can be forgotten. Widely used by companies to protect their equipment & data
4. Authorized entry to computer installations-Most installations have card readers, voice
recognition systems or keypads on the doors that prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
5. Backing-up files on external disks periodically.
6. Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3 generations of backup.
7. Saving work frequently
8. Avoiding viruses.
9. Restricting access to the computer room. Access could be only through codes, voice recognition
etc.
10. Installing fire alarms.
11. Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
12. Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.
13. Having a security guard 24 hours a day.
Summary - Keeping data secure
Measures that can be taken to keep data safe include:
 Making regular back-ups of files. (Back up copies should be stored safely in fireproof safes or in another
building.)
 Protecting yourself against viruses by running anti-virus software.
 Using a system of passwords so that access to data is restricted.
 Safe storage of important files stored on removable disks - eg locked away in a fireproof and waterproof safe.
 Allowing only authorized staff into certain computer areas, eg by controlling entry to these areas by means of ID
cards or magnetic swipe cards.
 Always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them.
 Avoiding accidentally deletion of files by write-protecting disks.
 Using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no apparent sense

 BACK UP
 Copying or saving data to a different location. One can restore the backup copy if data is lost or
damaged.
 To create a copy of a disk’s contents on another location for safe keeping. Since hard drives are not
infallible, it is recommended that you backup its contents regularly.
DISASTER PLANNING
 Many companies have comprehensive emergency plans so that even after suffering a
severe:
 Bomb
 Fire damage
 Natural disaster, the company can be up and running within a day
or two.

 A disaster recovery service/programme provides for example

 Office space
 Computer facilities
 Phones
 Desks, at an emergency BACKUP site.

 A completely up to date copy of the company Database may be permanently

maintained at this site with all transactions being transmitted to this remote site
updating the database, copying etc.
 The data should be backed up/stored to one or more media to ensure recovery in
case of disaster.
 The back up procedures and media should be tested periodically to assess their
effectiveness.

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Definitions of disaster plan on the Web:

 The documented policies and procedures intended to either prevent damage, minimize
damage, or recover from damage to record materials.

Definitions of disaster recovery plan on the Web:

 The document that defines the resources, actions, tasks and data required to manage the
business recovery process in the event of a business interruption. The plan is designed
to assist in restoring the business process within the stated disaster recovery goals.
 Part of an overall contingency plan. The plan for a process whereby an enterprise would
restore any loss of data in the event of fire, vandalism, natural disaster, or system failure.
MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS
Key threats to data security
 Data can be lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard
disk.
 Data can become corrupt as a result of faulty disks or disk drives, or power failures.
 Data can be lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files.
 Data can be lost or become corrupted by computer viruses.
 Data can be hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered.
 Data can be destroyed by terrorist activities, war, bombs and fire.
 Data can be deleted or altered by unpleasant employees wishing to make money or seek
revenge on their employers.
Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact and
preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it. [15].
THREAT IMPACT CONTROL
Hardware failure  You are grounded  Have spares in the warehouse.
 You cannot access the system  Do regular servicing
 Data is incorrectly/ incompletely processed  Have a disaster plan
 Run hardware diagnostics frequently

Electrical faults  Loss of data  Have standby generators

 Disk crushes  Install UPS [uninterrupted power
 Damage to hardware supply]
 Install Surge suppressors/ protectors
Software failures  Operations are grounded  Buy software from reputable vendors.
 Do regular back ups
 Software diagnostics
Natural disasters/ physical threats  Absolute destruction  Relocate backups to other areas free
from disasters
Viruses  Deletion & corruption of files  Install a reliable anti-virus software
 Reformatting of documents  Never download unknown e-mail
 System may fail to work attachments
 Scan unknown diskettes
Hackers, Computer crime  Security is breached  Change passwords regularly
 Security is bypassed  Employ a security guard
 Destruction of files  Install a firewall
 Data is stolen  Prevent unauthorized access to
computer facilities.
War and Terrorist activity

Human error

Definitions of computer abuse on the Web:

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 The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability, confidentiality, or
integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes fraud, embezzlement, theft,
malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and misappropriation
Definitions of hacking on the Web:
 Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an
information system or network. Hacking means illegally accessing other people's
computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities on the
network or computer systems.
DATA INTEGRITY/RELIABILITY
 Refers to the correctness AND The accuracy of data after being transmitted or
processed
 Data in the computer system may become incorrect, corrupted or of poor quality
in many different ways & at any stage during data processing.

 Consequences of system failure:

 Loss of business due downtime
 Delays
 Air traffic control system could well have catastrophic results

COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
 Hacking i.e.
Hackers are users of computer systems that gain unauthorized access into a
computer system.
Cracking of ineffective security systems so as to gain unauthorized access to
commercially sensitive or confidential personal files
 Computer Fraud/Crime
 Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems,
especially with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make
unauthorized use of computer resources.
 E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another

TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD

a) Intellectual Crime – cracking into a computer system for the purpose of
transferring or obtaining funds is a typical e.g.
b) Destruction of property – destroying a computer property
c) Theft – Software piracy which is unauthorized copying of software. Hardware &
software being taken away without the knowledge/consent of its owners.
d) Fraud achieved by the manipulation of computer records.
e) * Spamming wherever outlawed completely or where regulations controlling it are violated.
f) * Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems.
g) * Unauthorized access to or modification of
o programs (see software cracking and hacking).
o data.
h) * Intellectual property theft, including software piracy.
i) * Industrial espionage by means of access to or theft of computer materials.
j) * Identity theft where this is accomplished by use of fraudulent computer transactions.
k) * Writing or spreading computer viruses or worms.
l) * Salami slicing is the practice of stealing money repeatedly in extremely small quantities.
m) * Denial-of-service attack, where company websites are flooded with
service requests and their website is overloaded and either slowed or
crashes completely.
n) * Making and digitally distributing child pornography

MEASURES TO COUNTER OR COMBAT COMPUTER CRIME [COMPUTER SECURITY]

 Careful vetting of employees

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 Separation of duties
 Use of passwords
 Security manager software-to monitor attempts to access the system
whether successful or not.
 Educating staff
 Prevention of unauthorized access to the computer operations room
 Data Encryption/Decryption

COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a

computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
 Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.
 Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
 Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth
DEFINITION2.
A virus is a computer program designed to enter your computer and tamper with your files
without your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the activated virus can
not only infect other programs and documents on your computer, it can duplicate and transmit
itself to other computers that are connected to yours, just like a physical virus can move from
one human host to another.

Viruses began in the late 1980s as personal computers and electronic bulletin boards became
more common. Back then, operating systems, word processing programs and other programs
were stored on floppy disks. Hidden viruses were programmed onto these disks; as the disks
were transferred from person to person, the virus spread.

WHO CREATES VIRUSES?

Where do viruses come from? Every virus is created by an author with a different motive—but
all virus builders feel their actions are justified. For some, a killer virus is the ultimate technical
challenge, like climbing a mountain. For others, creating viruses is a form of self-expression.
Some disgruntled employees, consumers or citizens turn to virus building as revenge for
perceived injustices. And though it’s a frightening thought, some viruses are built and aimed by
legitimate (but disreputable) businesses to weaken competitors. Other virus authors want to
make their mark in Internet history; these writers get a thrill out of seeing their virus cause
damage enough to attract news headlines both online and on the evening news.

What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

 Reduced memory or disk space
 Files are overwritten or damaged
 Hard drive may be erased
 Data is modified /corrupted.
 Change files & date stamp
 Drive lights blink without reason
 Longer times are experienced when loading programs
 Slower system operation.

Today’s viruses are far more potent than the beginner versions we saw several decades ago.

1) Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,

2) clicking on spam,
3) visiting corrupt websites and links online,

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4) Opening spreadsheets or even the original method—infected disks.
5) But the Internet is now the superhighway for virus transmission.

Some aggressive viruses—such as the Melissa virus—automatically duplicate copies

of itself to the first 50 people in your computer email address book. A frightening
prospect—opening an email from someone you trust to be greeted by a virus, and
that’s exactly what the author is counting on, your trust.

The damage caused by these viruses varies from minor delays in computer
function to complete destruction of your hard drive. For companies, the price is far
higher. A downed website can cost a company millions of dollars a day.

How does the virus infect your computer? Because floppy use is nearly extinct and
the majority of CDs that change hands cannot be altered, you will most likely bump
into a virus through online activity.

Some viruses attack your boot sector, the start up section of your hard drive. Other
viruses infect executable program files, activating each time the program is started.
The virus travels into the memory and further copies itself.

Macro-viruses are the most common type of computer virus. This type of virus
attacks data files containing macros. Macros are lists of commands or actions found
under key headings. The virus resembles a macro but when the file is opened, the
virus is activated.

Multi-partite viruses are a combination of the boot sector and file virus. These begin
in the boot sector and affect both your boot records and program files .

How computers are infected with Viruses?

 Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers. Floppy disks or
other media that users can exchange.
 Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the
Internet.
 Opening an E-mail attachment. Email attachments.
 Accepting unknown program installations from the internet
 Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
 Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated
software.
 Booting a PC from an infected medium.
 Executing an infected program.
 Opening an infected file.
 Shareware.

Characteristics of computer viruses

The demonstrated characteristics of computer viruses include several remarkable items, including size,
versatility, propagation, effectiveness, functionality, and persistence.

1) Size. The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been demonstrated to be surprisingly
small. This has facilitated the ability of these programs to attach themselves to other applications and escape notice
for long periods of time.

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2) Versatility. Computer viruses have appeared with the ability to generically attack a wide variety of
applications. Many do not even require information about the program they are infecting.

3) Propagation. Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this program is running, the virus is able
to spread to other programs and files accessible to the computer system. The ability to propagate is essential to a
virus program.

4) Effectiveness. Many of the computer viruses that have received widespread publicity have had far-
reaching and catastrophic effects on their victims. These have included total loss of data, programs, and even the
operating systems.

5) Functionality. A wide variety of functions has been demonstrated in virus programs. Some virus programs
merely spread themselves to applications without otherwise attacking data files, program functions, or operating
systems activities. Other virus programs are programmed to damage or delete files and systems. The effectiveness
of these programs is enhanced through the use of several phases of operation, in which the virus propagates
through a system or lies dormant until triggered by a specified event. This allows the virus program increased time
to spread before the victim system's user becomes aware of its presence.

6) Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data, programs, and even system
operation has been difficult and time consuming. In many cases, especially in networked operations, eradication of
viruses has been complicated by the ability of the virus program to repeatedly spread and reoccur through the
networked system from a single infected copy.

Attributes of computer viruses

o Auto replicating [self replicating].
o Attaches itself to a program or file
o It infects as it travels
o Reproduces itself
o Distribute itself
o Copies itself
o Duplicate copies of itself
o It spreads
o It is software
o It can destroy
o It hides

DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

o Cause damage to data
o Extract data from machines for spying or theft
o Slow machine performance
o Corrupt data
o Damage software, hardware and files
o Damage the computer by damaging programs
o Reformatting of the hard disk
o Deletion of files

Antivirus tools/packages/software
1) Dr Solomon’s Antiviral Package 7) Protector Plus 2000 for
2) Norton Antivirus Package Windows ver 7.2.H03
3) AVG Antivirus 8) Anti Trojan Elite ver 3.7.5
4) Microsoft Antiviral Package 9) Panda Antivirus platinum 7
5) McAfee VirusScan ver 7.06
6) F-PROT anti-virus package 10) AntiSpy ver 4.4.2

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11) avast! 4 Professional Edition 21) PC-cillin
ver 4.6.652 22) ESET Nod32
12) DrWeb® Anti-Virus, Home 23) CA Antivirus
Edition ver 4.30a 24) Norman Virus Control
13) Dr.Web Anti-Virus for 25) AntiVirusKit
Workstations ver 4.30.a 26) AVAST!
14) File Sharing Sentinel ver 1.0.1 27) Panda Titanium
15) Real Password Protector 2005 28) Windows OneCare
ver 2.0 29) ViRobot Expert
16) Code(Red) Hunter v1.5 ver 30) PCTools AntiVirus
v1.5 31) WinAntiVirus
17) Digital Patrol ver 5.00.12 32) CyberScrub AntiVirus
18) BitDefender 33) The Shield AntiVirus
19) Kaspersky
20) F-Secure Anti-Virus
SCANNER – examine every file on a specific disk drive, looking/searching for known virus
“signatures”. A “signature” is a string of software code that identifies a virus program.
Every virus has a unique signature

Anti-virus measures
The fight against computer viruses involves five kinds of counter-measure:

1) Preparation includes making backups of all software (including operating systems) and making a
contingency plan.
2) Prevention includes creating user awareness, implementing hygiene rules, using disk authorization
software, or providing isolated 'quarantine' PCs.
3) Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes) disinfect viruses.
4) Containment involves identifying and isolating the infected items.
5) Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or replacing corrupted
data.

Precautions/Safety guides against viruses

 Install a reliable antiviral package
 Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.
 Never download unknown files from the internet
 Boot the system from virus free disks
 Using write protect tabs on floppy disks
 Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy
diskettes should not be used

COMPUTER LANGUAGES
(a) Machine Language
 A computer language made up of binary digits (0s and 1s)
 The most fundamental way to program a computer, using instructions made up entirely of
strings of 0sand 1s.
 The language is far from English and any mathematical notation.
 Machine language is not portable and is machine dependent meaning it cannot be moved
from one machine to the other.
 Errors are very difficult to remove and programs are difficult to write using machine language.

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(b) Low Level Language
 Low level means the language can better communicate with the system.
 LLL are closer to machine code
 They use mnemonics i.e. ADD to add SUB to subtract etc
 Easier for a programmer to write a program in LLL than machine language.
 Programs have to be translated from source code into machine language

(c) High Level Language

 A programming language that utilizes macroinstructions and statements that closely resembles human
language or mathematical notation to describe the problem to be solved or the procedure to be used.
 Programs are much easier to write / read because the are next English
 [English like statements].
 A programming language where each instruction corresponds to several machine code
instructions. A compiler or interpreter must translate instructions in this language before they
can be processed.
MACHINE LANGUAGE
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Much harder to code for programmers
 A very powerful language because it’s a series of 1s & 0s.
 Not portable
 No translation is needed  Machine Dependent
 Errors are difficult to remove

LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Easier to use than machine language  Machine dependent
 Harder to code than HLL
 Not portable

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 It is a portable language  Slower in execution
 Programs are much easier to read/ write  Programs tend to be wordy hence they take
coz it’s close to English language. long to compile.
 Programs are problem oriented.  Requires more memory.
 Errors are removed before
translation to Machine code
[during compiling].

 LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR PROGRAMS

 A Translator is a program that translates a source program/code into an equivalent

object code [machine code] before the program is executed by the computer.
 Compiler
 Translates a complete program written in HLL into machine code
before it is executed.
 Produces a translated document.
 E.g. COBOL compiler.
 Assembler
 Translates a source program written in assembly language into
machine code.

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 Interpreter
 A computer program that translates one statement at a time [source code] and
generates the machine code for that statement only & executes it there & there
before moving to the next line/statement.
 Interpreter translates line per line and does not produce a translated document.
 E.g. Pascal Interpreter, BASIC Interpreter.

Compare & contrast Interpreter & Compiler

1) Compiler- fast execution of program.
2) Interpreter- Slowed down execution of program.
3) Compiler- compiler time overhead.
4) Interpreter- No compiler time overhead
5) Compiler- Stand alone executables
6) Interpreter- Dependency on interpreter
7) Compiler- Compiler is complex [time, space]
8) Interpreter- Relative simplicity of interpreter

List the advantages & disadvantages of interpreters & compilers.

1. A compiled program will always run faster than an interpreted one
2. Object code generated by compilers may be saved on disk & run as many times as
required without being compiled.
3. A compiler gives more helpful error messages.
4. Compiler gives the line number where the error has occurred.
5. An interpreter will find the error at the first instance whereas the compiler will list
all errors after compiling.
6. A compiler will check the syntax of the entire program whereas the interpreter only
checks the syntax of statements that are executed during that particular run of a
program.
7. Interpreters are very convenient for program development, since making
modifications does not mean the whole program has to be reloaded & recompiled
which takes considerable time.
8. Interpreter is cheaper than compiler & is simpler to use
9. Many interpreters will allow a program to run up to a point where an error occurs,
let the programmer fix the error & then continue to run the program from that
point.
10. With an interpreter debugging is easier since the code is executed line by line.
11. Line by line interpretation can be slow
12. Interpreter can test your code as you write it
13. With an Interpreter there is no need to create object code & link programs.

GENERIC SOFTWARE AND THE ORGANISATION OF DATA

Define Software
Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.
Definitions of software on the Web:
 Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word,
PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.

 Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE

 SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.

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System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS,
Communication control programs. Service and utility programs, and programming
language translators.
Definitions of system software
A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to allow a computer, and other
programs, to function. Different from an page layout application that the user may have, system
software is what allows the page layout application to interact with the monitor display, the RAM,
the hard drive and the rest of the computer.
 OPERATING SYSTEM
The main control of a computer system.
It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer
programs and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system
accounting, compilation, storage assignment, data management and related services.
Definitions of operating system on the Web:
 The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer functional.
On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are other operating
systems often found in scientific and technical environments.

 A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates
the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and MacOS are
common operating systems.

 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion
of specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and word processing
programs or inventory or payroll programs.
o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal,
organizational, or processing task, such as graphics software.
o These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while
operating system software allows the computer to work. A computer-
aided dispatch system is application software, as is each word
processing program.
OPERATING SYSTEM
 Definition
 Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?
 Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU,
controls the input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer
system, and provides various support services as the computer executes the
application programs?
 Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs
and the hardware?
 All communications go through the operating system.
 E.g. when a user issues a command to print, the O/S receives the
command & processes it according to priorities with the use of interrupts.
 Once the processor is free to execute the command, the O/S sends the
message to the processor & receives the output, which is then directed to
the printer.
 Examples:
 NOVELL,VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS, Windows Me, Windows XP, 95, 98,NT
2000, MS Dos, UNIX, Linux, and MacOS are common operating systems.

FACTORS ONE SHOULD CONSIDER WHEN

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 Making comparisons of the microcomputer operating systems
available in the organization
 Making microcomputer operating system acquisition decision.

 Is the OS a single or multitasking operating system? Many microcomputer OS

are single tasking, meaning they allow only one person to run one program at a time.
Multitasking and multi-user OS permit more than one program to run and more than
one person to use the system at one time. Multitasking OS may allow a user to
receive a fax message at the same time one is searching a database.
 Is it a task switching operating system? A task switching OS lets one load more
than one program at a time and allows switching between the programs. The task
that one is working with is the foreground task and the suspended tasks are
background tasks.
 What utilities are available with the OS? Some of the most commonly used utilities
on microcomputer OS are delete, copy contents of one diskette to another, format a
diskette, delete files stored in a diskette, and compress data.
 Is the OS hardware dependent? An OS may be limited to running on specific
hardware or may have versions that allow it to run on different types of computer
systems.
 What user interface is offered by the operating system? Graphical User Interface
and Command Driven User Interface are examples of user interfaces. See Interface
section.
 Types of operating systems
 Multiprocessing
 Multitasking
 Multi-user
 Multi programming
 Single user
Modes of operation
Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex operating
systems.
Real time processing
 When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time operating system
is used. For example, the engine management system within a car uses a real time operating
system in order to react to all the things going on within the engine. A real time operating system
does not necessarily have to be fast. It simply has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a
predictable way. Embedded computers often contain an RTOS as many are used to control
something.
 Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of systems such as industrial
processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real time processing is computer games.
For example, when an action is selected in a game, the data is fed back to the computer and the
systems updated.
Multi-programming
 Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs appear to be running at
once.
 The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in and out of processor
time according to priority. For example, while one job is being allocated printer time, another will be

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being processed in memory. The processor is so fast that it seems that many jobs are being
processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking
 This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time. Multi-tasking allows
multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of the computer.
 This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the printer and
downloading a web page.
 However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this, you would need parallel
processors, which are now appearing on personal computers.
Multi-access or multi-user
 A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to use the same
system together.
 Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person can make use
of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
 The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower the response
time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response time at the most is a fraction of
a second and the user feels they are being dealt with immediately.
Batch processing
 A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch and
processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices and daily
transactions are dealt with this way.
 This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs where no
human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is ready to deal with
them. Often batch processed jobs are done overnight.
Functions of the operating system:
 Controls and coordinates the computer system
 Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts of the
computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
 It is a platform for application programs
 Provides user interface
 Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
 Provides error correctional routines
 Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
 Records details of processing for control analysis
 File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
 Memory management, allocates memory to various jobs or tasks
 Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, multitasking, timesharing, housekeeping
& handling errors.
 Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and peripheral
devices.
 Reports errors when they occur.
 Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end
users. It may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can
occur at the same time.
 Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE- consists of programs that manage and support a computer

system and its information processing activities. These programs serve as a vital

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software interface between computer system hardware and the application programs of
end users.

3 functional categories
 System management programs
 Programs that manage the hardware, software, and data resources of the
computer system during its execution of the various information processing jobs
of users.
 The most important system management programs are operating systems and
operating environments, followed by telecommunications monitors & Database
Management Systems.

 System support programs

 Programs that support the operations and management of a computer system by
providing a variety of support services.
 Major support programs are system utilities, performance monitors, & security
monitors.

 System development programs

 Programs that help users develop information system programs and
procedures and prepare user programs for computer processing.
 Major development programs are language translators, programming
tools and CASE [computer-aided software engineering] packages.

APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
 Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
 Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.
 Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the
shelf.
# APPLICATION EXAMPLES
SOFTWARE
1 Word processing A collection of software that permits the user to create, edit and print documents. Most  Ms word, Word perfect, Word star,
software word processing packages come with spell-checkers, grammar checkers and  Ms works word processor ,WordPro
thesaurus programs for creating drawings and table of contents.
2 Spreadsheet software Allows managers to prepare budgets, tax analysis, sales and profit projections.  Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3
Managers can design templates, which contain formulas used to create columns or
row averages. Spreadsheets allow managers to simulate various solutions. A user
may enter a number of different values and see the effect on the results such as profit
margins
3 Database management Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in different records. DBMS is an  Ms Access, DbaseIV, Oracle
software important managerial decision support tool for managers at all levels of the
organization.

4 Payroll  Pay plus , Pay well

5 Accounting  Pastel, Tetra 2000
6 Presentation graphics Lets users or managers prepare slides containing charts, text and images.  Ms PowerPoint, Lotus freelance graphs
software Presentation graphics software usually provides libraries of clip art images that can be
cut and pasted into a slide to make the slide more attractive and informative

7 Desktop Publishing  Ms publisher, Aldus

8 Multimedia  Internet explorer Netscape
9 Communication  Ms Outlook, Ms Exchange
10 Design  AutoCAD, CAM

State five advantages of using a word processor (e.g. MS Word) rather than
a manual typewriter in an office [10].
 Ability to correct mistakes
 Ability to view documents on screen before printing
 Ability to incorporate diagrams
 Ability to move parts of text to other sections of the document.
 Ability to save or store documents for future reference or use.

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 Ability to alter or change document layout.
 Ability to print a lot of copies [ no retyping]
 Ability to insert tables
 Ability to format document [font, paragraphs, bullets etc]
o Other - Good reasoning [ 2 marks each for 5 & 1 mark each for more than 5]

a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘word processing package’. [3 marks]

 Is a program or set of programs used to enter, edit, format, store and print documents. A
document may be anything from a single memo to a complete book.
 An application package that involves the use of computers to manipulate text data in
order to produce office communications in the form of documents.
 Any of many popular application programs designed for composing, revising, printing,
and filing written documents.
 Word Processing is the efficient and effective production of written communications
at the lowest possible cost through the combined use of systems management
procedures, automated technology, and accomplished personnel. The equipment
used in word processing applications includes but is not limited to the following:
dictation and transcription equipment, automatic repetitive typewriters, visual display
text editing typewriters, keyboard terminals, etc.

b) Give any 2 examples of a word processing package’. [2marks]

 MS WORD
 WORD STAR
 WORD Perfect
 MS WORKS WORD

c) Briefly describe any 5 important features of a word processor. [5 marks]

1) Spelling and grammar checker
2) Import files
3) Mail merge
4) WYSIWYG capability
5) Creation of templates
6) Automatic creation of index and table of contents

d) List 10 facilities that spreadsheets offer. [10 marks]

1. Format cells, rows and columns, specifying for example, the alignment of text, number of decimal
points, height and width of a cell.
2. Copy cell contents to other locations
3. Determine the effect of several different hypothetical changes of data
4. Insert, move or delete rows and columns
5. Use functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN in formulae
6. Create a simple database and sort or query the data to produce a report
7. Write macros to automate common procedures
8. Create templates i.e. spreadsheets with formats and formulae already entered, into which new figures
may be inserted.
9. Create multi-dimensional spreadsheets using several sheets, and copy data from one sheet to another
10. Create many different types of charts and graphs

List 5 factors to consider when buying application software. [10].

1. Cost. This includes the original cost of the package, technical support, and upgrades.
2. Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety
3. Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
4. Compatibility with existing hardware & software. Will the package run on existing hardware? Can files
be easily transferred from existing systems without re-keying? Can files created in the package be exported
to other systems in use in the company?

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5. It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase software on CD media your
computer should have compact disk drive.
6. Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are appropriate for those who use
the software infrequently.
7. Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system requirements e.g.
Pentium 4, reference manual, registration information, supplier details and user manual.
8. Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in that area
9. Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
10. Easiness of installation
11. Technical support. Is support available? Is it very costly? Often, technical support contract can add 50% or
more to the price of a package, but without it no support at all will be given by the manufacturer.
12. Easy of learning. Are tutorials supplied? Are books on the software available in bookshops? Are training
courses available?
13. Easy of use and user- friendliness. Is it easy to use, for example using pull down menus, icons, helpful
error messages when you do something wrong?
14. Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.
15. Do you have enough resources on your PC to install it e.g. it may require 256MB RAM, 80GB HDD.
Memory requirements; software packages vary in the amount of memory they require. Will the system
require expenditure on more powerful hardware?
16. Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my personal computer
system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the
processor used in my computer (486, Pentium, Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)?
and with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
17. Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers,
that I have on my personal computer system?
18. Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use immediately but
powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as my familiarity with the
program increases?
19. Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
20. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn?
21. Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or documentation?
22. Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical assistance
number included in the software documentation? Does the manufacturer have a
bulletin board or Internet address for technical assistance questions? Does the
manufacturer charge for technical assistance? for product revisions or upgrades?
23. Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
24. Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
25. Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my
use of the program?
26. Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that
warranty?
27. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?

Benefits of application software to the user.

 Installation should be easy, quick and should be provided by the
vendor/supplier.
 Good documentation is usually provided with the application for
reference purposes.
 Onsite assistance from the supplier or vendor
 Provision of cheaper future upgrades upon acquisition of an application
provided you have completed the registration information.
 Value for money

Applications software comes in different 'flavors' - or types:

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 Utility programs - these can be part of an operating system, but are also available for
separate purchase. Examples include virus checkers, disk defragmenters, back up
utilities and disk checker software.
 Generic - general purpose software that is not written for any particular type of business.
Examples of this include word processors and spreadsheets.
 Integrated - a collection of software that has a common set of commands/icons. Usually
they include word processors, spreadsheets and graphics software, but they can contain
databases as well. They tend to be cheaper than purchasing each application
separately.
 Specific - software written for a defined purpose. Accountancy software is a good
example of this, and can be bought by anyone.
 Bespoke - also known as 'tailor made'. A company may need a particular piece of
software that it cannot purchase because it does not exist yet - or it does not like what is
available. The company can commission the software to be specially written for them.
This tends to be expensive.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

1. Commercial / generic Packages/ Off the shelf software
 Commercial software is computer software sold for profit; such software
represented, until recently, the vast majority of all software used.
 These are bought from a vendor.
 Also known as off the shelf packages e.g. MS Office, Pastel.
 Also known as work enhancement applications
 Generic or Off the shelf software has the advantage of cost effectiveness
due to larger market & the ability to incorporate available technology in
the shortest possible time.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place i.e.
o Word Processing packages
o Spreadsheet packages
o Database /Information retrieval Packages
o Graphics packages
o Data communications Software
Advantages of an off the shelf package
1. It is cheaper than custom-written software. The development costs of the
package may be millions of pounds, but the customer may be able to buy it for
a few hundred pounds, since sales are made to thousands of other customers.
2. It is immediately available and already thoroughly tested so is unlikely to have
major bugs in it
3. Documentation is usually available in the form of reference manuals, user
guides and tutorials
4. Training courses may be available form third party trainers.
5. Technical support is usually available from the manufacturers via a Web site or
telephone line [at a price].
6. Other users of the package can be consulted as to its suitability before
purchase.
7. Upgrades are usually available every year or two
Disadvantages
1. The package may not do exactly what you want it to do;
2. It may not run on the firm’s existing hardware
3. It may not interface with other software already in use in the organization.

2. Homemade / Customized packages/ Tailor-made Software

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 Customized software is software designed around a company or other organization's
processes to make those processes more efficient.
 It is distinct from market software [commercial or generic], which approaches
problems in a general way so that the product can be sold to more than one
customer.
 Has been written by the vendor specifically for a user’s needs. Also known as
in-house packages, tailor-made packages.
 E.g. most payroll packages, billing software, product design applications
 Is that application that has been written for a specific user’s needs by a
software vendor?
 It is non-standard software.
Disadvantages
1. Being customized, the non-standard software may not be used by any other
organization.
2. It has huge support costs after implementation.
3. Dependency syndrome with the supplier. There is heavy reliance on the
developers of the software for its continued existence & maintenance
4. Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under, shuts
down, or liquidate or if its development staff leaves.
5. May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
6. You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance
contract with.
7. Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive
to build.
8. Custom built is expensive to maintain
9. Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological
advancement in the field of computers.
3. Managerial applications
Help to make management decisions
 Decision support systems
 Database Management Systems Report Writing Tools
MAKE NOTES ON:
 How application packages solve problems?
 Typical problems which can be solved by application packages
 Customization of packages using macros

UTILITY SOFTWARE/ PROGRAMS

 Also known as System support programs.
 Utility software (also known as service program, service routine, tool, or utility
routine) is a type of computer software. It is specifically designed to help manage and
tune the computer hardware, operating system or application software, and perform a
single task or a small range of tasks; as opposed to application software which tend to
be software suites. Utility software has long been integrated into most major
operating systems.
Examples
 Disk defragmenters. Examples include a Disk defragmenter can detect computer files
whose contents have been stored on the hard disk in disjointed fragments, and move the
fragments together to increase efficiency;
 Disk checker can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are
corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more
efficiently operating hard drive;
 Disk cleaner can find files that unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete
when his hard disk is full.

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 System Profilers. A System profiler can provide detailed information about the
software installed and hardware attached to the computer.
 Backup software can make a copy of all information stored on a computer, and restore
either the entire system (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an
event of accidental deletion).
 Disk compression software can transparently compress the contents of the hard disk,
in order to fit more information to the drive.
 Virus scanners. Virus Scanners scan for computer viruses among files and folders.
 Compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a
stream or file.
 Encryption utilities use a specific algorithm to produce an encrypted stream or
encrypted file when provided with a key and a plaintext.
INTEGRATED SOFTWARE APPLICATION PACKAGES
 Software that contains several applications rolled into one. Integrated software usually includes
word processing, spreadsheet, database, graphics and communication capabilities. Two popular
integrated software packages are Microsoft Works and ClarisWorks:
 In integrated software, you will be able to work on a spreadsheet to perform
calculations, store addresses and phone numbers in a database and be able to
link information from the spreadsheet & the database when you work with the
word processor in the integrated package.
 Object Linking Embedding [OLE] is a standard that, Allows applications to be
linked together.
 OLE-DB allows applications to import virtually any form of data into the
database.
Definitions of integrated software on the Web:
 A group of applications designed to work together and share data easily.

 Software that combines the features of several different applications in a single program
(e.g. word processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics, and communications)..
Advantages of integrated applications
 Easy to use
 Generally costs much less
 Require or needs less RAM
 Ability to pass data from one module to another.
 Takes up much less hard disk space
 Better organization of information. Data is stored in the database, calculations
in an electronic spreadsheet & images in a graphical application package
Disadvantages
 Limited portability. The same applications must exist on every computer that
you wish to open the document.
 Offer fewer features and less versatility than stand alone versions or software.
 Functional limitation. Its rigid you cannot change it to suit your specific needs.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
 Microsoft Office 97
 Microsoft Works
 Claris Works
 Lotus SmartSuite 97
SOFTWARE PACKAGE
 A computer program supplied by computer manufacturers, independent
software companies, or other computer users.
 Also known as canned programs, proprietary software or packaged programs.

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 A software package is a special method for the distribution and installation of software on
computer systems.
Proprietary software/Applications
 Is software offered for sale or license where the vendor controls the source code?
 Much of the software users are accustomed to is known as proprietary software. With proprietary
software users are not allowed to see the source code. Nor are they able to modify the code for
their own use or to distribute to others. In some cases certain customers are allowed to view the
source code - sometimes for an additional fee - but even then they are not able to alter and re-
distribute the software. Examples of proprietary software include Microsoft's Office suite.
 Proprietary software is a term used to describe software in which the user does not control what it
does or cannot study or edit the code, in contrast to free software.
Non-proprietary software
 Non-proprietary software is, in its widest possible sense, software that has no proprietary
restrictions attached to it, particularly the restriction about the access to the source code.
Non-proprietary software is the opposite of proprietary software, which is software where
the source code has not been made available, or it is protected by restrictive licensing
clauses.
SOFTWARE PIRACY
 Unauthorized copying of software.
 unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.
 unauthorized copying of software
 The production of illegal copies of software.
 By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software piracy, which
is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge problem mainly because it is so easy to
do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a program than it is to tape a music CD that you
have borrowed from a friend. Software pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical
support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.
Implications of Software piracy
 Loss of business to software companies.
 Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
 Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as
a result you can’t install it.
 Virus Spread
 Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation
and money.
 Piracy harms all software publishers, Regardless of their size. Software
publishers spend years developing software for the public to use. A portion
of every dollar spent in purchasing original software is channeled back into
research and development so that better, more advanced software products
can be produced. When you purchase pirated software, your money goes
directly into the pockets of software pirates instead.
 Software piracy also harms the local and national economies. Fewer
legitimate software sales result in lost tax revenue and decreased
employment. Software piracy greatly hinders the development of local
software communities. If software publishers cannot sell their products in
the legitimate market, they have no incentive to continue developing
programs. Many software publishers simply won’t enter markets where the
piracy rates are too high, because they will not be able to recover their
development costs.
 Software piracy harms everyone in the software community including
you, the end user. How?
1) Piracy results in higher prices for duly licensed users,
2) Piracy reduces levels of support, and
3) Delays in the funding and development of new products, causing the
overall selection and quality of software to suffer.

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THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOFTWARE PIRACY
There are five basic forms of software piracy, and all are damaging both to the software
publisher and to you, the end user. The five basic types of piracy are:
 Soft lifting. This form of piracy occurs when extra copies of a program are made
within an organization for employees to use. It also includes "Disk swapping" among
friends and associates.
 Hard-Disk Loading. Some computer dealers load unauthorized copies of software
onto the hard disks of the computers they offer for sale, as an incentive for an end
user to purchase a computer from that particular dealer.
 Counterfeiting. This is the illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted software,
often in a form designed to make the product appear legitimate. Software
counterfeiting can be very sophisticated, including significant efforts to replicate
packaging, logos, and anti-counterfeiting techniques such as holograms. It can also
be unsophisticated, consisting of inferior or hand-written labels, with disks folded
into a plastic bag and sold on street corners. A recent trend in counterfeiting is the
emergence of compilation CD-ROMs, where numerous unauthorized software
publishers’ programs appear on one CD-ROM. In any form, software
counterfeiting is very damaging to both the software developer and legitimate end
users.
 Online. This form of piracy occurs when copyrighted software is downloaded to
users connected through a modem to an electronic bulletin board or the Internet
without the express permission of the copyright owner. This should not be confused
with sharing public domain software or providing “shareware.” Shareware is
software that may or may not be copyrighted but is generally offered for little or no
charge by the author for nearly unrestricted use, including copying or sharing with
others. Microsoft distributes promotional products, free software, updates, or
enhancements over bulletin boards or online services, which may or may not be
licensed for use solely with licensed Microsoft products. You should check the EULA
accompanying the product to determine how it can be used.
 License Misuse. This form of piracy occurs when copyrighted software is
distributed outside the restricted legitimate channels it was designed for or the
product is used in ways not allowed in the license agreement. Examples of license
misuse include:
(1) Academic product misuse
This form of license misuse occurs when a product that is manufactured,
licensed, and specifically marked for distribution to educational institutions
and students at reduced prices is diverted into normal commercial channels
of distribution. Typically this product will contain a sticker indicating that it
is academic product and for use only by educational institutions.
(2) Not for Resale (NFR) product misuse.
Again, this form of license misuse occurs when a product that has been
clearly marked "Not for Resale," and is typically distributed as a promotional
or sample product and is not licensed for normal commercial distribution
and use, is diverted into normal commercial channels of distribution.
(3) Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) stand-alone product. This form
of license misuse occurs when OEM version software has been unbundled from
its designated computer system and distributed as a separate, “stand-alone”
product. Microsoft’s agreement with computer manufacturers prohibits them
from distributing Microsoft products in this fashion, i.e. without accompanying
computer hardware.
Microsoft products on the retail shelf should never include a line on the front
cover of the User’s Guide that states, “For Distribution Only With New Computer
Hardware.”

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(3) “Microsoft Easy Fulfillment” (MEF) product misuse. This form of license
misuse occurs when a “Microsoft Easy Fulfillment” (MEF) product is diverted
into normal commercial channels of distribution. The MEF product may be
distributed only to end users who have a Select or Open (MOLP) license and
who order the product in accordance with their license terms. The MEF
product has a sticker on the jewel case identifying the product as “Microsoft
Easy Fulfillment.”
(4) Volume licensing misuse. Volume Licensing enables organizations to
acquire the rights to copy and use specific Microsoft software products with
agreements tailored to the number of products needed at the particular
organization. These volume programs offer a broad range of products and
licensing options and reduce administrative overhead and software
management costs.

Microsoft offers two types of volume license:

a. Select provides savings for medium and large organizations with significant
volume requirements through forecasting software needs over a two-year
period.
b. Open provides savings for small and medium organizations for licenses of as
few as 20 units of a particular software product, with a simple ordering
process.
Misuse under volume licensing occurs when organization copies software
purchased through the volume program on more computers than specified in
their license agreement. Other violations occur when an organization allows
concurrent use of software products (which currently is offered only as an option
under the Select and Open programs) without the purchase of the option that
allows for this concurrent use.
User licenses show users rights to use pieces of software.
Definitions of data processing on the Web:
 Taking the raw data gathered by interviewers, finding and correcting any errors,
tabulating it and creating spreadsheets similar types of documents so that response
patterns can be read and interpreted.

 The systematic performance of operations upon data, eg, handling, merging, sorting,
computing. Synonymous with information processing.

DATA
 Relationship between Data and Information
 Data is raw information
 a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
 Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully
knowledge for the person who receives it. Information is the output of information
systems.
 Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
 Methods of data collection {see Systems Analysis & Design}
 Questionnaires
 Observation
 Sampling
 Interviews
 Written documents & research

MAKE NOTES ON:

 Verification

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oThe act of reviewing, inspecting, testing, checking, auditing, or otherwise establishing
and documenting whether items, processes, services, or documents conform to
specified requirements.
o An effort to test the accuracy of the questionnaire response data. The concern is
uniquely with data accuracy and deals with neither the reliability nor the validity of
measures.
 Validation
o The process of evaluating software at the end of the software development process
to ensure compliance with software requirements. The techniques for validation are
testing, inspection and reviewing.
o Determination of the correctness of the products of software development with
respect to the user needs and requirements.

DATABASE
 Is a collection of files?
 An organized collection of interrelated files.
 Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly
and easily from a chosen reference point?
 Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
 A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a
common pool of data records that provides data for many applications.
 Examples of databases are MS Access, MS Works Database, and DBaseIV.
 File-Is a collection of related records.
 Record-Is a collection of fields. It is a collection of fields arranged in a
predefined order.
 Field-Is a collection of single items. It is an implementation of the data
attribute. It is the smallest unit of data to be stored in a database.
 Primary key-Is a field whose value identifies one & only one record in a
file.
 Secondary key-An alternative index for identifying an entity. Its value
can identify single entity occurrences of all entity occurrences. A subset
of all entity occurrences.
 Foreign key-Are pointers or links to occurrences of a different file. A
foreign key in one file must be a primary key in another file.
 Descriptors-Are any other fields that describe business entities.
advantages and any disadvantages of databases
# ADVANTAGES # DISADVANTAGES
1 Supports data sharing 1 Limitations of databases arise from increased
technological complexity
2 Ensures increased data security 2 Developing a large database and installing a
DBMS can be difficult and expensive.
3 Ensures data independence 3 More hardware capability is required, since
storage requirements for the organization of
data, overhead control data, and the DBMS is
greater
4 Data integrity is guaranteed. The functions 4 Problems of data inconsistency can arise if a
in the DBMS can be used to enforce the distributed database approach is used.
integrity rules with minimum programming in
the application programs.

5 Reduces or minimizes data redundancy 5 Longer processing times may result from
high volume transaction processing
applications since extra layer software [the
DBMS] exists between application programs

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and the Operating system.
6 Consistence of data is ensured 6 Security and integrity of data are major
concerns.
7 Support data integration. Since related data Centralized databases are vulnerable to
is stored in one single database, enforcing errors, fraud and failures.
data integrity is much easier
8 Related data can be shared across
programs since the data is stored in a
centralized manner
9 Enforcing of standards in the organization
and structure of data files is required and also
easy in a Database System, since it is one
single set of programs, which is always
interacting with data files
10 The application programmer need not build
the functions for handling issues like
concurrent access, security, data integrity, etc.
The programmer only needs to implement the
application business rules. This brings in
application development ease.

FILE PROCESSING
 Is the process of updating the records in a file to accurately reflect
changes in the data?
 It can be a manual process where procedures are in place to update
forms, which are sent to the respective person responsible for the
update.
 It can also be a computerized process where information is first stored in
transaction files until the master file is updated.
File processing methods:
 Batch Processing
 Transactions are collected and processed in batches [groups].
 Transaction processing in which transactions are gathered and stored for
later execution.
 E.g. a supermarket chain operates 5 outlets. At the end of the day
all information on sales [transaction file] is collected, & the main
records [master file] are updated with the sales for that day.
 Performs a group of tasks all at once, while requiring little [or no]
interaction with the user.
 It is a great time saver because the computer can perform
repetitive functions quickly & consistently.
 Real-time Processing
 The master records are updated as and when the transactions
occur.
 A form of transaction processing in which each transaction is executed
as soon as complete data becomes available for the transaction.
 A supermarket chain would be linked by a network to a main
computer.
 Each time a sale is made the stock information is updated and
the sale information is also updated.
 It is expensive and complicated.
 Record and file locks are implemented to avoid problems with
real-time processing.
 Centralized processing

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 An information system where all critical data and programs are stored on
one main computer, usually a mainframe. Unlike the task-sharing
concept of a client/server system, the central computer retains all the
brains and brawn.
 A computing environment in which all processing takes place on a
mainframe or central computer.
 Puts all processing and control authority within one computer to which all
other computing devices respond.
 Distributed Processing
 The ability to have several computers working together in a network,
where each processor runs different activities for a user, as required.
 Computers connected together by a communications network. Data
processing occurs on each of the computers, unlike a centralized
processing system in which terminals are connected to a host computer
that performs all of the data processing.
 Use of computers at various locations, typically interconnected via
communication links for the purpose of data access and/or transfer.
 A computer system in which processing is performed by several
separate computers linked by a communications network. The term often
refers to any computer system supported by a network, but more
properly refers to a system in which each computer is chosen to handle
a specific workload, and the network supports the system as a whole.
 Offline processing
 When your computer performs an operation when it is not connected to
any other computers, it is working offline.
 Means that your computer is not currently connected to an Internet
server.
 Not connected (to a network). Not available to the network
 Online processing
 A general term for when one computer is interacting directly and
simultaneously with another computer. Many sources of information are
available online.
 Available for immediate use.
 The master file is updated with the transactions through some
form of communication link.
 All real-time processing involves online processing.
 Not all online processing needs to be real-time.
 Require interaction of the user.

 Master file is the main information source in any type of

organization.
 File processing is the update of the master file [actual
records] through manual or computerized methods.
FILE ORGANIZATION METHODS & ACCESS
 File Organization-Is the arrangement of data records on storage media
 It determines the manner in which individual records can be accessed or
retrieved
Definitions of cycle time on the Web:
 The time usually expressed in seconds for a controller to complete one on/off cycle.

Definitions of access time on the Web:

 The average time interval between a storage peripheral (usually a disk drive or
semiconductor memory) receiving a request to read or write a certain location and
returning the value read or completing the write.
The amount of time it takes a computer to locate an area of memory for data storage or

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retrieval.

 The time required to retrieve data from a storage device and transmit it to a specified
location.

Definitions of random access on the Web:

 Storage systems where data may be stored and accessed in any order, independent of
the ordinal position of the data when it was originally recorded. This is the opposite of
linear (3) access, or linear recording media such as magnetic tape, which necessarily
preserves the sequential relation of the data as it is recorded, and depends on this
sequential relation for accurate playback. See non-linear recording.

 Able to read any location directly; without having to read sequentially to the location.
Definitions of sequential access on the Web:
 Data must be read in the order it appears. This method applies to tape, and to a lesser
degree to disks.
Reading data from a file whose records are organized on the basis of their successive
physical positions. To reach a specific record, all records previous to that record must be
read, in order. Magnetic computer tapes are sequential access storage device.

 Refers to reading or writing data records in sequential order, that is, one record after the
other. To read record 10, for example, you would first need to read records 1 through 9.
This differs from random access, in which you can read and write records in any order.

FILE ORGANIZATION
 Serial file organization
 Is one where the records are not stored in any particular order?
 They are stored in the order in which they are received. New records are added
at the end of the files.
 This method of file organization is used when:
 The usage of the records is not clearly known
 As a means of recording transactions as they happen
 As dump files reflecting the physical layout of a file
 Or as a prelude to organizing the file in another order. E.g. Transactions
may be punched and stored on a serial file .the file may subsequently be
sorted into a desired sequence.
 It gives maximum utilization of space but there is no room left for inserting other
records.
 Examples of files stored using serial organization are: archive files, output files,
security files.
 It does not cater for direct access to records.
 Is the only file organization method used on magnetic tapes?

 Sequential file organization

 Records are arranged in a predetermined sequence, determined by the primary
key.
 Records are stored using a specific key to arrange ascending, descending,
alphabetic order etc.
 Appropriate for files, which are stored on tape or disk?
 Appropriate for master files, sorted transaction files in a batch-processing
environment.
 Not generally used for online systems that demand fast response.
 Mainly used for batch processing applications
 Suitable method to use when there is little need for file enquiry.

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 Simple method of writing to a file [easy to use].
 Most effective method if records are going to be processed in the order that they
are read.
 It can be used for variable length records as well as fixed length records.
 Wastes space as some space is reserved for other records to be inserted in order
to preserve the order or organization.
 E.g. Customer records could be organized sequentially according to customer
number [primary key] or customer name [secondary key].
 Sequential records can be stored adjacent to one another or they can be
arranged sequentially with a linked list.
 Direct/Random/Relative file organization
 Files are stored randomly or haphazardly and an address or key field is used as
reference.
 Records are physically located at an address that is calculated from its primary
key field.
 The calculation of the address from the key field is called hashing.
 Records are scattered on the storage disk instead of being arranged next to one
another or linked via a pointer field.
 Records can be retrieved rapidly
 Used on magnetic disks e.g. Floppy disks & hard disks.
 Types of files: transaction files, master files.
 Direct access [information is readily available].
 Method is costly in terms of device used and space.
 Indexed sequential file organization
 Records are stored in sequence but in addition an index is provided to enable
individual records to be located directly after reading the index.
 Records are pointed to by indexes.
 Used with disks only not with magnetic tapes.
 A method of storing data records in a file sequentially, But in addition some sectors
of the disk are reserved for an index-key field to locate data records in this
organization.
 Wastes space
 The index may be ignored & the data is read sequentially.
 The file may be accessed sequentially but using the index to skip over unwanted
records, this is called selective sequential access.
 The index may be read into memory & used to obtain data randomly.

Definitions of indexed sequential access method on the Web:

 Is a combination or compromise between indexed blocks of data arranged sequentially
within each block.

 ISAM stands for Indexed Sequential Access Method, a method for storing data for fast
retrieval. ISAM was originally developed by IBM and today forms the basic data store of
almost all databases, both relational and otherwise.

COMPUTER MEMORY

The computer has two types of memory chips within the system unit,
known as RAM and ROM.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Also referred to as Main Memory, Primary Memory or Working Memory is
memory that is accessed by the CPU as it processes information. The CPU also

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places results of processing on the memory chip. The memory has the following
characteristics.
1) can be read from
2) can be changed and can be rewritten
3) used for short-term storage of data i.e. it is temporary storage,
4) is volatile (data lost when power is turned off).
Static RAM
 It is a volatile memory
 Data is stored; it remains there indefinitely unless if the power is lost or
new data is written.

Dynamic RAM
 Is one which data is stored on capacitors, which require periodic recharging
[refreshing] to retain data?

*if you wish to upgrade your PC, you would buy additional memory chips to increase the
power of your computer (computer performance).

ROM (Read Only Memory)

This memory chip has essential programs that start up the computer
hardwired on the microchip during the manufacture of the computer. It
forms what is known as FIRMWARE, being a halfway between hardware
and software. The characteristics of this memory are that:-
1) can be read from,
2) cannot be changed
3) is permanent
4) non-volatile (data not lost when power is turned off).
 ROM
 Stores instructions & data which do not change
 It is written once during manufacture
 It is for holding software such as MS-DOS.Windows 95, 98.XP.
 It is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user
 It is static & non volatile
 It stores control routines for personal computers

VARIATIONS OF ROM
Allow users to store and in some cases to change data stored in ROM
 PROM [Programmable ROM] is not programmed during manufacture
but can be programmed by the user. It is programmed according to the
needs of the user organization. If you make a mistake the ROM once
programmed will became permanent to the effect that any errors will
never be corrected thus the user will throw away any chip if errors are
made.
 EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM] can be programmed and erased
as many times. This time you don’t have to worry about errors too much
because there is room for correction. The programming is done
electronically. Stored data can be lost by exposing it to Ultra Violet light
over a period of minutes.
1) EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM] can be read,
erased, rewritten, without removing from the computer. The erasing &

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rewriting process is very slow compared with reading, which limits their
use. These can be erased & programmed with electrical pulses. Can be
erased in a few Milliseconds

MEMORY CAPACITY
Everything entering into the computer is converted into digital (number) form, and is
stored in that form. When one needs to view the information, it is converted into human
sensible text, graphics, audio or video by the operating system. A binary digit is known as
a bit being either a ‘0’(zero) or a ‘1’(one). It is the smallest item that can be stored in a
computer’s memory.

Memory capacity is measured in bytes, a byte being a set of eight(8) bits and the byte often
represents a single character. Measurement units used for computer memory are:-

o BIT 1 binary digit (Either a 0 or a 1)

o BYTE Eight bits.
o NIBBLE Half byte/4 bits
o KILOBYTE (KB) 1024 bytes
o MEGABYTE (MB) Million bytes
o GIGABYTE (GB) Billion bytes
o TERABYTE Trillion bytes

COMPUTER INTERFACE
 Refers to the type of interaction between two elements.
 Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the
computer so that you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other
tasks?
 When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be
a screen, keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input devices.
Definitions of interface on the Web:
 the interaction between the computer and the user or the control of the flow of data
between a computer and its peripherals.
 Basically the interface can be
 Command driven- include operating systems and database languages
that provide users with flashes of text and in which users would
generally type in their command to perform an action.
 Menu driven
 GUI- point and click
 WIMP interface
Menu driven interfaces
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often leads to a further menu.
Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a numbered list of options to choose from:

A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.

A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a pull down menu may
be offered.

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Features of menu driven interfaces include:
 They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
 They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.
 They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around - with a command line
interface you can go to the option required immediately.

Command line interfaces

A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing in commands.
The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command and presses enter or return.

Features of a command line interface include:

In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
 Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order or the
command will not work.
 Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without having to find
their way around menus.
 An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory and
processing power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec machines.
 Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
 A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could launch
half a dozen programs to do its task.
 An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult to use
because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating system
for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on drive a would be:
dir c:\.
Graphical user interfaces
Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to GUI. The user chooses an option usually by pointing a
mouse at an icon representing that option.

Features of GUIs include:

 They are much easier to use for beginners.

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 They enable you to easily exchange information between software using cut and paste or 'drag and
drop'.
 They use alot of memory and processing power. It can be slower to use than a CLI if you are an
expert user.
 They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number of operations.
When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X and Linux are all graphical
user interfaces.

A good user interface should:

 be attractive and pleasing to the eye
 allow the user to try out different options easily
 be easy to use
 use suitable colours for key areas
 use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
 have online help
It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to prefer pictures to
words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input or output devices
WIMP interface
 Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with a
computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much more intuitive
'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems provide

 "Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-down
menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers much more
straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line interface. The
WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers since they were invented,
and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows and on Unix and other
workstations through the X Window system.

NETWORKING
LANs and WANs
There are two types of network: LAN and WAN.
A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a school or a
college.

A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.

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 The Internet is a WAN.

 A network of bank cash dispensers is a WAN.
 A school network is a LAN.
 LANs are often connected to WANs, for example a school network could be connected to
the Internet.
Telephone lines are often used to connect WANs. LANs use dedicated cables or wireless
technology.

LAN
 Local Area Network.
 Are privately owned network within a single building or even on a single
floor.
 LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources e.g. printers and
exchange information.
 Common LAN topologies are Bus, Ring and Star.
 Resources are shared e.g. as above
 Software is shared
 Enhances communication between workstations
 File sharing
Definitions of Local Area Network on the Web:
 A computer network limited to the immediate area, usually the same building or floor of a
building.

 (1) A computer network located on a user's premises within a communication across the
LAN boundary may be subject to some form of regulation. (2) A network in which a set of
devices are connected to one another for communication and that can be connected to a
larger network.
 Communications network connecting computers by wire, cable, or fiber optics link.
Usually serves parts of an organization located close to one another, generally in the
same building or within 2 miles of one another. Allows users to share software, hardware
and data.

WAN
 Wide Area Network.
 A WAN spans a large geographical area often a country or continent.
 Also called long-haul network.
 Transmission lines for a WAN can be leased or can be private lines. I.e.
leased telephone lines, fibre optics, coaxial cables, microwave radio links,
satellite connections etc.
Definitions of Wide Area Network on the Web:
 A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications
network. The term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a
local area network. A wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but
the term usually connotes the inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An
intermediate form of network in terms of geography is a metropolitan area
network (MAN).

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Advantages and disadvantages of networks
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORKING & SHARING RESOURCES OVER A NETWORK.

1. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment where resources are shared
and capacity problems reduced.
2. Resource sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different machines to share
modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example, users can send network messages requesting to
use a central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource.
3. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer can be installed, added to
the network, and immediately accessed by other machines and users.
4. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across several machines. If one
machine goes down, another can take its place and provide the data to the applications.
5. Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between machines on the network,
allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company newsletters, and other information.
6. Low cost. Single device shared by several machines reduce the need to buy many peripheral devices.
Resource sharing also serves money. An installation can have several low-cost work stations accessing a
single file-server. That puts a lot of processing power on the user’s desk without the expense of large
mainframe systems.
7. Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
8. Site licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several stand-alone licenses.
9. Files can easily be shared between users.
10. Network users can communicate by email.
11. Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
12. A file server is easy to back up as all the data is stored in one place

DISADVANTAGES
1. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data.
2. Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune the network, monitor the
network, administer database files, and ensure network integrity (ensure the network runs smoothly)
3. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures become catastrophic.
4. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages. For example, a message
that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may enter the system via the network.
5. Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
6. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually needs to be
employed.
7. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-mail might still work if it is on
a separate server. The computers can still be used as stand alones.
8. Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
9. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are needed to
prevent such abuse.
10. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security concerns, therefore, network security is a priority
in the development of network applications.

What is the Internet?

 The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers that
communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibers. It is literally the
whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport information.

 When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web (WWW) which is
the most used feature of the Internet.

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 The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can contain text, pictures,
movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a language or code called HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language). A set of web pages is called a website.
 Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the format "http" and a
domain (such as ."co.uk"). What goes in between is arbitrary, but often has the term "www "such as
in "http://www.name.co.uk". but it doesn’t have to (e.g. http://news.bbc.co.uk).
 Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is called the
homepage.

 Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken to another
page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
 When you move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you need a program
to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet Explorer.
 To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There are many
different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of searching and indexing web
content. Google, MSN and Alta Vista are all examples of search engines, while Yahoo and Excite
are web directories (a bit like the Yellow Pages phone book) which have a search function built in.
 The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
 A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.

What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Internet? Discuss

These are far too broad and extending to all realms in life. For instance:-

1) Access to a wide range of information from any location worldwide where there is
internet access. i.e. airlines, resorts, books, authors.
2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a cheque
book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing – communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.
Advantages of the Internet
The Internet provides opportunities galore, and can be used for a variety of things. Some of the things that you can do
via the Internet are:

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 E-mail: E-mail is an online correspondence system. With e-mail you can send and receive instant electronic
messages, which works like writing letters. Your messages are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the
world, unlike traditional mail that takes a lot of time.
 Access Information: The Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any
topic under the sun is available on the Internet. The ‘search engines’ on the Internet can help you to find
data on any subject that you need.
 Shopping: Along with getting information on the Internet, you can also shop online. There are many online
stores and sites that can be used to look for products as well as buy them using your credit card. You do not
need to leave your house and can do all your shopping from the convenience of your home.
 Online Chat: There are many ‘chat rooms’ on the web that can be accessed to meet new people, make new
friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends.
 Downloading Software: This is one of the most happening and fun things to do via the Internet. You can
download innumerable, games, music, videos, movies, and a host of other entertainment software from the
Internet, most of which are free.
Disadvantages of the Internet
There are certain cons and dangers relating to the use of Internet that can be summarized as:
 Personal Information: If you use the Internet, your personal information such as your name, address, etc.
can be accessed by other people. If you use a credit card to shop online, then your credit card information
can also be ‘stolen’ which could be akin to giving someone a blank check.
 Pornography: This is a very serious issue concerning the Internet, especially when it comes to young
children. There are thousands of pornographic sites on the Internet that can be easily found and can be a
detriment to letting children use the Internet.
 Spamming: This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk, which serve no purpose and unnecessarily
clog up the entire system.
 There is information overload for the internet. Sifting through relevant information can be a task in itself.
 If there is tremendous increase in internet use, then gaining access will be a problem.

If you come across any illegal activity on the Internet, such as child pornography or even spammers, then you should
report these people and their activities so that they can be controlled and other people deterred from carrying them out.
Child pornography can be reported to:
 Your Internet service provider
 Local police station
 Cyber Angels (program to report cyber crime)
Such illegal activities are frustrating for all Internet users, and so instead of just ignoring it, we should make an effort to
try and stop these activities so that using the Internet can become that much safer. That said, the advantages of the
Internet far outweigh the disadvantages, and millions of people each day benefit from using the Internet for work and
for pleasure

The Web uses three standards namely:

1 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) – which are web page addresses
2 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – the language used to design web pages
3 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:

WHAT IS NEEDED FOR INTERNET AND E-MAIL SERVICES

1) A computer connected to a network,
2) The windows operating system installed
3) The communication and or browser software such as Ms-Exchange or Ms-Outlook, Internet
explorer, Netscape navigator
4) A modem

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5) Telephone line
6) Subscription to an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
What do you need to get connected?

To connect to the internet you need:

1) A computer
2) A telephone line
3) A modem - the type of modem you need to use is dependant on the type of
connection you have. Some of the choices are:

An analogue modem and an ordinary phone line. This type of modem links your
computer to the phone and converts computer signals to analogue phone line
signals - and back again. Typical analogue modem speeds are 56Kbps (bps
stands for bits per second) which means they can receive about 6000 characters
per second. This is the slowest and oldest type of connection and becoming less
common with the introduction of broadband.

An ISDN line and terminal adaptor. This digital connection is slightly faster than
an analogue connection.

An ADSL or cable telephone line and broadband modem. Broadband modems

are much faster than the other two options and their use is increasing.
4) An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
5) Browser software

ISPs are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs
include Freeserve, AOL, Virgin, Tesco, BT and many more. Most offer the same basic package of
Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own pages and local rate call charges.
A browser is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web. The most widely used are
Internet Explorer and Firefox.
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
 Forward and back buttons to move between pages
 A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
 A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
 Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
 Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
Electronic mail
Electronic mail or email is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
computers via the telephone network. Because the telephone network covers the whole world,
email enables you to communicate world wide.
Email and web mail
Email
To set up email you need:
 A computer
 An internet connection via an analogue modem (ordinary phone line) or terminal adaptor
(ISDN) or broadband modem (ADSL and cable)
 An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
 Email software

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Your Internet Service Provider will give you an email account, a password and a mailbox such as
[email protected]. You can also set up an email account with a mailbox and
passwords with non-ISPs such as Google and Hotmail.
With a dial-up connection, you have to pay the cost of your internet phone calls (local rate), and in
most cases a subscription to your provider (though some are free). A broadband connection is
'always on', with only a flat-rate subscription. Very few people pay by the minute nowadays and
the majority of people pay a monthly fee for broadband access.
Anti-virus scanning is becoming standard on email accounts and many email providers now offer
an anti spam (electronic junk mail) service.

Web mail
Web mail, as its name suggests, is web-based email. To use web mail, you do not need any
email software - just a computer connected to the internet via any one of the connection types
listed above, and a browser.
Users simply sign up to the web mail service of a web portal such as MSN or Yahoo. They are
given a unique user name and a personal mailbox on the portal's email server, and they can then
send and receive messages via a special web page.
A basic web mail account is usually free, although this will have a very limited amount of storage.

The advantage of web mail is that users can receive and send mail from any computer in the
world with internet access. If you have a dial-up connection you can download your emails and
then read them offline to avoid staying on-line for long periods.
Some ISPs will enable their regular email customers to access their mailbox via web mail as well
as through the email software on their PC.
Features of email
 Automatic reply to messages
 Auto forward and redirection of messages
 Facility to send copies of a message to many people
 Automatic filing and retrieval of messages
 Addresses can be stored in an address book and retrieved instantly
 Notification if message cannot be delivered
 Automatically date and time stamped
 Signatures can be attached
 Files, graphics or sound can be sent as attachments, often in compressed formats
 Web mail and mobile email can be used to receive and send messages while on the
move.
Using email
 Broadband email
- Your connection is always on - so simply write and address your message and hit 'send'
to send your mail and 'receive' to download any incoming messages from your email
provider's server.

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 Web mail
- Connect to the internet (if using a dial-up account) and open your browser.
- navigate to your web mail provider's portal and enter your user-name and password.
- all incoming mail will now be visible, and you can also compose and send mail, and
download attachments to your computer.
- When you're done, log out and close your connection.
 Dial-up email
- Prepare your message offline as typing your message online will increase phone
charges.
- Connect to the internet and log on to your email account.
- Send your message and download any incoming mail sitting on your service provider's
computer.
- Log off and close your connection.
Email is evolving...
 Many mobile phones already allow messages to be sent to the recipient's email inbox
while the sender is on the move. The latest generation of mobile phones enables users to
send and receive wireless email in exactly the same way as a static computer.
 Email can be sent and received via digital TV, specially adapted phones, public kiosk
terminals and the latest generation of games console.
 A spreading network of wireless 'hotspots' in public places allows people to send and
receive email via laptop computers.
 A new range of in-car phones will enable motorists to check their email on the road
Benefits and concerns of using email
Email benefits
 Fast delivery of your message
 Available 365 days, 24 hours per day - and, with web mail, wherever you are in the world
as long as you have access to the internet.
 Cheap: when using broadband, individual mail transfers are effectively free. When going
online from a dial-up account, calls are charged at local rates and (for conventional email)
need only last a few seconds.
 Facility to send the same message to more than one person
Email concerns
 It can only be sent to people who themselves have access to the internet.
 Viruses are easily spread via email attachments - anti virus measures must be in place
to avoid this and are now offered by many e-mail providers.
 Phishing - sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate company to
scam the user into providing information such as personal information and bank account
numbers on a bogus website. The details will then be used for identity theft.
 No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their mail.
 Spam! Or Junk mail

NETWORK SYSTEMS
 Is one in which processing is carried out independently in more than one
location, but with shared & controlled access to some common facilities,
which normally include file storage & information resources?
Definitions of hub on the Web:
 A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A

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passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. ...
 Node – a terminal point in a communications network.
 Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to support
the work of one person.

STAR NETWORK

 Is a network in which nodes are connected to a central component as its

hub?
 The central component can be a switching device like a switch or PABX
[private automatic branch exchange], a computer [minicomputer to which
workstations or PCs are connected] or just a wiring center that is a
common termination point for the nodes, called a hub.
 A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for
multiple nodes and that can relay [store & forward] signals along the
appropriate paths.
Definitions of star network on the Web:
 A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a star
coupler.

 A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub or
concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central point
representing the points of the star.

Advantages of star topology

 It is easy to add or remove nodes
 Because each node has its own link to the central node, the star is more reliable
than other topologies.
 Full utilization of resources i.e. printer, sharing of processor
 Direct connection of terminals to the main processor, means that if one terminal
breaks down it wont affect other terminals.
Disadvantages of star topology
 All traffic between two nodes passes through the central node. If the central
component breaks down, the whole network is down.

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 The number of ports of the central component limits the number of connected
nodes.
 A star topology requires a lot of cabling since all data path connections must be
to the central node.
 There is no direct communication between or among workstations
 Sharing of processor delays in the processing of jobs.

BUS/LINEAR NETWORK

 Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.

 This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point
network.
 Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
 In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the
individual nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
 When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator
absorbs it, to keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to
avoid interference with other messages already in the line.
 The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
 Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address
of destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the
alert for any messages coming to them.
Definitions of bus network on the Web:
 A single-cable LAN, in which all computers on the network are connected in series to a
single cable. On a bus network, each computer hears all of the transmissions going down
the line, and selects only those that are addressed to its location. This is the simplest and
most common LAN technology.

Advantages of Bus Network/topology

 When a node breaks down, the network does not break down.

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 A bus uses relatively less cables compared to other topologies
 Direct communication due to direct connection.
 Fast processing since there is no Host computer
 Once a cable has been laid down any new equipment can easily
be connected to the network by a simple tapping into the cable.
Disadvantages of Bus Network/topology
 In a bus topology it is not always easy to add a node. [E.g. installation of extra
tap in thick Ethernet].
 Diagnosis/trouble shooting can be difficult.
 Expensive to run [several processors] – Detectors.
 Communication between components of the network traveling in opposite
direction along the bus can collide causing loss of transmitted information.
 Because of this collision a detection system has to be present to control the re-
transmission of lost information thereby making it a more expensive option

RING NETWORK

 A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.

 Each node has two neighboring nodes
 Data flow is unidirectional.
 A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination
with intermediate nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
 The destination node copies the message and passes the message again
to the ring.
 This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the
source.
Definitions of ring network on the Web:
 A network topology in the form of a closed loop or circle. Each node in the network is
connected to the next, and messages move in one direction around the system. When a
message arrives at a node, the node examines the address information in the message.
If the address matches the node's address, the message is accepted; otherwise the node
regenerates the signal and places the message back on the network for the next node in
the system. ...
Advantages of ring network
 The message return provides the source with a form of
acknowledgement. The node removes its own message from the
ring.
 Little cabling needed compared to Star.
 Each node acts as relay unit.
 Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in
one direction.

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Relatively cheap to install.

Efficient and accurate means of communication.

There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as

each node controls transmission to and from itself.
Disadvantages of ring network
 Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
 If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.
 If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected

HEALTH AND SAFETY

HEALTH PROBLEMS THAT MAY BE RELATED TO COMPUTER USE AND POSSIBLE
SOLUTIONS
Low Back pain
 Usually due to using the wrong type of chair, these have been four legged chairs found in any
office for visitors, executive chairs where the back is not separate from the seat and therefore
cannot be adjusted to offer any lumbar support.
 If the user has not taken any time to adjust the chair.
 Sitting on the edge of the chair and leaning forward can also cause problems and this often
happens when there are arms on the chair which are not adjustable in height or when the user is
short in stature, the arms on the chair will not move low enough to allow the user to get close
enough to the desk.
 Sitting with the legs crossed causes uneven weight on each buttock and strain on back muscles.
I have seen a lot of problems caused by arms on chairs that cannot be raised or lowered and
recommend that all chairs are purchased without arms for this reason.
Poor desk configuration
If the screen is placed off to one side, the keyboard should still be positioned centrally to avoid twisting the
torso, often if the screen is off to one side, the user will support one elbow on the desk putting strain in the
muscles of the back.
If odd pieces of furniture are used to make up a workstation ensure that they are the same height. It is best
to draw your proposed desk layout before moving furniture.
Having a set of drawers that prevent sideways movement
The L shaped desk layout allows more space and freedom of movement if writing and keyboard activity is
required but when two desks are butted onto each other, one set of drawers can restrict movement. The set
of drawers restricting movement can be removed with a screwdriver.
Ideally desks should be purchased without drawers and then modular drawer units can be placed in
convenient locations.
Room temperature
If a room is too cold muscles can go into spasm and injury is more likely.
Dehydration
Many office workers drink too much tea and coffee, which has a diuretic action so water is the best choice.
Remember that offices with several computers can make the air feel very dry.

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Overstretching
Items used most frequently should be positioned within easy reach
If the hard drive/midi tower is housed under the desk, muscles can be pulled when bending over to switch
the computer on.
Pain in the neck
 Pain in the neck is often caused by too much up and down or side-to-side movement of the neck, a
solution is to use a document holder at the same height as the screen or attached to the screen so
that it is only necessary to transfer the gaze.
(These can be purchased from Gaynor in the computer shop for approx £4.00 and are much
cheaper than in the Lyreco catalogue. You will need to complete a purchase order form for this
product. (Approval for the use of purchase order forms has been sought from Mike
Montgomery.)
 Sitting with the telephone receiver in you neck.
 Using bifocals because the neck is bent backwards to focus on the screen. These people should
speak to their Optician about using a special pair of glasses for computer use or have their bifocal
section on the glasses made wider.
 If the screen is too high. The head should be in the neutral position with the gaze at a slightly
downward angle when viewing the screen.
Not taking posture breaks
Posture breaks are important to prevent overuse of one group of muscles, break up periods of keying and
mouse work regularly. (See information sheet on posture breaks and wrist exercises)
Pressure on the wrists from a sharp edge on a desk
Some desks have a sharp edge, which can cause pressure on the wrists. If users are trained typists, they
usually do not rest their wrists whilst keying but most self taught keyboard users do, this causes pressure
and increased risk of injury if the user is also working with their wrists bent. A gel wrist rest can be used to
provide a soft cushion for resting the wrists in between periods of keying or mouse activity. Gel mouse
mats are also available.
Painful wrists or fingers
 Painful wrists or fingers often occur when the chair is not adjusted to the correct height to allow a
perfect L shape between the shoulder, elbow and wrist, if the wrists are bent up or down then the
fingers are not horizontal to the keys or the mouse, the clicking finger is not horizontal to the
control mechanism and the wrist is left unsupported.
 Striking the keys too hard or excessive mouse use can also cause painful fingers or by not keeping
the mouse close enough to the body. Ideally a mouse should be used directly in front of the
shoulder and as close to the body as possible.
Dirty mice are not efficient and require more clicking therefore increasing your risk of overuse
syndrome.
Research has shown that intensive use of the mouse is more likely to cause symptoms of overuse
syndrome than keyboard activity; you should consider keyboard shortcuts (These can be viewed on a
separate page.)
Alternative mice
There are various alternative mice that relieve and prevent symptoms of overuse:
 Optical mice are more efficient because they do not get dirty balls!
 Cordless optical mice allow more freedom
 Tracker balls offer an alternative movement but one could argue that you are just exchanging one
repetitive movement for another and transferring the strain from the fingers to the thumb.
 Joystick mice often have thumb controls.
 Beware of mice that are advertised as being ergonomic because they may not be. Some mice
totally fill the hand and can be uncomfortable for users with small hands.
 Touch pads can be used in either hand and are ideal for people with one-handed symptoms
because they can be used in either hand; the same amount of dexterity is not required for
operation.
 The whale mouse is ideal for mouse intensive work and can open out to fit any hand.
There are numerous options on the market but it is better to try before you buy.

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You may want to contact other members of staff on the intranet at UWB to see if someone has a different
type of mouse for you to try or you can contact the OHSU to see if there is a mouse for you to borrow for a
short period so that you can evaluate it’s effects on your symptoms
Pain in the buttocks
Pain in the buttocks radiating down the thigh can be caused by a chair seat that is too long and causing
pressure behind the knees or from inadequate lumbar support.
Pain in the shoulders
 Pain in the shoulders can be caused by having arms on the chair that cannot be adjusted this causes
the user to sit with the arms sticking out.
 Sitting at the desk with one elbow supported on the desk and the other held lower or twisting the
torso to look at the monitor will also cause pain.
Pain in the knees
 Pain in the knees can be caused by the fact that when the chair has been adjusted to the correct
height to allow the fingers to be horizontal to the keys, the feet are left unsupported, the solution is
to purchase a footrest the small step type called (twin plus in the Lyreco catalogue are best
because they do not take up much space under the desk, they can be adjusted according to the
height of the person using them.)
If transcription is carried out it is better to have a large surface area on the footrest and the ability
to keep this level to support the footswitch.
 Pain in the knees can also be caused by a seat that is too long resulting in pressure behind the
knees.
Eye strain
 Eyestrain can be caused by glare from the monitor or from overhead lights. Ideally the desk should
be placed between lights and not directly under them. If this is not possible you may be able to
switch the overhead light off and use an angle poise lamp.
 Glare from windows without blinds or with incorrectly fitted blinds.
 Where there are casement window at the top and blinds cannot be used there is often glare from
the sun on the screen. Some vertical blinds are not efficient and additional blackout roller blinds
would improve efficiency and keep the room cool. If blinds cannot be fitted it may be possible
to fit a tinted transparent film to the window.
Other solutions:
 See the Optician about middle distance correction
 Ask about a slight tinted coating to your glasses
 Contact IT if there is any flicker on your screen
 If your monitor is old and small (14inch CGA, VGA) it will have poor resolution and should be
replaced with a 17inch SVGA or XGA.
 Clean your screen
 Adjust your contrast or brightness
 Make sure that you are not too far away from the screen (correct viewing distance is 18-20 inches)
 Remove the antiglare device. (These can cause problems focusing because you have to look
thought it to see your screen.)
 Introduce regular task rotation to break up periods of keying.
Choosing the right chair
Tudor Jones in the Estates department will order chairs for you and will be able to advise on models that
are appropriate for computer use, by using this service you will also benefit from considerable cost
savings.
If you use a computer you should order a chair that has a height adjustable back and preferably without
arms as these often cause poor posture. If you really cannot live without arms on your chair they should be
totally height adjustable (They do cost extra).
When you receive your new chair you should read the booklet that is usually attached so that you
understand how all the mechanisms work. There is usually a handle or knob to raise and lower the height
of the seat and another to enable a rocking action.

It is important to use the rocking action, as this will reduce static loading.

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There will be a mechanism for raising and lowering the height of the backrest to ensure adequate lumbar
support. (Sometimes you need to release a tension knob at the back of the chair to allow for movement of
the backrest.
Are computers damaging your health?
Use this 7 point checklist to find out . .
Working for hours on end with a computer is now a fact of life. Whether it's an aspect of your work or
whether you use computers just for fun, there are certain risks involved with prolonged computer use. This
simple 7 point checklist will help you recognize and avoid the most common problems:
C ontact stress
O rganisation
M onotony
P osture
U ncomfortable environment
T etchiness
E xercise

 Contact Stress
Contact stress refers to the pressure that is put on different parts of the body whilst in a
relatively fixed position. Wrist and hand problems are common with computers. For
example, 'floating' your hand over the mouse for long periods leads to strain on the
ligaments in the back of the hand and the wrist. The sensation is not unlike gripping a
pen for long periods. Leaning wrists against hard surfaces such as the edge of the desk
leads to similar problems.
 Over time, health problems may occur as a result of high repetition of hand movements,
forceful typing, or having bent wrists whilst using the key board. Carpal tunnel syndrome
is a painful condition that affects the wrists and hands following pressure to the median
nerve. Numbness may also be experienced in one or both hands and even the simplest
of tasks involving the hands becomes a painful and sometimes impossible activity.
Attention to posture, light keyboard actions and mouse movement and simple regular
exercise (see Exercise) can help to prevent problems. If problems do arise it is important
to stop and seek medical assistance. In extreme cases surgery may be required to
relieve symptoms, but rest, coupled with remedial exercise, is the most likely medical
intervention.
 Organization
Organizing your work can help prevent computer-related health problems. Think about
the nature and pattern of your work. If you have to undertake repetitive tasks with the
computer try, where possible, to vary these with other activities. Coffee and lunch breaks
are there for a reason. Don't be tempted to sit at the computer during breaks; much better
to get your circulation going and step out for some fresh air. Think carefully before

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accepting overtime or agreeing to take on extra work, or forcing the pace to try and finish
the work you have. The more work you accept the more it may be assumed you can
cope. There are times you may need to assert your rights in order to keep a balance in
your life.
 Monotony
Any task that involves staring at a computer screen, no matter how exciting or interesting,
leads to physical fatigue. So whilst you may be quite happy to press on with work your
body may have other ideas. The most common physical complaints are eye strain and
problems with vision (blurring and itching being typical). Headaches are also a product of
prolonged staring at a screen. Remember to look away from the screen when you don't
need to use it. Check that the light levels are comfortable and that you are not dealing
with screen-reflected glare from windows or lighting. Some people find glare-reducing
screens useful. If you experience repeated headaches you should visit your doctor.
 Posture
Bad posture is enemy number one. Posture includes the factors previously discussed
under Contact Stress. Check your posture now! You should be able to reach the
keyboard and mouse whilst bending your elbows at 90 degrees, with your shoulders
relaxed. If you are stretching, this could cause problems. Your back should be straight
and the top of the monitor should be just below eye level. If your monitor is to the left or
right of your keyboard you are putting strain on your neck. Long periods of time at the
computer often leads to pain in the lumbar region of the back. Neck and shoulder
problems also result from poor seating and the poor organization of equipment on the
desk (stretching for the telephone or files etc).
 Uncomfortable Environment
Some of the issues previously mentioned contribute to an uncomfortable work
environment. Poor lighting levels or screening, poor air circulation, noise and equipment
issues all contribute to an uncomfortable work setting. The attitude of colleagues affects
the atmosphere of work. A good combination of environmental and relationship factors
are necessary to help avoid stress
.
WORD PROCESSING TERMINOLOGY
Most computers today come with a word processing program which allows the user to write text
documents like letters, business correspondence, and even books. The first step in learning how
to use a word processor is to understand the terminology that is unique to word processing
programs. Here are a few basic terms that will help.

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Typeface
A typeface defines the shape of the characters. Some common typefaces are Times New
Roman, Arial, and Courier. If you look closely, you will see that the letters in each of these are
shaped differently, some narrower, some rounder.
Font
A font is collection of letters and numbers in a particular typeface. The font includes the typeface
plus other qualities, such as size, pitch, and spacing. For instance, within the Times Roman
family, there are many fonts to choose from, including different sizes, italic, and bold. If you are
working in a word processing program, the font might be Times New Roman, 10 point, bold.
Changing the font can completely change the look and feel of a Web page or document.
Format
In a word processing program, you can format any text that you create. Formatting involves
specifying the font, alignment, margins, and other properties. The format is the layout of a
document. The format determines how the document will appear on the screen and how it will
look when printed.
Alignment
The alignment refers to the way lines of text are arranged relative to the edges of a block of text.
For example, the text can be flush with the left side of the document (left aligned), flush with the
right side of the document (right aligned), or centered horizontally on the document (centered).
There is also an alignment option called justified. In text that is justified both the right and left
sides of the text will appear to line up evenly.
Tab
The tab function in a word processor works much like the tab function on a typewriter. Tab stops
can be set in the ruler at the top of the page. When the tab key is pressed, the cursor will move to
the next tab location. This allows the user to indent paragraphs and lists.
Margins
Margins are the blank space to the left and right sides and at the top and bottom of a page. The
size of the margins can be increased or decreased. In Microsoft Word, this is done by choosing
File-Page Setup and changing the numbers on the Margin tab.
Header/Footer
The header is one or more lines of text that appear at the top of every page of a document. The
header often includes information like names and titles. The footer consists of one or more lines
of text that appear at the bottom of every page of a document. The footer often includes the page
number.
Line Spacing
Line Spacing refers to the number of blank spaces between lines of type. The most common line
spacings are single-spaced and double-spaced, but the line spacing in a word processor can be
set to almost any amount of line spacing.

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Word Wrap
Word wrap is a word processing feature that permits information to be keyed on successive lines
without having to tap the return/enter key at the key of each line.
Table
A collection of data arranged in rows and columns. Tables are commonly used in word
processing programs. They are also used in spreadsheets and database programs.
Spell/Grammar Check
Word processing programs contain a spell check program which can verify the correct spelling of
words in a document. In some programs you will click on a menu choice or an icon to start the
spell checking. Some programs will automatically check your spelling as you go, inserting a
squiggly red line under words that may be misspelled. Grammar checking works in much the
same way with the program inserting a squiggly green line under words that may be
grammatically incorrect. Remember the spell check and grammar checking are not foolproof. A
word may pass both checks and still be incorrect.
Indent
An indent is one or more spaces that are used to move the text to the right of the left margin.
Ruler
In a word processor, you can use the ruler to set the indent, margin and tab markers and this can
allow complex formatting options. Never use the space bar and return key to align text.
Template
Templates establish the initial document setting and formats. A word processing program like
Microsoft Word uses the "normal" template as the basis for all documents. A user can modify the
"normal" document, and/or may create other templates to use.
Bullets & Numbering
A word processing program can automatically add bullets and/or numbers to the text.
Print Preview
This is a very useful feature. Click on the menu choice or icon for a Print Preview and you will be
shown an image of exactly what the printed output will look like.
Spelling checker
 A companion application that you use with a word-processing application to check for
misspelled words.
 A word processing function which searches for and corrects misspellings by comparing a
document's words with those in a built-in spelling dictionary.
 spell-checker: an electronic dictionary in a word processor that can be used to catch
misspelled words
 In computing terms, a spell checker or spelling checker is a design feature or a software
program designed to verify the spelling of words in a document, helping a user to ensure
correct spelling. A spell checker may be implemented as a stand-alone application
capable of operating on an block of text; however, spelling checkers are more often
implemented as a feature of a larger document-related application, such as a word
processor or an email client.
Macros
 In the context of programming by demonstration, this usually refers to any procedure
created by recording the user's actions as they are carried out. Unlike the conventional
computer-science definition, the use here does not necessarily have any implications

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about how the procedure is executed (whether it is expanded in-line using textual
substitution or called as a function).
 A macro in computer science is an abstraction, whereby a certain textual pattern is
replaced according to a defined set of rules. The interpreter or compiler automatically
replaces the pattern when it is encountered. In compiled languages, macro-expansion
always happens at compile-time. The tool which performs the expansion is sometimes
called a macro-expander. ...
Header
Text that appears at the top of every page of a document when it is printed.
Footer
 Located at the bottom of the page, it usually contains information about the page author
or the sponsor. You may also find copyright information and the date the page was last
updated.
 Text that appears at the bottom of every page in a document.
 One or more lines of text appearing at the bottom of every page.
 A design element that prints at the bottom of a page, often showing the publication's
name and page number.
 The text and images at the bottom of a web document that provide information on
author/institutional sponsor, revision date, copyright, comments form, and navigational
links. Sometimes these links are buttons. The footer is often set off from the rest of the
text on the page by a horizontal rule. Footers are not the opposite of headers in web
documents. See Header
Mail merge
 the process by which information (eg names and addresses) from a database or other list
and inserted into a standard document or letter to produce multiple personalised copies.
 A mass-mail facility that takes names, addresses, and (sometimes) pertinent facts about
recipients and merges the information into a form letter or another such basic document.
 The transfer of data from one computer file to address and/or personalize mailing items in
another.

SPREADSHEET TERMINOLOGY
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program written and distributed by Microsoft for computers
using the Microsoft Windows operating system and for Apple Macintosh computers. It features an
intuitive interface and capable calculation and graphing tools which, along with aggressive
marketing, have made Excel one of the most popular microcomputer applications to date. ...
Workbook
 A spreadsheet document that contains one or more worksheets, a Microsoft Excel
document.
 A collection of related worksheets contained within a single file. (in spreadsheet
applications).
 The workbook is the main document used in software programs like Excel. A workbook
consists of individual worksheets, like an accountant's workbook, each of which can
contain data. Basically, a workbook is a very sophisticated ledger.
Worksheet
 A single spreadsheet that contains rows and columns of data. In Excel, a worksheet will
have a little white tab at the bottom of the screen. A worksheet is treated like a database
table.
 An electronic spreadsheet containing 256 columns by 16,384 rows. (in spreadsheet
applications).
 A work area comprised of rows and columns, also known as a spreadsheet.
x-axis label
 A label describing the x-axis of a chart. (in spreadsheet applications

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Cell An intersection of a row and column, the smallest element in which you can enter
data.
Column A vertical selection of cells identified by one or more letters, starting with A at the left
side of the spreadsheet.
Row A horizontal selection of cells identified by a number, starting with 1 at the top of the
spreadsheet.
Named A user-defined selection of contiguous cells.
Selection
Formula An equation that performs an operation on cell data and displays the result. For
example, to add the contents of cells A1 and A2, and display the results in A3, cell A3
would contain =A1+A2, a simple formula.
Function A pre-defined formula that allows you to quickly perform a more difficult operation on
cell data, such as finding the average of a range of numbers. Functions always take
arguments, or additional information that enables the computation to occur. For
example, the argument to the AVG, or average, function is the range of cells to be
averaged: =AVG(A1..C10) averages all cells between A1 (in the upper left) and C10
(in the lower right).
Cell reference
 The column number and the row letter of a cell.
 The address or name of a specific cell. Cell references may be used in formulas and are
relative or absolute. (Spreadsheet application).
 A cell name used in a formula.
Cell pointer
 A highlighted rectangle around a cell that indicates the active cell. (Spreadsheet
application)
Relative cell reference
 Used to indicate a relative position in a worksheet. This allows you to copy and move
formulas from one area to another of the same dimensions. Excel, for example,
automatically changes the column and row numbers to reflect the new position. (in
spreadsheet applications).
 Cell references in formulas that change when Excel copies them to another location.
Absolute cell reference on the Web:
 A cell reference in which a dollar sign ($) precedes both the column and row portions of
the cell reference.
Mixed cell reference
 Cell reference in which either the column or the row is never adjusted if the formula
containing it is copied to another location.
Cell address
 Usually the intersection of a cell's row and column.
 Unique location identified by intersecting column and row coordinates. (Spreadsheet
application)
What if analysis
 The process of playing with numbers to see how they interact in a spreadsheet.
Freeze panes

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 Freezing panes prevents the data in the panes from scrolling as you move to different
areas in the worksheet.

Goal seek on the Web:

 Goal Seek is a tool that is used to find the value needed in one cell to attain a result you
want in another cell.
Formula
 A set of instructions that you enter in a cell to perform numeric calculations
(adding, multiplying, averaging, etc.); for example, +A1+B1. (in spreadsheet
applications)
 Instructs the spreadsheet to perform a calculation using the contents of a specific
cell or range of cells
Filter
 A program that processes individual, personal preferences in an attempt to deliver
relevant information to a particular end user.
Solver
 Solver is a tool used to perform what-if analyses to determine the effect of changing
values in tow or more cells on another cell.
Recalculation
 The act of calculating again (usually to eliminate errors or to include additional data);
"recalculation yielded a much larger value"
Excel Terms

A cell address in a formula that does not change when copied to another
Absolute cell reference:
cell. An absolute reference has the form $A$1.

The selected cell in a worksheet. The active cell is surrounded by a

Active cell:
heavy border and is identified by the cell address.

The information that a function uses to produce a new value or perform

an action. For example, a new value is displayed when the SUM function
Argument:
adds the argument (A6:A12). An argument consists of numbers,
references, text, operators, or error values.

A method of ordering a group of items from lowest to highest, such as

Ascending:
from A to Z.

AutoFilter: Displays all records that meet the criteria as a subset of the database.

A feature used to format a range of cells with a predefined set of

AutoFormat:
attributes.

Sums the numbers in the specified range and then divides the sum by the
AVERAGE function:
number of non-zero cells in the range.

An unique address given to a cell; the coordinates of the intersection of a

Cell reference:
column and a row.

Cell: Basic unit of a worksheet into which you enter data.

A graphic representation of worksheet data. Values from worksheet cells

Chart:
are displayed as bars, lines, or other shapes. Common chart types are pie,

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bar, line, and area.

The lettered gray area at the top of each column that identifies the letter
Column heading:
of the column, such as column B.

A note that explains, identifies, or comments on the information in a

Comment:
specific cell or range of cells.

Made up of two values and a relational operator, is true or false for each
Condition:
cell in the range.

Allows you to apply formatting that appears only when the value in a cell
Conditional formatting:
meets conditions that you specify.

The conditions that control which records to display in a query; the

Criteria:
words or values used to determine the data that appears in a data list.

Displays a dollar sign to the left of the number, inserts a comma every
Currency style format: three positions to the left of the decimal point, and displays numbers to
the nearest cent (hundredths place).

Range of cells that shows the answers generated by formulas in which

Data table:
different values have been substituted.

Data validation: Restricts the values that may be entered into a cell by the worksheet user.

Debugging: Process of finding and correcting errors in the worksheet.

A method of ordering a group of items from highest to lowest, such as

Descending:
from Z to A.

Dummy data: Used in place of actual data to verify formulas in the template.

Embedded chart: A chart that exists on a worksheet instead of on a separate chart sheet.

Exploded Pie chart: A Pie chart with one or more slices offset.

A set of criteria you can apply to records to show specific tasks, records,
or resources. The tasks, records, or resources that match your criteria are
Filter:
listed or highlighted so that you can focus on just the information you
want.

A sequence of values, cell references, names, functions, or operators that

Formula: produces a new value from existing values. A formula always begins
with an equal sign (=).

A built-in formula; a named and stored procedure that performs a

Function:
specific operation and returns a value.

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Used if you know the result you want a formula to produce by
Goal seeking:
determining the value of a cell on which the formula depends.

Gridlines: The horizontal and vertical lines on the worksheet.

A function that tests the content of the cell, performs a calculation, and
IF function:
displays a value or text based on whether the test is true or false.

Label: Row title or column title.

Legend: A box containing the name of each data series in a chart.

MAX function: Displays the highest value in a range.

MIN function: Displays the lowest value in a range.

NOW function: Used to enter the system date in a cell in the worksheet.

An interactive chart that provides the user with ways to graphically

PivotChart: analyze data by varying the fields and categories to present different
views.

An interactive worksheet table that summarizes data using a selected

PivotTable: format and calculations. It is called a pivot table because you can
rearrange the table structure around the data.

Protected cells: Cells that you cannot change.

Series of two or more adjacent cells in a column or row or a rectangular

Range:
group of cells.

Reference: A cell address used in a formula.

In formulas, a reference to the address of another cell in relation to a cell

Relative cell reference:
that contains a formula.

Special workbook or worksheet you can create and then use as a pattern
Template:
to create new, similar workbooks or worksheets.

Unprotected cells: Cells whose values you can change at any time.

A Microsoft Excel document in which you can store other documents. A

Workbook:
workbook can include multiple worksheets and chart sheets.

A set of rows, columns, and cells in which you store and manipulate
Worksheet:
data. Several worksheets can appear in one workbook, and you can

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switch among them easily by clicking their tabs with the mouse.

A line, usually horizontal, along the bottom of a chart. The x-axis shows
X-axis:
the labels for the data series. Also called the horizontal axis.

A line, usually vertical, along the left side of a chart. The y-axis shows
Y-axis:
the values for the data series.

a) COMPILER
 A computer program which translates a complete program written in high-level language into
machine language /code before it is executed.
 A compiler is a computer program that translates a computer program written in one
computer language (called the source language) into an equivalent program written
in another computer language (called the output, object, or target language).
b) TRANSLATOR
 A program that translates a source program/ code into an equivalent object code [machine
code] before the program is executed by the computer.
 A program that translates one programming language into another

c) APPLICATION PROGRAM
 A software program running on top of the operating system [windows, Unix etc] that has been
created to perform a specific task for a user.
 A program that has been created to perform a specific task that is useful to the user -
unlike the operating system, which is a program that controls the PC. Most people
buy PC's so that they can run application programs. Ex: Word Processor,
Spreadsheet, Home Finance Package, and Drawing Package.

d) 4GL
 Fourth Generation Languages
 Allows the programmer to build a complete application without writing any traditional
programs.
 User specifies what is to be done but not how to do it.
 A 4GL (Fourth Generation Language) is a software tool that makes it easier to
generate ad hoc enquiries and reports, and may also be used to develop
applications. Some 4GL’s are designed for use by experienced programmers; others
are targeted at end users.
 A language in which the code generation is computer assisted.

(e) UTILITY PROGRAM

 A small program, or set of small programs, that supports the OS by providing
additional services that the OS does not provide. Some services they commonly
provide are: disk backup, disk optimization, file recovery, safe formatting, and
resource editing.
 These are service programs for they provide a useful service to the user by facilitating routine
services e.g. copying files.
 Support the operation, management, and users of a system by providing a variety of support
services.

(f) DATA SECURITY

 Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers.
 This means doing everything possible to ensure that an information system remains
secure. This means protecting information from criminals, equipment malfunction and

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natural disasters or fire. Security threats include unauthorized access to data and
damage to files by malicious programs such as some viruses.

(g) SOFTWARE PIRACY

 Unauthorized copying of software
 Unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented software.
 By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software
piracy, which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge problem
mainly because it is so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a
program than it is to tape a music CD that you have borrowed from a friend. Software
pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical support, but they gain the
use of the program without paying for it.

(h) DATA ENCRYPTION

 A procedure that renders the contents of a message or file unintelligible to anyone not
authorized to read it.
 The changing of information into an unreadable form to prevent anyone who does not
have a decryption "key" from reading the information. Data encryption is used to
protect sensitive information that travels over public channels such as the Internet.
 Is encoding data so that they cannot be understood unless they are decoded; used to
protect data from unauthorized users?

(i) HACKER
 User of a computer system that gains unauthorized access into a computer system.
 Unauthorized user who attempts to or gains access to an information system.
 Hacker' is the term given to someone who deliberately tries to circumvent security
procedures to gain unauthorized access to a computer network. The original usage of
the term referred to people who create state of the art or cutting-edge computer
programs, making computers perform tasks they may not have originally been
designed to perform.

(j) COMPUTER VIRUS

 An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a computer operates
without permission, to do harm to the computer.
 A computer virus is a self-replicating program containing code that explicitly copies
itself and can "infect" other programs by modifying them or their environment such
that a call to an infected program implies a call to a (possibly evolved) copy of the
virus.
 Virus: a software program capable of reproducing itself and usually capable of
causing great harm to files or other programs on the same computer.

Part A
i. Worksheet an electronic spreadsheet containing 256 columns by 16 384 rows. A single
spreadsheet that contains rows and columns of data . A set of rows, columns and cells in which
you store and manipulate data
ii. Cell address usually the intersection of a row and a column. Is the location of a cell on a
worksheet and is defined by the column letter and the row number. E.g. cell A1 is where column
A and Row 1 intersect.
iii. Formula a set of instruction that you enter in a cell to perform numeric calculations = A1+B1
iv. Cell Pointer (cursor) A highlighted rectangle around a cell that indicates the active cell.
v. Cell an intersection of a row and column, the smallest element in which you can enter data.

Part B
i. Footer text that appears at the bottom of every page in a document

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ii. Text that appears at the top of every page of a document when it is printed.
iii. Spell Checker F1 word processing function which searches for and correct misspellings by
comparing a document’s words with those in built-in spelling dictionary.
iv. Font is a style and size of type e.g Times New Roman, 12 point is a set of all the characters
available in one typeface and size, including uppercase and lowercase letters, punctuation, and
numerals.
v. Alignment the position of lines in a paragraph in relation to the document’s left and right
margins i.e. whether they are left-aligned, centered, right-aligned or justified.

INPUT DEVICES
There are many input formats which enable us to gather up and collect information, and enter data and instructions into
the computer.

Some common input devices

 QWERTY keyboard
 Mouse
 Tracker ball
 Joystick
 Light pen
 Sensors (see the Revision Bite on computer control)
Key-to-disk - An early stand-alone data entry machine that stored data on magnetic disk for computer entry. The key-to-disk
machine was the successor to the key-to-tape machine, which was the first major breakthrough in data entry since the punch card.
Other input devices include:
Barcode reader

Barcodes are different groups of vertical bars that can be read by an optical scanner. Barcodes are printed on nearly
every product that you can buy. Shops use barcodes because they are cheap to produce and very durable.

Concept keyboard
This is a flat board that contains a grid of buttons. Each button can be programmed to follow instructions. An overlay sheet
is placed on the grid with an explanation for each button. They are used in primary schools with young children. Many
modern fast food restaurants have overlays with either a description or picture of the meals that are available to make
ordering easier.

Digital camera
A digital camera allows you to take pictures and to store a digital photographic image that can be read by a computer. You
can then transfer the images directly from your camera on to your computer.

Graphics tablet

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This consists of a flat pad (the tablet) on which the user draws with a special pen. As the user draws on the pad the image
is created on the screen. Using a graphics tablet a designer can produce very accurate on-screen drawings.

MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)

Magnetic ink characters are the strange looking numbers that appear at the bottom of cheques. These characters are
used because they are very difficult to forge or damage. Banks use MICR to read the numbers from the bottom of
cheques to obtain data such as account numbers and bank sort codes.

Magnetic strip (or stripe) reader

Magnetic strips are built into many plastic cards such as cheque guarantee cards, cash-point cards and personal identity
cards. The magnetic strip on the back of the card can hold the personal details of the card owner and, with the necessary
PIN, will allow access to secure information e.g. bank account details. Data stored on the strip is scanned and input into a
computer system by a reader.

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

A MIDI system allows you to attach a musical instrument to your computer, for example a musical keyboard. You can then
store a musical sequence on a computer and then have the computer play it back to you.

OMR (Optical Mark Reader)

An OMR reads marks made by pencil on a printed form into the computer. OMR systems are suited to reading pre-printed
forms and check-boxes such as National Lottery number selection sheets and multiple-choice exam papers.

Scanner

Scanners are now a cheap and common way of getting images into a computer. They can also be used with OCR (Optical
Character Recognition) software to scan in text.

Touch screen
A touch screen is a special type of VDU, which has a grid of light beams or fine wires criss-crossing the screen. When the
screen is touched (usually to choose an on-screen option), the computer senses where you have pressed. Due to the vast
amount of information they can store, touch screen operated computers are generally used in the provision of public
information and are found in places such as airports.

Video digitiser
A video digitiser takes an image from a video camera or television and converts it so that it can be used by, and stored on,
a computer. Video sequences captured using a video digitiser are often used in multimedia presentations.

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Voice recognition system

A microphone is used with a voice recognition system. This can be used with a word processing program to enter text. It
can also be used as part of security systems - only certain digitally stored voices have access.

 Chorded keyboard  Keyboard, Typing

Text input devices  GKOS keyboard  Computer keyboard
 Keyer  Handwriting recognition
 Telegraph key (~20 WPM  Optical character recognition
Morse code)  Speech recognition
 Vibroplex (30–80 WPM Morse)

Pointing devices  Light pen  Computer mouse

 Light gun  Trackball
 Cyberglove  Touchpad
 Touch screen  Pointing stick
 Head pointer  Graphics tablet (or digitizing
 Eye gaze/eye tracking tablet)
 Stylus

Gaming devices  paddle  Joystick

 Power Pad  Gamepad (or joypad)

Image, video input devices  Digital camcorder  Image scanner

 Webcam  3D scanner
 Digital video recorder  Digital camera

Audio input devices  Microphone (see also speech  Digital dictaphone

recognition)
 Digital audio recorder

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are things we use to get information OUT of a computer.
Here are some examples of output devices.

Monitor - A monitor is the screen on which

words, numbers, and graphics can be seem.
The monitor is the most common output device.

Compact Disk - Some compact disks can be

used to put information on. This is called
burning information to a CD.
NOTE: A CD can also be an input device.

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Printer - A printer prints whatever is on the

monitor onto paper. Printers can print words,
numbers, or pictures.

Speaker - A speaker gives you sound output

from your computer. Some speakers are built
into the computer and some are separate.

Disk Drives - A disk drive is used to record

information from the computer onto a floppy
disk or CD.

Floppy Disk - A floppy disk is used to record

information on. The information is stored on
the floppy disk and can be used later or used
on another computer.

Headphones - Headphones give sound output

from the computer. They are similar to
speakers, except they are worn on the ears so
only one person can hear the output at a time.

Output devices
Common output formats are printed-paper, saved disk file, sound, video and on-screen documents. They are all of those
things that let your computer 'talk' back to you and present information. Examples of devices for these formats are:

Monitors or Visual Display Units (VDUs)

These are the most common output device and include desktop monitors and Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs).

Printers

 Laser printers produce a very high quality output, are very quiet and very fast although quite expensive to buy.
 Ink-jet printers are cheaper to buy, offering black and white or colour printing with reduced levels of quality and
speed.
 Dot-matrix printers are not so common today. They are comparatively noisy and low quality but are cheap to
run and ideal for draft copies.

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Plotters
A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings. They are usually used for Computer
Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) applications such as printing out plans for houses or car
parts.

Other devices
 Speakers
 LCD projectors
Output can also be in the form of instructions to a device such as a robot arm.

Hardware
 Hardware: (computer science) the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical
components making up a computer system
 Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the
data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the
hardware to accomplish tasks.The boundary between hardware and software is slightly
blurry—firmware is software that is "built-in" to the hardware, but such firmware is usually
the province of computer programmers and computer engineers in any case and not an
issue that computer users need to concern themselves with.
 Example include Input & Output devices mentioned above
Operating system
 The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer functional.
On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are other operating
systems often found in scientific and technical environments.

 An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being
initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a
computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The
application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services
through a defined application program interface (API). ...

 A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates
the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and MacOS are
common operating systems.
Storage devices
 In computing, a data storage device—as the name implies—is a device for storing data. It
usually refers to permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will remain stored
when power is removed from the device; unlike semiconductor RAM. Recording can be
done mechanically, magnetically, or optically.

Application Software
 These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating system
software allows the computer to work. A computer-aided dispatch system is application
software, as is each word processing program.
 Computer programs that are used to accomplish specific tasks not related to the
computer itself. Examples are word processors, spreadsheets, and accounting systems.
 A software program running on top of the operating system (Windows, UNIX, Mac) that
has been created to perform a specific task for a user. Examples include word processing
software like Word/Word Perfect, spreadsheets like Excel or Lotus 123, home finance
packages like Quicken, etc.

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 Programs that perform useful functions in the processing or manipulation of data;
includes database managers, word processors, text editors, spreadsheets, and other
programs that enable the useful production of data.
Antivirus Software
 A computer program designed to detect and respond to malicious software, such as
viruses and worms. Responses may include blocking user access to infected files,
cleaning infected files or systems, or informing the user that an infected program was
detected.
 Software tools that scan for known viruses and take action to disarm and/or remove
them. Such tools should be included as part of the computing systems environment that
the web services are delivered from.
 A computer program that provides protection from VIRUSES by making checks of the
integrity of the operating system. No antivirus software can offer total protection against
viruses.
2. a) What is an operating system? Give any three examples. [5].
 Is a collection of specialized programs designed to manage
computer resources and the overall operations of a computer?
 A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and
facilitates the operation of applications. VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS,
Windows Me, Windows XP, 95, 98, 2000, MS Dos, UNIX, Linux,
and MacOS are common operating systems.
 A collection of software, which administers, maintains and provides access to the
resources of a computer system.
b) State any five functions of an operating system. [5].
 Controls and coordinates the computer system
 Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no
parts of the computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
 It is a platform for application programs
 Provides user interface
 Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
 Provides error correctional routines
 Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
 Records details of processing for control analysis
 File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
 Resource management, manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
 Reports errors when they occur.

The main functions of an OS include:

In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating
system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each
application before giving another application a turn.
It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
It handles and monitors input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and
dial-up ports. [8]
It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and
any errors that may have occurred.
It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating

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application is freed from this work.
On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so
that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
Scheduling the activities of the CPU and resources to achieve efficiency and prevention of deadlock. [9]

What do you understand by the term “computer Virus”? [3].

 An executable computer program, written intentionally to alter
the way a computer operates without permission, to do harm to
the computer.
 A dangerous computer program with the characteristic feature of being able to
generate copies of itself, and thereby spreading. Additionally most computer viruses
have a destructive payload that is activated under certain conditions.
 A software program capable of reproducing itself and usually capable of causing
great harm to files or other programs on the same computer; "a true virus cannot
spread to another computer without human assistance.

Give any three signs that a virus has infected your computer. [3].
Signs that your computer might have a virus could
 Include spontaneous startup of programs like email programs,
 Unexplained attempts by programs on your computer to access the Internet,
 Changes in file date stamps,
 Unusually slow program load or run times,
 Lots of unexplained disk activity, drive lights blink without reason.
 Failure of a program or your computer to start.
 Changing file names.
 Some are destructive and will change files and erase data,
 Some will erase your entire hard drive.
 Data is modified or corrupted
 Longer times are experienced in loading programs
 Reduced memory or disk space
 Files are overwritten or damaged.
State any two ways computers are infected with viruses. [2].
 Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers
 Downloading unknown files, from the Internet.
 Opening unknown e-mail attachments
 Accepting program installations from the Internet.
 Use of network files i.e. documents on LANs or WANs.
 Software piracy.

Give any one anti-virus package you know. [1].

 Norton Antivirus Package
 Dr Solomon
 MS antiviral
 McAfee Antiviral
 AVG antiviral

What does antivirus software do?

 There are a variety of antivirus software packages that operate in many different ways, depending on how the
vendor chose to implement their software. What they have in common, though, is that they all look for patterns

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in the files or memory of your computer that indicate the possible presence of a known virus. Antivirus packages
know what to look for through the use of virus profiles (sometimes called "signatures") provided by the vendor.
New viruses are discovered daily. ...
State one measure that can be taken to avoid virus attacks. [1].
 Install an anti virus software
 Avoid software piracy
 Never download unknown files from the Internet
 Never open an unknown e-mail attachment
 Boot the system from virus free disks
 Use the write protect tab on floppy disks
 Scan all unknown floppies before use
a) State the functions of the Control Unit & Arithmetic Logic Unit. [5].
Control unit functions A.L.U functions
Manages input-output to & from the main Performs arithmetic operations
memory
Interprets instructions in sequence Performs logical operations
Issue commands to all elements of the computer Performs computations on data.
Directs sequence of operations Is where binary data is acted upon?
Directs traffic in the computer [make Stores intermediate and final results of
decisions] arithmetic operations
Interprets coded instructions
Initiates proper commands to other parts
of the computer.
Performs the functions of fetch, decode,
execute, and store.

State the difference between the main memory and the auxiliary storage.

Main memory Auxiliary or backup storage

Stores programs and data while Store data or programs for later use
computer is running for current use
Main memory is fast and limited in Slow and capacity vary
capacity
Cannot retain information when the Non volatile
computer is switched off - Volatile
Memory directly connected to the CPU - Portable- can be transported from one
not portable machine to another.
Primary storage Secondary storage
PROVIDES FAST ACCESS ACCESS IS SLOW
Temporary Permanent
Computer cannot do or work without Can do or work without

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Word processing

Most people are familiar with word processing packages such as Microsoft Word, Open Office
and Word Perfect. Here are some of the most commonly used word processing tools:
Standard features
All word processing programs allow you to:
 enter and edit text
 save
 print
 cut/copy/paste - you can copy from one part of a document to another
 check your spelling
Text formatting
Text formatting is important to make the text appear as you would like it to look. The normal
features are:
 different fonts
 different text sizes
 different alignments (left, centre, right or justified)
 bold print
 underline
 italics
 bullet points

Mail-merge
Mail merge is a word processing feature which allows users to 'personalise' letters with names
and addresses from a database. The four main steps in setting up a mail-merged letter are:
1. Create the database with fields for the names and addresses of the people to send the
letter to.
2. Write the letter using a word processing package and link the letter to the database.
3. Use a query to find a subset of relevant people and send a targeted letter to them.
4. Using the mail merge wizard, enter codes in the letter where the name and address of
the customers should appear.

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5. Merge-print, taking the data from the database and inserting it in the letters, producing
one letter for each person in the subset of relevant people from the database.

Other features
Other features that may be expected include find and replace, which replaces one word with
another, and the ability to import graphics e.g. from a clip art library. Headers and footers and
page numbering are very useful.

Three types of Data Transmission:

SIMPLEX
Data in a Simplex transmission is always one way. Simplex transmission are not often used because it is not possible to
send back error or control signals to the transmit end.

It's like a one-way street. An example of simplex is

television, or Radio.

HALF DUPLEX
A half-duplex transmission can send and receive in one direction, but not at the same time. It's like a one-lane bridge
where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a time, the other end receives. In
addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted.
In some aspects, you can think of Internet surfing as being half-duplex, as a user issues a request for a web document,
then that document is downloaded and displayed before the user issues another request.

Another example of half-duplex is talkback radio, and CB

Radio (Citizens Band). You might have seen movies where
a truck driver (drivers of very big trucks) communicates to
each other, and when they want the other person to speak
they say "over". This is because only one person can talk at
a time

FULL DUPLEX

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Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from transmit to receive mode like in half
duplex. It like a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway. Have you ever watched these television talk shows where the
host has a number of people on the show, and they all try to talk at once. Well, that's full duplex!

Of course, in the world of data communications, full duplex

allows both way communications simultaneously. An
example can be a consumer, which uses a cable
connection not only, receives TV channels, but also the
same cable to support their phone and Internet surfing. All
these activities can occur simultaneously.

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