MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

YEAR 12
MATHEMATICS
TEXTBOOK

PRODUCED BY
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT
SUVA, FIJI
2016
 MATHEMATICS
YEAR 12

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT

FIJI
2016

i
The Curriculum Advisory Services (CAS) section of the Ministry of Education
owns the copyright to this Year 12 Mathematics Textbook.

Schools may reproduce this in part or in full for classroom purposes only.

Acknowledgement of the CAS Section of the Ministry of Education copyright

must be included on any reproductions.

Any other use of these Textbook must be referred to the Permanent Secretary
for Education through the Director Curriculum Advisory Services.

Issued free to schools by the Ministry of Education.

First Edition 2016

Trial Version

© Ministry of Education, Fiji, 2016

Published by
Curriculum Development Unit
Ministry of Education
Waisomo House
Private Mail bag
Suva
Fiji

Tel: (+679) 3313050

Website: www.education.gov.fj

ii
 PREFACE

The development of this Textbook was entirely based on the developed Year 12
Syllabus.
It has a total of nine strands: Basic Mathematics 2, Algebra, Graphs, Coordinate
Geometry, Trigonometry, Statistics, Probability, Geometry and Calculus and
these are further divided into Sub - Strands.

The contents of this book have been simplified so that it can be used by all
students with different capabilities. It contains very useful materials to help
students and teachers alike to prepare for the Year 12 external examination.

It is confidently believed that it will furnish Year 12 students with the necessary
number and variety of exercises essential to successful instructions in
mathematics.

The step – by – step instructions in the methods and examples will make it
suitable for both direct one – to – one tutoring and as well as regular classroom
use. Moreover, there are inclusions of external examination [Fiji School Leaving
Certificate or Fiji Year 12 Certificate Examination] questions and illustrations that
will help students a great deal.

All examples that have been introduced can even be attempted by an average
pupil without assistance. They have been carefully graded to suit the slow
learners as well, while there are some problems that are provided for advance
learners.

Teachers and students are also advised to use other resources for enhancing of
teaching and learning. This textbook is just a guide to accomplish the learning
outcomes.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Throughout the process in writing this textbook, a number of people have
sacrificed their valuable time to assist the Ministry of Education. They are
acknowledged for their active participation and without their insights, guidance
and continued support; this book may not have been possible.

The Ministry of Education, therefore, hereby acknowledges the following people

for their valuable contributions to this book:

Jyotishna Devi Chaudhary Research Officer Mathematics, CDU

Pauliani Nene Research Officer Mathematics, CDU
Dharmendra Prasad Mathematics Advisor, CDU
Emosi Lutunaika Principal Education Officer, CDU
Shiek Mohammed Masud Principal Education Officer, CDU
Rita Whippy Saint Joseph Secondary School
Harmesh Sharma Jai Narayan College
Anjana Lata DAV College
Nilesh Chand Nasinu Secondary School
Vipal Khatri Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Memorial
Maisea Ledua Tuicoro Lami High School
Aten Lal Marist Brothers High School
Renuka Pratap Suva Muslim College
Saleshni Prasad Yat Sen Secondary
Kellan K. Chand Nabua Secondary School

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.1 Social Mathematics 1
Buying on Credit 2
Credit Card and Debit Card 4
Benefits of Early Repayment 5
STRAND ONE
1.2 Modular System and Group 8
Basic Mathematics 2 Modulo Arithmetic 9
Modulo Table ( 10
Group 13

1.3 Indices 20
Laws of Indices 21
Simplifying using Indices 22
Introduction to Logarithms 26
Solving Equations 30
Surds 34
Rationalize the Denominator 37

2.1 Equations 39
STRAND TWO Linear Equations 40
Inequations 44
Algebra Subject of the formula 46
Difference of two squares 49
Quadratics Expressions 50
Solving Quadratic Equations 54
Quadratic Inequalities 58
Discriminant 59
Nature of Roots 59
Algebraic expressions 62

2.2 Remainder and Factor Theorem 65

Long Division of Polynomials 66
Remainder Theorem 68
Factor Theorem 71

2.3 Sequence and Series Application 73

Sigma Notation 74
Sequence defined Recursively75
Arithmetic Sequence 77
Geometric Sequence 80
Sum to Infinity 82

v
 3.1 Graphs 87
STRAND THREE Relation and Functions 88
Linear graphs 91
Graphs Quadratics and Turning Point 93
Cubic Equations 99
Hyperbolic Graphs 101
Absolute Value Graph 107
Square Root Graph 109
Logarithmic and Exponential 112
Graph of Circles 114

3.2 Simultaneous Equations 117

Applications 118
Linear and Quadratic 120
Linear and Hyperbolic 121
Linear and Circles 122

4.1 Coordinate Geometry 125

STRAND FOUR Gradient/Distance/Midpoint 126
Equation of a Line 126
Coordinate Geometry Angle and gradient 127
Parallel Lines 133
Perpendicular Lines 134
Collinear Points 136

vi
STRAND FIVE 5.1 Non Right Angle Triangles 139
Pythagoras Theorem 140
Trigonometry SOH/CAH/TOA 140
Sine and Cosine Rule 140
Exact Values 146
Area of Triangle 147
Conversion of Angles 150
Arc Length/Area of
Sector/Segments 151
Trigonometric Equations 155

5.2 Trigonometric Identities / Graph 160

STRAND SIX Trigonometric Identities 161
Transformation of Graphs 164
Geometry

6.1 Matrix Transformation 168

Transforming Points 170
Finding transformation 173
Invariant Properties 173
Determinant and Area 173
Transformation Matrix and
its Inverse 173
Combined Transformations 180

STRAND SEVEN

Statistics

7.1 Statistical Analysis 184

Introduction 185
Measures of Centre 186
Measures of Spread 187
Effects of Adding and
Multiplying by a Constant 195
Interpreting Information 197

vii
 8.1 Probability Experiments 200
Introduction to Probability 201
STRAND EIGHT Probability Trees 203
With Replacement 204
Probability Lattice Diagram 206
Without Replacement 209
Venn Diagrams 213
Expected Number 217

8.2 Normal Distribution 218

Characteristics 219
Terms 220
Standardizing 222
Normal Distribution Tables
and applications 226

9.1 Limits 230

Definition of Limits 231
STRAND NINE
Calculation of Limits 232
Calculus
9.2 Differentiation 234
Definition of Derivative 235
Power Rule 237
Derivatives of fractional
and negative Indices 238
Higher derivatives 239
Applications 240

9.3 Integration 255

Indefinite Integral 256
Constant of Integration 258
Definite Integral 259
Applications 262

viii
 STRAND BASIC
ONE MATHEMATICS
2

SUB – STRAND 1.1 Social Mathematics

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Buying on Credit
 Credit Card and Debit Card
 Benefits of Early Repayment

1
BUYING ON CREDIT

Note: Credit is borrowing money or buying goods and paying for them
at a later date. It provides benefits in that it can help you make purchases
by using someone else’s money, which must be repaid. Credit has good
and bad aspects and it needs to be managed wisely and monitored.
Interest is the cost of credit.

Why should borrowing money incur interest to the borrower and earn
interest for the lender?
Interest is a charge that is paid by the borrower for the use of someone
else’s money. A lender expects to be rewarded for not having access to his
money

There is a need to maintain a good credit history. It is important to

establish a good credit history so that future applications for credit are
viewed favorably.
On the other hand, as there is an obligation to repay money borrowed, if
you borrow more than you can afford or manage to comfortably repay,
credit can control you.

Factors that need to be considered prior to committing to regular

repayments:
 Using savings to make a larger down payment [for huge amounts].
 Finding a cheaper source of finance: research and compare and
contrast with many options.
 Wait for a sale: if items can be bought on Cash, do so.
 Delay purchase until they can afford a bigger deposit.

2
EXAMPLE 1:
A washing machine costs $3800. Renuka pays a deposit of $800 and takes a loan
to settle the balance over 3 years in 36 equal instalments.The interest on the
loan is 12% per annum simple interest on a hire purchase loan.
Renuka is also required to insure the machine at 2% per annum of the purchase
price, which is added to the loan amount.

a) How much does Renuka pay for insuring the machine?

b) What is the total loan amount?
c) Calculate the total amount that Renuka paid on the instalment plan by
the end of the 3 year period of the loan.
d) What was Renuka’s monthly instalment?
e) How much did Renuka pay for the washing machine altogether?
f) How much would Renuka have saved had she paid cash for the washing
machine?

Answers

a) Insurance Amount
= 2% of $3800
= 0.02 × $ 3800 × 3 years
= $228

b) Total Loan Amount

= $3800 − $ 800 + $ 228
= $3228

c) Total amount paid on instalment plan

= Loan + interest
= 3228 + 0.12 ×3228×3
= $ 4390.08  $ 4390.10

d) Monthly instalment
= (Loan + interest) ÷ number of instalments
= $4390.08 ÷ 36
= $ 121.95

e) Total paid
= (Loan + interest) + Deposit
= $ 4390,08 + $ 800
= $ 5190.08  $ 5190.10

f) Savings
= $5190.10 − $ 3800
= $ 1390.08  $ 1390.10

3
CREDIT CARD AND DEBIT CARD

Note: When you use a debit card, you are using money earned
yesterday to pay for something today.
When you use a credit card, you are using money you will earn
tomorrow to pay for something today.

 Debit card and Credit card both carries a bank logo and maybe a
Visa/Mastercard logo.
 Debit card also known as a cheque card, works like an instant
cheque. When a debit card is used, the money is taken immediately
from your account to pay the supplier. It allows the holder
electronic access to his/her bank account at a financial
institution. An alternative to cash.

EXAMPLE 2: Manoj is a motor mechanic who wants to spend his annual leave
in Australia. His employer will subsidize his trip up to a maximum of $200.
He has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $350. He works out that his
personal costs for this trip will be $910.

(a) If Manoj doesn’t pay off his credit card balance of $350 and puts the cost of
his trip on the card as well, how much would his credit card balance be?
(b) After returning from his trip, if he only paid the minimum amount[ 5%] off
each month with interest of 1.5 % per month, how much would he still owe after
four months. Show total interest cost and total of payments made.

a) credit card balance = Outstanding balance + trip cost

= $350 + $910 = $1260

(b) Amount Interest Total amount Minimum Total amount

Month borrowed cost per owing : monthly owing carried
on credit month at A = I + P repayment forward
card: P 1.5% per at 5% Balance
month = A - Min
1 $1260.00 =1260.00 + $63.95 = $1278.90 -
18.90 $$63.95
$18.90
= $1278.90 = $1214.95
2 $1214.95 $18.22 $1233.17 $61.66 $1171.51
3 $1171.51 $17.57 $1189.08 $59.45 $1129.63
4 $1129.63 $16.94 $1146.57 $57.33 $1089.25

4
BENEFITS OF EARLY REPAYMENT

Note: When you take any loan, it's important to understand the
structure of your payments, whose components are dedicated not only
to the principal (the amount you borrowed), but also interest (taxes and
insurance). This structure determines how long it will take to pay off the
loan.
If you make extra payment, it reduces the interest due on each future
payment, moving towards the ultimate goal: paying off the loan. The
first and most obvious reason for the benefits of early repayment is that
it will save you tens of thousands of dollars.

EXAMPLE 3: Eperama has decided to take out a loan of $20,000 to renovate his
house. He looked at a number of options.
1. He finds out that he could get a personal loan for 5 years at 12% interest. The
monthly payments of principal and interest will be $444.89 per month.
2. He also considered affording payments for 4 years (monthly principal and
interest payment $526.68) or 3 years (monthly principal and interest payment
$664.29).
(a) How much will he repay in total over the 5 years for the first loan?
(b) How much would he repay in total if he took a four year loan?
(c) How much would he repay in total if he took a three year loan?
(d) Which option you would advise? Give reasons.

Answers:

(a) 5 years loan b) four year loan c) three year loan

1 yr: 12 months 1 yr: 12 months 1 yr: 12 months
Thus 5 yrs = 60 months Thus 4 yrs = 48 months Thus 3 yrs = 36
months
Total = 60 x $444.89 Total = 48 x $526.68 Total = 36 x $664.29
= $26693.40 = $25280.64 = $23914.44

d) Three Year loan Plan: It gives the cheaper amount compared to the other 2
Plans.
Note the smaller the Year Plan, the lesser interest, thus paying less or saving
more on interest.

5
EXERCISE 1:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. A credit card will attract a high interest rate. This is because:

(A) It does not have a bank account with it.

(B) The customer can pay it off at any time.
(C) The credit card is usually only for small amounts of credit.
(D) Credit cards are unsecured lending.

2. Which of the following is incorrect? Credit cards are useful because

(A) You do not have to repay them in full each month.

(B) You can save on bank fees.
(C) The credit card gives you a period of free credit.
(D) They are convenient.

3. Under which of the following circumstances would it be financially beneficial

to you to borrow money to buy something now and repay it with future
income?

(A) When you really need a two week holiday.

(B) When some clothes you like go on sale.
(C) When the interest on the loan is greater than the interest you get on
your savings.
(D) When you need to buy a car to get to a high paying job.

4. Which is TRUE about credit cards?

(A) You can use your credit card to receive cash in advance.
(B) If your credit card balance is $1,000 and you pay $300 by the due
date, interest is charged on the unpaid balance of $700.
(C) The rate of interest on your credit card is normally higher than you
can earn on a transaction account at the bank.
(D) All of the above.

5. You will improve your credit worthiness by

(A) Having a history of paying off all debts on time in full.

(B) Visiting your local bank.
(C) Paying cash for all goods and services.
(D) Donating money to charity.

6
6. Which is FALSE about credit cards?

(A) You will not be charged interest if you pay your closing balance off in
full on the due date.
(B) Your credit limit is a reasonable guide to how much you can spend on
your credit card.
(C) You can use your credit card overseas.
(D) Interest is charged on a cash advance from the day of withdrawal.

[Questions requiring working]

7. Kaylash wants to buy a house which costs $300,000. He decides to take a bank
loan. He needs to pay a deposit of 10% to the bank and the remaining amount
will be paid monthly for 30 years at a fixed rate of 8% per annum.

a) Calculate the deposit he will have to pay.

b) What is the remaining amount?
c) Calculate the amount he will be paying monthly.

8. A new TV costs $690 cash. It is available on hire purchase by paying a deposit

of 15% followed by instalments of $55.85.

a) Calculate the deposit.

b) Find the total of the instalments.
c) Work out the total amount to be paid.
d) What choice is better: buying on Hire purchase or buying on cash?

9. Anjana wants to buy a washing machine. The two options available to her are:

Option 1 Option 2

Cash Sale $2500 Cash Sale $2500

$0 Deposit 25% Deposit
Instalment: $120 monthly Instalment: $85 monthly for
for 2 yrs 2 yrs
a) Calculate the total monthly instalments for two years for both the
options
b) Find the total hire purchase price to be paid.
c) How much extra is paid for both options?
d) Which option is better? Explain your answer.

Lesson of Life: There's no reason to stereotype yourself. Doing math is like going
to the gym - it's a workout for your brain and it makes you smarter- Danica
McKellar

7
 SUB – STRAND 1.2 Modular System and
Group

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Modulo Arithmetic
 Modulo table of addition
 Modulo table of multiplication
 Conditions for a group

8
MODULO ARITHMETIC

Note: Modulo of a number gives the remainder after dividing numbers.

 If the first value (Numerator) is less than the second value
(denominator), then the remainder will be same as the first value.
 If the first value and the second value are same, then the remainder
will be zero.
 Clock arithmetic can be followed in order to make your work easier.
The numbers can be represented in a circle. The numbers that are
less than the modulo are inside the circle while the other numbers
will be outside the circle. Follow the clockwise order for the rest of
the numbers.
Examples
a) Modulo 3 arithmetic b) Modulo 4 arithmetic
The numbers 0 – 2 will be inside the The numbers 0 – 3 will be
circle since it’s less than 3 while 3 will be inside the circle since it’s
outside the circle at zero since less than 4, while 4 will be at
3 divided by 3 is zero. zero since remainder is zero.
Follow the clockwise order for the rest Follow the clockwise order
of the numbers. for the rest of the numbers.

. 3, 6, 9 4, 8, 12
0 0

7, 11, 15 3 1 5, 9, 13
2 1 4, 7, 10
5, 8, 11
2
6, 10, 14

 a modulo n is abbreviated as a mod n. From the above diagram:

6 mod 3 = 0
10 mod 3 = 1
11 mod 3 = 2

9
Example 1: Find the following
a) 3 mod 2 b) 5 mod 3 c) 4 mod 2

Factor 1 2
35 2 4
1 – 3 – 4
2 3 2 0
–2
1 Remainder  5 mod 3 = 2  4 mod 2 = 0
 3 mod 2 = 1

d) 3 mod 4 e) 4 mod 4 f) 2 mod 4

0 1 0
4 3 4 4 4 2
– 0 – 4 – 0
3 0 2

 3 mod 4 = 3  4 mod 4 = 0  2 mod 4 = 2

MODULO TABLE FOR ADDITION/ MULTIPLICATION

Let’s see a simple addition and multiplication table up to 6 numbers.

Example 1: Fill the addition table for Modulo 6.

This is a normal Addition table
2nd element

 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
The numbers that
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
are 6 or more

1st element 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 than 6 needs to

be replaced by
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 the remainders.
4 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 5 6 7 8 9 10

10
Thus we get,
 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 0 4

Example 2: Fill the multiplication table for Modulo 6.

This is a normal Multiplication table

 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 The numbers that
are 6 or more
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 than 6 needs to
be replaced by
3 0 3 6 9 12 15
the remainders.
4 0 4 8 12 16 20
5 0 5 10 15 20 25

Thus we get,

 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 4 2 0 1 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1

11
 Note: To fill the mod table, follow the same steps of modulo
arithmetic, and then change those numbers in the table that are
greater or equal to the mod function. The clock arithmetic is very
handy here.

Example 3: A set S = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } is given under the operation ‘addition modulo

4’. Fill the table.
Solution:
 0 1 2 3
0  0 1 2 3
1 0 0 1 2 3
2 1 1 2 3 0
3 2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2

Exercise 2:

1. Find the following:

a) 11 mod 3 b) 13 mod 4

c) 10 mod 2 d) 7 mod 5

2. A set S = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } is given under the operation ‘multiplication modulo

5’. Fill the table.

 0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4

12
 3. Part of the addition mod 3 Table is given below. Complete the table

 0 1 2
0 0 2
1 1
2 2

GROUP

Note: A set S is a group under an operation if the following four

conditions are satisfied:

1. (S,) is closed.
2. There is an identity element for  in S.
3. Every element in S has an inverse under .
4. The operation  is associative.

Identity
Closed

Unique Associative
Inverse Property

13
Definitions

1. Closed Set or Closure of a Set - When any pair of elements is combined, the
result should not be an element outside the set (that is, no foreign elements or
new elements should be seen). In other words when two elements are combined
the third element is also in the set.

2. Identity (e):
 When an element is operated on using the identity element for that
operation, the element remains unchanged: a * e = e * a = a .
 Table operation: All of the values in its row or column in the result are
the same as the row or column headings. (The order of the elements in
that row is equivalent to order of the elements in the operating row)

© 0 1 2 3
Shortcut Testing for Identity:
Simply highlight the row and 0 2 3 0 1
column having the same order of
elements as given in the set. The 1 3 0 1 2
place where the two meet will be
the identity element. 2 0 1 2 3

3 1 2 3 0

Identity = 2

3. Inverse (A -1):
 A Set: a * a -1 = a -1 * a = e It simply means that any element
under inverse operation
will give the identity element. In
other words, when an element is
operated with its inverse, the result
is the identity element.

 Table: a is the first element while the identity will be the third element
inside the table. To find the inverse, look up for the second element.

14
 Shortcut Testing for
Inverse (Shortcut): © 0 1 2 3
Simply draw a straight
0 2 3 0 1
horizontal line from the
first element till you
1 3 0 1 2
reach the identity. Look
on the top element for 2 0 1 2 3
the inverse.
3 1 2 3 0

Identity = 2 Inverse of 1 = 3

4. Associative: If S is a set and a, b and c are elements of set S then it follows

that (a*b)*c = a*(b*c).
 The element order is the same, only the position of brackets changes.
 Do brackets first.

Example 1: A set S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is given under the operation ‘addition

modulo 6’.

 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

i. Is it closed?
ii. Give the identity element of the set S.
iii. Find the inverse of all elements.
iv. Is the operation associative? Explain.
v. Is this system a group?

15
Answers:

i. Yes, it’s closed since there are no foreign elements. The elements remain
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
ii. e=0 iii. Inverses:

 0 1 2 3 4 5  0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 0 1 2 3 4
The inverses are: 0-1 = 0, 1-1 = 5, 2-1 = 4, 3-1 = 3,

4-1 = 2, 5-1 = 1

iv. The associative property is given as ( a*b)*c = a*(b*c)

Take a as 0, b as 1 and c as 2, substitute the values and use the table to
show that left- hand side (LHS) is equal to right- hand side (RHS).
Do brackets first

LHS = (a*b)*c RHS = a*(b*c)

LHS = (0*1)*2 RHS = 0*(1*2)
= 1 * 2 =0 *3
= 3 =3
Since LHS = RHS, it is associative

iv. Since it satisfies all the four conditions, the system is a group.

16
Example 2: The table shows (mod 3,  ).

 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1

Is this system a group?

Answers:

Show the four properties:

 0 1 2
(i) It’s closed since there are no new 0 0 1 2
elements 1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1
(ii) There is an Identity element, e = 0

(iii) Inverses are 0-1 = 0, 1-1 = 2, 2-1 = 1

(iv) It is Associative
(0  1)  2 = 0  (1  2)  0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 2 = 0  0 1 1 2 0
0 = 0 2 2 0 1

Since all the conditions are satisfied, it is a group.

17
Exercise 3:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. An operation “◘” on a set M = { 0, 1, 2} is defined by the table given

below:

◘ 0 1 2

0 2 0 1

1 0 1 2

2 1 2 0

Which of the following is not true about the system (M, ◘)?

A. Q is closed under the operation

B. There is no identity element.
C. 1◘1=1
D. The inverse of 2 is 0.

[Questions requiring working]

2. The table on operation  is shown below. Is this system a group?

18
 3. The table on operation  is shown below.

 2 4 6 8
2 4 8 2 6

4 8 6 4 2

6 2 4 6 8

8 6 2 8 4

i. Is it closed ?
ii. Find the identity element.
iii. Find the inverses of 2, 4, 6 and 8.
iv. Is the operation associative? Explain.
v. Is this system a group?

4. The table given below shows the result of set A = {w,x,y,z } under the
operation @.

@ w x y z
w y z w x
x z w x y
y w x y z
z x y z w

a) Find the value of (w @ y) @ (z @ x ).

b) Is the operation @ closed?
c) Find the inverses of w and x respectively.
d) Is this system a group?

Lesson of Life: Mathematics proficiency is the gateway to a number of incredible

careers that students may never have considered – Danica Mckellar

19
SUB – STRAND 1.3 Indices and Logarithms

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Law of indices
 Simplifying using laws of indices
 Laws of Logarithms
 Simplifying using laws of
Logarithms
 Solving equations involving
indices
 Surds and its conjugate
 Simplifying Surds
 Rationalizing the denominator

20
LAWS OF INDICES

Note: It means how many times an algebraic expression is multiplied

by itself.

In 82 the "2" says to use 8 twice in a multiplication, so 82 = 8 × 8 = 64

Exponents are also called Powers or Indices.
So in general:

an tells you to multiply a by

itself n times:

Some Laws are given below:

 a 0  1, a  0


a m .a n  a mn
 a m  a n or am or a m / a n  a m n
an
 a 
m n
 a mn


abm  a1b1 m  ambm
m
 a1 
m
a am
    1   m

b b  b
1 1
a 1  , a n 
 a an
m m
a b bm
     m

b a a
m

 a  n am
n

21
SIMPLIFYING USING LAWS OF INDICES
2
 16 x 4 y 8 .x 2 
Example 1: Simplify  
 8 y3 
 
a) square root means to raise to the power half:

b) Substitute
2
 16 x 4 y 8 .x 2   4 x 2 y 4 .x  2 
2
    
 8 y3   8y
3

 

c) Simplify the brackets

If two numbers with the same base are multiplied, then add the powers.
If two numbers with the same base are divided, then subtract the powers

 4 x 2 y 4 . x 2 
 3

 82 y 2 4
4 x .x y

8 y3
4 2  2 4  3
 x y
8
1
 x0 y
2
1 y
 y or
2 2

d) Include the power

2
 y
 
2 2
2
  
 y
4

y2

22
 3 x2
Example 2: Simplify
3x

Note that: 3x.32  3x2

Replace the numerator and cancel to remove the same terms appearing in both
numerator and denominator.

3 x2

3x x 2
3 .3
 x
3
 32
 3 3
9

4n 1  2
Example 3: Simplify
23 n  3

The smallest base is 2 so there is a need to change 4 and write it in terms of 2 as

a base. From basic multiplication, 4  2  2  22 so 22 is used to replace 4.

2 2( n 1)  21
Now using Rule – when power is raised to another power,
23 n  3
multiply both powers. In case of brackets, use distributive law to expand the
brackets first.

22( n 1)  21 22 n  2 1
 3n  3
23n  3 2
Using the law of indices, separate the base and index.

2 2 n 3 2 2 n 2 3
 3 n 3  3 n 3 Cancel to remove 23 from both the numerator and
2 2 2
denominator.

Now using the Rule – When dividing the terms with the same base, subtract
the powers.

1
 2 2 n  23n  2 2 n3n  2 n 
2n

23
 5  625a  2
Example 4: Simplify
125a  3

The smallest base is 5 so there is a need to change 625 and 125 in terms of 5 as a
base. From basic multiplication, 625  5  5  5  5  54 and 125  5  5  5  53 so
54 and 53 are used in place of 625 & 125 respectively.

5  54  a2

5 
3 a 3
Now using Rule – when power is raised to another power,

multiply both powers. In case of brackets, use distributive law to expand the
brackets first and write base with index.

5  54  a2


51  54 a 8
5 
3 a 3 53a  9

Using the law of indices, separate the base and index.

51  54 a 8 59  54 a
3a  9
 9 3a Cancel to remove 59 from both the numerator and
5 5 .5
denominator.

Now using the rule – When dividing the terms with the same bases, subtract the
powers.

54 a
  54 a3a  51a  5a
53a

Exercise 4:

1. Simplify the following:

x 4 .x10 s 4 .s 6 1 
1

c) ( x  1) 2 .( x  1)
2
a) b)

2. Simplify the following:

1
6 ( x  1) 2
b) s  s
14 10 4
a) x / x c) 
1

( x  1)
2

24
3. Simplify the following:

x  s 
1 10
2 3 4 2  1

a) b) c)  ( x  1) 2 
 

4. Simplify the following:

x  4s t 
1
2 3 4 6 2
y c) 2( x  1) y 
2
a) b)

5. Simplify the following:

1
3  4s 4  2
  3x   
a)   b)  t 6  c) ( x  1) / y 
2

 y   

6. Simplify the following

43n
a) 5 n b) 4t  2 1
 x 1
c)  
1

2  4 

a) 4x 2 
1

7. Simplify 2 b) 3n 2  3n .

8. Simplify the following

2
 
x
3  4   x 1
4

a)   b)   1  c)  
 y t 2   y 

9. Simplify the following:

3/4 1/3 15 x 3 y 2
a) (27 a ) x (9a-3/2)-1/2 b) c) 84n/162n
3x 2
y 4 2

23n.4 n 4n 1  22 53n.27 n 1
d) e) f)
82n 22 n  5 32 n  5.1252 n 1

25
INTRODUCTION TO LOGARITHMS

Note: In its simplest form, a logarithm answers the question:

How many of one number do we multiply to get another number?

Example: How many 2s do we multiply to get 8?

Answer: 2 × 2 × 2 = 8, so we needed to multiply 3 of the 2s to get 8
So the logarithm is 3

How to write it?

We write as "the number of 2s we need to multiply to get 8 is 3" :
log2(8) = 3
So these two things are the same:

The number we are multiplying is called the "base", so we can say:

"the logarithm of 8 to base 2 is 3"

Notice we are dealing with three numbers:

The base: the number we are multiplying (a "2" in the example above)
How many times to use it in a multiplication (3 times, which is the
logarithm)
The number we want to get (an "8")

A logarithm can have any positive value as its base, but two log bases are
more useful than the others. The base-10, or "common logarithm", log is
popular for historical reasons, and is usually written as "log(x)". For
instance, pH (the measure of a substance's acidity or alkalinity), decibels
(the measure of sound intensity), and the Richter scale (the measure of
earthquake intensity) all involve base-10 logs. If a log has no base written,
you should generally assume that the base is 10.
The other important log is the "natural logarithm", or base-e, log,
denoted as "ln(x)" and usually pronounced as "ell-enn-of-x", where e is an
irrational and transcendental constant approximately equal to
2.718281828459. Just as the number e arises naturally in math and the
sciences, so also does the natural log, which is why you need to be
familiar with it. Note that log e x  ln x

26
The following are the laws:

Example 1: Change to base - index form

i. log 3 9  2

9  32

ii. log 4 64  3

64  43

Example 2: Change to log form

i. 52  25
b = 5, a = 25 & p = 2 thus the log form will be log 5 25  2 .

3
1 1
ii.    
2 8
1 1 1
b = , a = & p = 3 thus the log form will be log  1     3 .
2 8   8 
2

Example 3: Simplify

i. log x + 5 log x
= 6 log x

ii. 7 log 3 5 log 3

= 2 log 3

[When the variables/expressions are same, add or subtract the like terms]

27
Example 4: Express as a logarithm of a single number

1. log 4  log 3
 log4  3  log 12

1  1 
2. log x   log 10  log x  10   log 5 x
2  2 

Example 5: Express as a logarithm of a single number

3. log 4  log 3
4
 log 
3
 
 10 
1  20
4. log 10  log x   log   log  log( 20x 1 )
2   x
1 x
 
2 

Example 6: Express as a logarithm of a single number

1
5. 3 log 2  log 4  log 4
2
1

log 2  log 4  log 4

3 2

 23  2   16 
 log   log   log 4
 4  4

6. log x  log 2 x3  log 2 x

 x  2x3 
log   log x 3  3 log x
 2x 

2 log 9
Example 7: Simplify
4 log 3

2 log 9 log 9 2 log 32

  
log 34 
1
2

4 log 3 log 34 log 34 log 34

28
Exercise 5:
[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. The base – index form of the equation; log k m = R is

A. km = R B. kR = m
C. Rk = m D. mk = R

1
2. 7 log 2  log 16  log 3 when expressed as logarithm of a single number
2
is
1
A. log 3 B. log 1
2
C. 1 D. 0

1
3. 2 log x + log 16 - log when expressed as a logarithm of a single
2
number is
A. log 2x2 B. log 4
2
 x
C. log   D. log 4x
2

[Questions requiring working]

36
4. If log a 6 = 4 and log a 5 = 3, find the value of log a ?
5
5. Change to base- index form
a. log 2 16  8 b. log 5
52 c. log 5 625  4

6. Change to log form

1
1
a. 24  16 b. 32  c. 36 2  6
9

7. If x = log 6 and y = log 2, write log 72 in terms of x and y.

8. Write as logarithm of a single number

a. 3 log 7  log 49
b. 2 log 5  log 4  log 20
1
c. log 2  log 16  log 4
2

9. Simplify
log 9  log 4 log 36
a. b.
log 12  log 3 log 6

29
SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING INDICES
EXAMPLE 1: Solve the following

a) x 2  9 b) x 3  8 c) ( x  1) 2  2  23

Opposite is square root Cube root with variable so remove last

( x  1) 2  2  2  23  2
( x  1) 2  25
x2   9
x  3
3
x3  3 8 ( x  1) 2   25
x  {3,3} x2 x  1  1  5  1
x  6,4
x  {6,4}

EXAMPLE 2: Solve the following

c) x  21 
1
a) x 2  9 b) x 3  8
3

1
9
x2 1
8
1 x3
x2  1 1
9 
x3 
1
x  2 3
1 8
x2   x  2  3
9 1
3
x3  3 x  2 2  3 2
1 8
x x 1
3 1
x
1 1 2
x  { , }
3 3

[Apply the rule, reciprocate both sides before solving. For negative indices, use
law of indices before applying the opposite operation]

30
 3
EXAMPLE 3. Solve x 4  27
m
To solve a problem that involves indices of the form x  x  C , x is found
n m n

by making the power of x equal to 1. To do that, we raise the whole term on

both sides by the reciprocal of the power of x.

Method - reciprocal of power

3
x 4  27
4
 34  3 4
 x   (27) 3
 
 
3 4 
x1  81    1
4 3 
x  81
Note: should be in brackets

Example 4: Solve for x in 2

3x
 82 x 1

To solve the equation involving the different bases, first rewrite the bases as
powers of a common base then equate the powers.

Identify the common base (that is 2).

Write the other element as base 2 , 8 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 23.
Now replace the 8 with the equivalent power of 2:
23 x  23   2 x 1

23 x  2 6 x  3 Same base (you may ignore the base). Equate the power and
solve.

3x  6 x  3
3x  6 x  3
 3x  3
 x  1

Example 5: Solve for x:

a) log 5 x  2

x  52
 x  25

31
SOLVING BY USING LOGARITHMS
Example 6: Solve log 2 16  x

log 2 16  x
2 x  16
log 2 x  log 16 (Taking log on both sides of the equation)
x log 2  log 16
log 16
x
log 2
x4

Example 7: Solve 2x = 30

log 2x = log 30 (taking log on both sides of the equation)

x log 2 = log 30 ( Using the rule: log mn = n · log m)
x = log 30  log 2
x = 4.91

Another Method
2x = 30
ln 2x = ln 30 (taking ln on both sides of the equation)
x ln 2 = ln 30 ( Using the rule: log mn = n · log m)
x = ln 30  ln 2
x = 4.91

2
Example 8: Solve 10 x = 52

102x= 52
log 102x = log 52 ( taking log or ln on both sides of the equation)
2x log 10 = log 52 ( Using the rule: log mn = n · log m)
2x = log 52  log 10
x = (log 52  log 10)  2

x = 0.86

32
EXERCISE 6:

Solve the equation:

1. log 2 x  5 2. log b 64  3

3. 4 2x + 1 = 64 4. 2 p 1  32

5. 53t 1  8 6. log 3 a = 4

7. 5 x + 1 = 125 8. log 2 9q = 5

9. 42x + 1 = 27 10. log v 216 = 3

11. logp (1/2) = -2 12. log2 11 = x – 3

2
13. 7a 3  4  3 14. y 3  16

2 1

15. 2 x  7 16. 2 p  1  3
3 2

SURDS

When a number cannot be further simplified to remove a square root

(or cube root and so on) then it is a surd.
For instance 2 (square root of 2) can't be simplified further so it is a
surd while 4 (square root of 4) can be simplified (to 2), so it is not a
surd!
In fact "Surd" used to be another name for "Irrational", but it is now
used for a root that is irrational.

33
Example 1: Identify whether the following are surds or not.

1
1. 3 2. 3. 3 11
4
1.7320508 Surd 0.5 Not a surd 2.2239800 Surd

The surds have a decimal which goes on forever without repeating: they are
actually known as Irrational Numbers.

SIMPLIFYING SURDS

Note: To simplify surds, first find highest factor of the number where one
is a square number. Let’s begin with the smallest number and get the
square of it. The idea here is that we use the square number on the right
side.
22  4
32  9
4 2  16


Before you simplify, let’s look at some properties associated.

1.
n
ab  n a  n b

eg 9  100  9  100  900  30

n
a a 100 10
2. n  eg
100   2
n
b b 25 25 5
3. a b  a b eg 3  2  3 2
4. a x  b x  (a  b) x eg 3 2  2  (3  1) 2  2 2

Example 2: Simplify each of the following:

72
a) 8 b) 162 c)
x2

Factors of 8 are 4 and 2 Factors of 162 are 81 and 2 Factors of 72 are 36 and 2

72 72 36  2
8  4 2 162  81  2  
x2 x2 x2
 4 2 2 2  81  2  9 2 
6 2
x

34
d) 12  3  27 e) 7 3  3 5  2 3  6 5

Factorize and collect like terms

 43  3  93
7 3 3 5 2 3 6 5
 4. 3  3  9 3
7 3 2 3 3 5 6 5
 2 3  3 3 3
 3 (7  2)  5 (3  6)
 3 (2  1  3)
 5 3 3 5
4 3

EXPANSION OF SURDS

Note: Recall, expansion of algebraic expressions:

Distributive law: to expand the brackets, use arrows to multiply the tail
value with the head arrow value.

a (b  c) = ab  ac

FOIL: Expand two binomials [two terms] using the guideline: First Outer
Inner Last.

(a + b) (c + d) = ac +ad + bc +bd

Example 3: Expand and simplify

a) 
2 50  1  b) (6x + 5 ) (6x - 5) c) 2 (3 + 2 )  (2  2 )

Distributive law FOIL or difference of square Collect like terms


2 50  1 
 23  2 2  2  2
 2 50  2 (a  b)(a  b)  a 2  b 2
(6 x  5 )(6 x  5 )  62 2 2 2
 2  50  2 2
 (6 x ) 2  5  622 2  2
 100  2  36 x 2  5
 4 2
 10  2

35
EXERCISE 7:
[Multiple Choice Questions]
1. Which of the following is not true?

a a
A. ab = a . b B. =
b b

C. ab = a b D.  a = a
2

2.  
2
2  3 5 when expanded is equivalent to

A. - 43 - 6 10 B. -43 - 6 10

C. 47 + 9 10 D. 47 - 6 10

[Questions requiring working]

3. Simplify these surds:

(a) 48 - 27 b) 28  63  112 c) 32x 4

4. Expand and simplify:

(i) 4 7 x 2 3
(ii) 
3 2 2 8 
(iii)  5 1  2

(iv) ( 1 + 2)( 3 +4)

5. Simplify:

72 48 x2 y4
a) b) c)
b2 ab 2 243

36
CONJUGATE OF SURDS
A Binomial surd will have two terms. Its conjugate however is written with the
same terms, but the sign in the middle will reverse.

Changes to or Changes to

Example 1: Find conjugate of

a) 3+ 2 b) 6 2 c) 3
Conjugate = 3 2 Conjugate = 6 + 2 Conjugate = 3

RATIONALIZING THE DENOMINATOR

Note: It means expressing the denominator without any root sign.

 Identify the conjugate of the denominator

 Multiply the conjugate of the denominator to both the
numerator and denominator
 Simplify (expand) the two brackets in numerator
 You may use ‘difference of two squares’ for the
denominator.
 Write in surd form
32
Example 2: Simplify and write in surd form
32

32

32

 32  32  Multiply the conjugate by ( 3  2 ) to
32 32  32  32 
both the numerator and denominator
3 32 32 34

3 32 32 34 Expand and simplify the denominator

3 4 3  4 and the numerator


3 4

74 3 7 4 Combine and write in Surd form

 or  1(  3 )or  7  4 3
1 1 1

37
 3
Example 3: Rationalize the denominator for the expression:
1 3

3

1 3

31 3  
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3   

3  3 3 
1  3  3 3 3 

3  3 3 
1  3
33 3 3 3
 or   3
2 2 2

EXERCISE 8:

Rationalize the denominator of the following:

7
1.
3 2

2
2.
3 2

2 1
3.
3 5

2 1
4.
3 2

Lesson of Life: Mathematics is not about numbers, equations, computations, or

algorithms: it is about understanding. - William Paul Thurston

38
SUB – STRAND 2.1 Equations

CONTENT
LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Linear equation involving

fractions
 Inequalities and number line
 Subject of formulae
 Difference of two squares
 Factorizing and solving Quadratic
equations
 Quadratic Inequalities
 Discriminant and nature of roots
 Graphical interpretation of roots
 Simplifying algebraic fractions

39
LINEAR EQUATION INVOLVING FRACTIONS

Note:
Two important terms are Linear and equation.
Equation is derived from the word equal so it means having ‘equal sign’ while
Linear is derived from the word line, which means that the degree/ highest
power of the variable is one.
 Recall the general equation of a line is of form y = mx + c.

 To solve equations, follow steps of making the variable, preferably ‘x’ the
subject.
If x is appearing on both sides of the equation, collect all x on one side of the
equation.
The most important thing to do in fractions is to make denominator the same.
You may use LCM [lowest common multiple] or cross – multiplication to get
the same denominator.

Let’s begin with solving algebraic fractions with variables on one side of the
equation:

3x x  1
EXAMPLE 1: Using LCM Solve the equation   3
4 2

Use LCM: the highest number in denominator is four, which is a multiple of 2.

So multiply the second term by 2 [multiply to both numerator and
denominator].

3x x  1 2
   3
4 2 2
3x 2( x  1)
  3
4 4

Now that denominator is same, collect the terms in the numerator together.

3x  2( x  1)
 3
4
Use distributive law to expand the brackets.

3x  2 x  2
 3
4
Subtract like terms

40
 x2
 3
4

Now that we have simplified the equation, solve for x.

Note: To solve
 Value with variable to be removed last.
 Do opposite operation on both sides of the equation.
 Continue with the above steps till the variable is written alone.

x2
 4  3  4
4
x  2  2  12  2
 x  10

x 1 x  2
EXAMPLE 2: Using Cross – multiplication Solve the equation  1
2 3
Use cross – multiplication: Take the denominator and multiply to the opposite
term. Keep in mind to write the numerator/denominator in brackets if it
contains more than one term.

x 1 x  2
 1
2 3

3x  1  2( x  2)
1
23
Also, multiply the two numbers in the denominator.

3x  1  2x  2
1
23
Use distributive law to expand the brackets.
3x  3  2 x  4
1
6
Collect like terms
x7
1
6
Solve for x:

x7
1
6
x  7  6  x  1

41
Now let’s look at solving algebraic fractions with variables appearing on both
sides of the equation:
In this case, first collect the variables on one side.

x 1  3x
EXAMPLE 3: Solve for x in the equation 5 
3 2
x 1  3x
5  Take it to the other side by adding
3 2

x  1 3x
 5
3 2
2x  1  3(3 x)
5
6
2 x  1  3(3 x)  30
2 x  2  9 x  30
11x  2  30
11x  28
x  2.55

If x is appearing in the denominator, then take the reciprocal and solve.

To simplify the algebraic fractions, follow the same approach, that is get a
common denominator and collect the numerator.

3 2
EXAMPLE 4: Solve for x 
x ( x  1)

x ( x  1)
Reciprocate 
3 2 Activity: use cross –
Solve multiplication to
x 3( x  1)
3 
3 2 solve
3( x  1)
x2  2
2
2 x  3x  3
2 x  2 x  3  3x  2 x  3  3

3 x
x  3

42
EXERCISE 9:

1. Solve for x in the equation

x3 x 1
a) 2 x   12 b) 2x   11
2 2

2( x  1) 3 2
c)  ( x  4)  5 d) 
3 x  4 4( x  5)

5x  1 x 2x  1 x  5
e)   2( x  3) f) 
3 2 2 5

x 1 x x 1
g) x5  h) 5
2 2 4

1 2 x  1 2x
i)  j) 
x 1 x  2 3 5

x 1 x3 2 1
k) = l) 3
5 4 x5 x2

Lesson of Life: But mathematics is the sister, as well as the servant, of the arts
and is touched with the same madness and genius ~Harold Marston Morse
43
 INEQUATIONS

Note: Expression like 6 > 3, −2 < 10 or 3 > −9 are called

inequalities.

The sign >, <,  or  are used to compare numbers.

Sign Meaning

> Greater than

< Less than

 Greater than or equal to

 Less than or equal to

Solution to the inequation: inequations are solved similar to the

equations.

However, remember the rule of reversing the inequality sign when

dividing or multiplying by a negative number!

EXAMPLE 1: Solve

Equation Inequation

5x – 1 = 3x + 3 Add 1 5x – 1 > 3x + 3 Add 1

5x = 3x + 4 Take away 3x 5x > 3x + 4 Take away 3x

2x = 4 Divide by 2 2x > 4 Divide by 2

x=2 Is the solution. x>2 Is the solution.

44
 3 x
Example 2: Find the solution to the inequation  1
2
Solve first by making x the subject:
L
3 x
 1
2
3 x
 2  1 2
2
3  x  2
3  3  x  2  3
 x 5

1 1 Change sign
x5
In Set – Builder Notation form {x : x  5, x  R}

3  x x 1
Example 3: Find the solution to the inequation 
2 3
Solve first by making x the subject:

3  x x 1

2 3 Take away the denominator by cross – multiply

33  x   2x  1 Use Distributive law

9  3x  2 x  2 Collect like terms
+3x +3x
L
9  5x  2 Solve for x
−2 −2

7 5x

5 5
7
x
5
7
x 
5

EXERCISE 10: Solve the following inequalities

2x
1. {x : 3x  9} 2. {x :  2}
3

2x x 1 x
3. {x :  1} 4. {x :  }
2 2 3

45
FORMULA MANIPULATION AND SUBJECT OF THE
FORMULA

Note:
A formula is an equation which specifies how a number of variables are
related to one another. Formulas are written so that a single variable is
on one side of the equation. Everything else goes on the other side of the
equation.

−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑟 𝑡
For instance, A = πr2, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 , 𝑥 = ,𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 100
2𝑎

For formula manipulation, substitute the values in place of the variable.

Then use calculator to find the answer.

To change the subject of a formula, begin with the variable to become

the new subject, and apply inverse operations as for solving equations, in
the opposite order to the order convention.

yx
Example 1: Make x the subject of the formula I  .
xr
I
yx
multiply by (x  r)
xr
 I (x  r)  yx
 Ix  Ir  yx  Ix
 Ir  yx  Ix
 Ir  x( y  I)factorise
Ir
  x.
yI

46
[Financial Education]
Example 2: The formula to calculate the straight-line depreciation of an asset
for a full accounting period is:
CF
D
T where D is Depreciation, C – Cost, F – Final Value and T - Time

On Jan 1, 2012: Company A purchased a vehicle costing $20,000. It is expected

to have a value of $5,000 at the end of 4 years. Calculate depreciation expense
on the vehicle for the year ended Dec 31, 2015.

C -$20,000, F - $5,000 T – 4 years

$20000  $5000
D  $3750
4
Thus Depreciation expense is $3,750.

5
Example 3: The formula C  ( F  32) is used to convert temperature from
9
Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
a) If F = 41, Calculate the value of C.
b) Make F the subject of the formula
c) If C = 400, Calculate F.

Answers:

a) If F = 41, Calculate the value of C

Substitute 41 in place of F

b) Make F the subject: Solve for F c) If C = 400, Calculate F.

47
EXERCISE 11:

1 1 1
1. Make u the subject of   .
u v f

2x  3
2. Make x the subject of y  .
x4

3. Area of Circle is given as A = πr2, where r is the radius of the circle.

a) If r is 4cm, find the area.
b) Make r the subject.
c) If A is 12.57 cm2, find the radius.

4. An equation is given as F = d x $1.41 + r, where F is taxi fare, d is distance

in kilometres and r is the flat charge.
a) Make d the subject.
b) If r is $1.50 and f is $10, Calculate d.

5. The general formula for calculating amount from compound interest is:
= 1 + , where P is the Principle Value, r is rate and t is time.
100
a) Calculate A if P is $30 000, interest rate of 6% at the end of 4 years?
b) Make P the subject.

6. The formula for Mortgage Payments is shown below:

Calculate the monthly payment of a mortgage loan, if the principal

(amount of home loan) is $150 000, the interest rate is 6% and the
payment is for 20 years.

7. An equation is given as =
a). Make p the subject of the formula.
b). Find p if i=10, m=2, t=15 and n= −2.
48
FACTORIZATION:
1. DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES

Recall:

The following steps may be useful:

 The minus sign should be in the middle of two square terms.
 Each term to have power of two. If square is missing, take square
root and write in terms of square.

Factorize 2 x  72
2
Example 1:
2 x 2  72
 2x 2  36 

 2 x 2  36 
2

 
 2x 2  6 2 
 2( x  6)( x  6)

x2 1
Example 2: Factorize 
4 y2
x2 1

4 y2 2
x2 1
 2
 2
4 y
x 2 12
 2 2
2 y
 x 1  x 1 
     
 2 y  2 y 

Exercise 12: Factorize the following

x2
1. 4 x 2  36 2. 2 x 2  32 3.  y2
16

27 a2 b2
4. 3a 
2
5.  6. 9s  81t
2 2

b2 25 4

49
2. QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS OF TYPE (ax2 + bx + c)
where a = 1

Note: The general form of quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c

One important feature is that the highest power (degree) is 2.

Factorizing is the process of finding the factors. So what exactly is a
factor?
Factors are those numbers or variables which multiply together to get
an expression.
Consider,

Let’s begin with factorizing quadratic with a = 1 in the equation, i.e.

x2 + bx + c
There are three different approaches. Feel comfortable with one of
the methods and you can stick to it.

Example 1: [Basic Factorizing]

Factorize 2 y + 6

2y+6 if you look at the two terms, you will notice that 2 is a
factor of 6 so it is common in both
2 y+ 3 2 change 6 and write with factors. Take out the number that
is common and write the leftover numbers inside the
brackets
Thus the answer is 2 ( y + 3)

Note that factoring is also the opposite of Expanding.

50
FACTORISING BY GROUPING
Let’s recall ‘factorizing by grouping’ into pairs which includes common
factors.

Example 2: Factorize x2 + 3x + 2x + 2

3 x2 + 3x + 2x + 2 Group in pairs. For each pair, factorize using

common factors

3 x x + 3x + 2x + 2
3x (x + 1) +2 (x +1) You will notice that the factors in brackets will be
same. This will be one of the factors. The leftover
terms will be written in another bracket.
(x + 1) (3x +2)

Factorizing Quadratics by grouping

To factorize quadratic equation of the form x2 + bx + c, find out two factors
of the last term (c) that should add to give the middle term (b). Now replace
those factors in place of bx with the variable. Use grouping technique to
factorize.

Example 3: Factorize x2+ 4x + 3

Factors of 3 = 3 x 1
Middle term = 3 + 1 = 4, lets replace

x2+ x + 3x + 3 Make sure you pair in such a way that you can factorize

x.x + x + 3x + 3

x (x + 1) + 3 (x +1)

(x + 1) (x + 3)

A Short-cut Method
Method Three: Replacing factors of c

This approach is similar to the above method.

Find out two factors of the last term (c) that should add to give the middle
term (b).
Write in brackets with the variable. If numbers are positive, include a ‘plus’
sign otherwise a ‘negative‘ sign.

51
Example 4: Factorize x2+ 5x + 4
b c
x2+ 5x + 4 4 = 4 x 1, middle term 5 = 4 + 1

4 1
Thus (x + 4) (x + 1).

Exercise 13: Factorize the following. Use any method

1. x 2 + 3 x + 2 2. x 2 − 3 x +2

3. x 2 + 3 x − 4 4. x 2 − 12 x +32

5. x 2 − 2 x − 48 6. x 2 + x − 15

7. x 2 + x − 24 8. x 2 − 11x +28

9. x 2 + x +20 10. x 2 −10x +25

11. x2 − 4x + 3 12. x 2 + 2 x − 48

3. FACTORIZING QUADRATIC OF TYPE (ax2 + bx + c)

where a 1

Note:
The general form of quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c.
Here Grouping Technique or the shortcut Method can be applied.

Grouping Technique: find out two factors of ac that should add to give
the middle term (b). Now replace those factors in place of bx with the
variable. Factorize in pairs.

Shortcut Method: Identify the factors of first term as well as the last
term, c. Cross – multiplication of the terms should add up to give the
middle term.
Write in brackets. If numbers are positive, include a ‘plus’ sign
otherwise a ‘negative’ sign.

52
 Method One: Grouping Technique

EXAMPLE 1: Factorize 2 x2 – x – 6
Compare ax2 + bx + c
ac = 2 . – 6 = – 12

-4 3

- 4+ 3 = -1 : coefficient of the middle term

Replace 2 x2 – 4x + 3x - 6
grouping 2 x2 – 4x +3x – 6

2x (x – 2) + 3 ( x – 2)

(x – 2) (2x+ 3)

A Short-cut Method

Method Two:

EXAMPLE 2: Factorize completely 3x2 – 4x + 1

3x2 – 4x + 1

factors
3x –1
x – 1 Cross multiply 3x.-1 + x.-1 = – 3x – x = – 4x [middle term]

= ( 3 x – 1) (x – 1)

Example 3: Factorize completely

[Common factor can be removed]

a. 2x2 +8x – 24 b. x3 + 3x2 +2x

= 2(x2 +4x – 12) = x(x2 +3x +2)
= 2(x+6)(x –2) = x(x+2)(x+1)

53
Exercise 14: Factorize the following. Use any method you are familiar with.

1. 3x2 + 11x – 20 2. 6 c2 + c – 12

3. 5p2 – 6 p + 1 4. 2q2 + 7q + 6

5. x3 + 5x2 − 6x 6. 2x2 + 7x + 3

7. 2x2 −8x – 24 8. 2 c2 + 2c – 4

8. 5x2 −13x − 6 10. 3x2 + 10x − 8

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Note: Solving the quadratic equations, of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Method 1: Factorise the equation and use null factor theorem to

solve for x. The Null Factor Theorem states that if a.b = 0, then either
a = 0 or b = 0.

Method 2: Completing the Square Method if a =1

 Take the constant C and transpose it to the other side

 Add to both sides. This is the square of half the coefficient

of 2

 Write the left side as a perfect square or

 Solve by taking the square roots

If a 1, the first step would be to divide through by the

coefficient. The other steps are the same.

Method 3: Using QUADRATIC FORMULA

This formula is very useful for solving any quadratic equations
especially those which cannot be factorized using common factors.
Just identify and substitute the values of a, b and c.
−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

54
Method 1: Factorizing and then solving

Example 1: Solve the equation x 2 +5x + 6 = 0

Factorize first x2 +5x + 6

x 2
x 3 Cross – multiply x.3 + x.2= 3 x +2 x = 5x [middle
term]
Solve ( x + 2) (x + 3) = 0

Either x + 2 = 0 or x+3=0
x=–2 x=–3 Thus x Ɛ {– 3, – 2}

Method 2: Completing the Square Method if a =1

2
Example 2: Solve − −1 =0
2
− =1 ( taking c to other side)
 8
2
2
− +1 =1 +1 ( add    16 to both sides)
 2 
( − )2 = ( Write the left side as a perfect square )
=± +
 = , = −1

Method 2: Completing the Square Method if a  1

Example 3: Solve 5x 2  8x  1  0

5x 2 8x 1
  0
5 5 5
8 1
x2  x 0
5 5
8 1
x  x
2

5 5
2 2
8 4 1  4
x2  x        
5 5 5 5
2
 4 11
x   
 5 25
 4 11
x      0.66
 5  25
 4
 x    0.66
 5 
4
x  0.66 
5
x  0.14,1.46

55
 Use the quadratic formula to solve 3x  4 x  2  0
2
EXAMPLE 4:

Compare
3x 2  4 x  2  0
ax 2  bx  c  0

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 4  (4) 2  4(3  2)

23
4  16  24

6
4  40

6


4  40  , 4  40 
6 6
 1.72,0.39
 x  {0.39,1.72}

EXAMPLE 5: Use the quadratic formula to solve 2 x 2  7 x  4  0

Compare
2x2  7 x  4  0
ax 2  bx  c  0

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 7  (7) 2  4(2  4)

2 2
7  49  32

4
7  17

4


7  17  , 7  17 
4 4
 2.78,0.72
 x  {0.72,2.78}
56
Exercise 15:
1. Using Completing the square method, solve ax  bx  c  0 to show that
2

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

2. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equations (2 decimal places)

a. x 2  8x  4  0 b. 2x 2  6x  1  0
c. 2x2 – 4x – 1 = 0 d. 3x2 - 4x - 2 = 0
e. x 2  3x  18  0 f. 1  2 x  3x 2  0
g. 3x  5x 2  0 h. 0.8 2 + =1

3. Solve the equations by factorizing the expression

a. 2 x2 – 3 x + 1 = 0 b. 3 x2 + 2 = 5 x
c. 4 x – 4 x + 2 = 1
2 d. 12 x 2 + 144 x = 0

4. Solve by completing the square

a. x2 +4 −7 = 0 b. 10 x2 + 3 x −2 = 0
c. x2 – 6 x + 3 = 0 d. 2 x2 + 4x −3 = 0

5. A formula h  3  14t  5t 2 is used to find the height [in metres from

the ground] of throwing a ball into the air, where t is for time [in seconds].
a. Josephine is throwing a ball to Divisha who is at a height of 3m, how
many seconds will it take the ball to reach her?
b. Epeli is standing at a height,h, and Divisha threw the ball to him. It
took 1s to reach him. What height is Epeli from Divisha?

Epeli

Josephine
57
 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

Note: Recall solving inequalities.

For the quadratics, the following steps may be useful:
1. Solve the equation
2. Sketch the graph
3. Follow the signs
below the x-axis
above the x-axis

Example: Solve
a) x 2  4 x  5  0 b) 3  2 x  x 2  0

Answers:
x2  4x  5  0
( x  5)( x  1)  0
x-intercepts are -3,1
x-intercepts are 5,-1
> 0 so above the x-axis.

-1 5
x

 x  1or x5

Exercise 16: Solve

1. 3x 2  7 x  2  0 2. 2 x 2  3x  5

3. x 2  x 4. 2 x 2  3x  5

Lesson of Life: We use mathematics as a tool to make sense of and understand

the world around us— anonymous

58
DISCRIMINANT AND NATURE OF ROOTS

Note: The Discriminant of a quadratic equation is the expression

under the square root sign of the quadratic formula, i.e. b2 – 4ac.

The discriminant is used to determine the number of roots

(solutions) of the quadratic equation.

The General Rules:

Possible values of Nature of Graphical

the discriminant roots interpretation of roots

Graph is tangential to x-
axis
discriminant is One
zero repeated
1
real root
b2 – 4ac = 0

discriminant is
No real
negative
2 roots
b2 – 4ac < 0

discriminant is
Two distinct
positive
3 real roots
b2 – 4ac > 0

If the discriminant is equal to zero, the polynomial is a perfect

square.
E.g. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + = (𝑥 − )2 , 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0

59
 x2
EXAMPLE 1: Find the value of the discriminant of the equation x20
2
and state its nature of roots?

1x 2
 x20
2
Compare ax 2  bx  c  0 hence a = ½ , b = −1 and c = −2.
Substitute in the formula.
1 
Discriminant  b 2  4ac  (1) 2  4  2   1  4  5
2 
Since it is positive, we expect two real roots.

A quadratic equation is given as  2 x  kx  2  0 .Find the

2
EXAMPLE 2:
value (s) of k such that  2 x  kx  2  0 has only 1 real root?
2

One real root means Discriminant = 0;

a = −2, b = k, c = −2

b2  4ac  0 Condition
k  4(2)(2)  0
2

k 2  16  0
k 2  16 Solve for k
k  16
2

k   16  4

Exercise 17:

[ Multiple Choice Questions]

1. Given f(x) = 3x2 + 3x + 1, the nature of the roots of f(x) is

A. one real root
B. no real root
C. two distinct real roots
D. none of the above

2. The discriminant of the expression 2 x2  4 x  5 is

A. −10 B 56
C. 10 D 25

60
 3. Which of these graphs best describes a quadratic function with a negative
coefficient of x2 and a negative discriminant?

[ Fill in the blanks]

4. Complete the following:

If b 2  4ac > 0, the quadratic has _____Real Roots
If b 2  4ac = 0, the quadratic has _____Real Roots
If b 2  4ac < 0, the quadratic has _____Real Roots

[Questions requiring working]

5. Find the discriminant and state the nature of the roots for the quadratic
2 x 2  3x  1  0

6. For what value(s) of p will the quadratic equation 3x2 + 4x + (p + 2) = 0

have 2 equal roots?

7. A quadratic equation is given as x  6 x  ( p  3)  0 Find the value(s)

2

of p such that x  6 x  ( p  3)  0 has 2 real roots?

2

8. For what values of p will the quadratic equation

x  ( p  4) x  ( p  7)  0 have equal roots?
2

2
9. For what value of ‘c’ will the expression y= 4 −1 + have equal
roots?

10. Find the value of k for which the equation x 2  kx  4  0 has real roots.

Lesson of Life: The essence of mathematics is not to make simple things

complicated, but to make complicated things simple. (S. Gudder)

61
SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Note: In addition or subtraction, collect like terms.

 For multiplication of algebraic fractions, multiply numerators and
denominators separately. Cancel if same terms are seen both in the
numerator and denominator.
 In division, leave the first expression while multiply the reciprocal of
the second fraction.
If many operations are involved, follow BEDMAS rule.

B Brackets ( )
E Exponents / powers x2
D Division ÷ whichever comes first
M Multiplication x
A Addition + whichever comes first
S Subtraction -

2 x 4 x 2 8x
EXAMPLE 1: Simplify  
y 3y 9

Follow BEDMAS,  comes first

2
2 x 4 x 8x
 
y 3y 9
It’s a fraction, let’s change the sign to x and take the reciprocal of the second
fraction

2x  4x2 9 
   Collect the numerator and denominator separately
y  3 y 8 x 

2 x 36 x 2
  Cancel and simplify the improper fraction
y 24 xy

2 x 2 3x Make common denominator and collect like terms

  
y 2 2y

4 x 3x x
  
2y 2y 2y

62
 8 p  4q 6 p  3q
EXAMPLE 2: Simplify: 
p2  q2 pq

Factorize the individual algebraic expressions.

4(2 p  q) 3(2 p  q)

( p  q)( p  q) pq change the division sign to multiplication and take
the reciprocal of the second fraction
4(2 p  q) pq
 Cancel those terms that appear both in numerator
( p  q)( p  q) 3(2 p  q)
and denominator
4
Thus
( p  q)

x 2  x  30
EXAMPLE 3: Simplify:
25  x 2

Factorize the numerator and denominator separately:

25  x 2
x  x  30
2
2
25  x 2
x –6 52 – x2
x 5 ( 5 + x) (5 – x)
(x – 6) (x + 5)

Combine together
x 2  x  30 ( x  6)( x  5)

25  x 2 (5  x)(5  x)

x 2  x  30 ( x  6)
Thus 
25  x 2 (5  x)

63
Exercise 18: Simplify the following

3x 15 y a 2  b 2 b 2  ab
1.  5y  2. 
2 2x 8 8a  8

x2 x 2  2 x  24
3. 4. , x  -4
12  3x 2 x4

4x 12 y 2ce  df  cf  2de
5.  4y  6.
7 7x 4e 2  f 2

x2  x  6 x2  1 4x 2  7x  2
7. x 8. , x 2
x2  x 2x  4 x2

2x  6 2 p 2  7 p  15
9. 10.
2x  4x  6
2
6p 9

1
1
x x 2
6x x
11. x 12.
2x  2 x 1
2 1
x
x

2 2 2 2
13. 14. −
( 2)( 1) 2

Lesson of Life: Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close
they were to success when they gave up. -- Thomas Edison

64
 SUB – STRAND 2.2 Remainder and Factor
Theorem

"7 divided by 2 equals 3 with a remainder of 1"

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Long division of polynomials

 Remainder theorem
 Factor theorem

65
LONG DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

Note: Recall Long Division learnt in primary schools.

When dividing one number over the other number, let’s look at the
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
case of a fraction, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 , to change this and write in Long
Division format, then

A special terminology is used instead of 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 and

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 Consider it below:

The main idea here is to look for the factors

that are closest to the Dividend when Divisor is multiplied with the
quotient. The result of multiplication of Divisor and quotient will be
written at the bottom of the Dividend. Proceed by subtracting the
two numbers. Now repeat the steps till you get the remainder.
The result will be written as

For instance, Divide 7 by 2

7 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 
2

Employ Long Division:

2 x 3 = 6 which is closest to 7, so 3 will be the

quotient.
– 6 The result of Divisor and quotient.
1 Remainder

Thus the result is . Check using calculator by

pressing 7 ÷ 2

66
The same method will be used to divide polynomials.
EXAMPLE 1: Find x  1 x 3  7 x 2  3x  3 . What is the Remainder?

x2 + 6 x – 9 Consider the first variable [left] of divisor and dividend: x

times _?_ = x 3 Law of indices: x 2 , so x 2 will be the
x  1 x 3  7 x 2  3x  3 quotient(on top).
– x3 + x2 write the result of Divisor & quotient,i.e.x2(x +1)=x3+x 2
6x  3x  3
2
subtract the like terms, bring the other terms down.
Continue the steps: x times _?_ = 6x 2 Law of indices: 6x
– 6x 2 + 6x so write + 6x on the right side of the quotient.
The result of 6x (x + 1) = 6x 2 + 6x
– 9x – 3 subtract
Continue the steps: x times _?_= –9x Law of indices: – 9
– – 9x – 9 The result of– 9 (x + 1) = – 9x –9

6
Remainder
6
Thus the result is x 2  6 x  6  and Remainder = 6
x 1

EXAMPLE 2: Find x  5 x 3  2 x 2  13x  10

x 2 – 3x + 2
x  5 x 3  2 x 2  13x  10
Consider the first variable[left] of divisor and
dividend: x times _?_ = x 3 Law of indices: x 2 , so x 2
will be the quotient.
3 2
x + 5x The result i.e. x 2(x + 5)=x 3+5 x 2
– 3x 2  13x  10 subtract the like terms, bring the other terms down.
– – 3x 2 – 15x x times _?_ = – 3x 2 L aw of indices: – 3x,
i.e. – 3x (x + 5) = – 3x 2 – 15x
2x + 10 subtract
x times _?_ = 2x Law of indices: 2 ,
– 2x + 10 The result i.e. 2 (x + 5) = 2x + 10
0 Remainder

Thus the result is x 2  3x  2

67
Exercise 19:

1. Divide 4 x 3  2 x 2  5x  3 by ( x  2) .

2. Divide x3 – x + 3 by (x + 1).

3. A function is defined as h(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 5x – 12.

Find x  4 x 3  6 x 2  5 x  12

4. A function is given as f ( x)  x 3  6 x 2  11x  6 .

Find x  3 x 3  6 x 2  11x  6

REMAINDER THEOREM

Note: Recall Long division of polynomials. Notice that it takes a lot of

time and effort to find the Remainder. Here is an easy way of finding the
Remainder.

Consider a Divisor (x – a) which is also a factor of a polynomial, f(x),

 Find the value of x, i.e. by solving [Divisor = 0]
 (x – a) = 0
x=a
 Substitute x value in the polynomial f(a).
 The Remainder = f(a).

When any polynomial f(x) is divided by x – a, the remainder is f(a).

EXAMPLE 1: Calculate the remainder when x3 – 2x + 1 is divided by 3x – 2.

L
3x – 2 = 0 Let Divisor = 0, Solve for x
+2 +2
3x = 2
2
x=
2
R = x3 – 2x + 1 Substitute x =

= ( )3 – 2( ) + 1
1
=– 27

68
EXAMPLE 2: Determine the value of a if x3 – 3ax2 – 8x –8 has a remainder of 8
when divided by x – 4.

x – 4= 0 Let Divisor = 0, Solve for x

x=4
R = x3 – 3ax2 – 8x –8 Substitute x = and R = 8
8 = 43 – 3a(42)– 8(4) –8 Solve for a
8 = 64 – 48a – 32 –8
8 = 24 – 48a
– 16 = – 48a
1
Thus a =

EXAMPLE 3: A polynomial is given as g ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  kx  m . When g(x) is

divided by (x+1) the remainder is 3 and when g(x) is divided by (x – 1) the
remainder is -1. Determine the values of k and m.

Let Divisor = 0, Solve for x

x+1 = 0 x–1=0
x =–1 x=1

Substitute x values and Remainder

R  g (1)  (1) 3  2(1) 2  k (1)  m

R  g (1)  (1) 3  2(1) 2  k (1)  m
3  g (1)  1  2  k  m 1  g (1)  1  2  k  m
3 1  k  m 1  3  k  m
-1 -1 -3 -3
2  k  m 4  k m

Solve Simultaneously:

Note: Simultaneous Equation

It is used to solve for two variables together. Three different
approaches are
 Graphical Method: Draw by finding x and y – intercepts
 Substitution Method: Substitute one equation into another
equation, then solve.
 Elimination Method: One of the variables to have same
coefficient, then either add/subtract to solve.
This will be discussed later in detail.

69
Put the two equations:

Note: Using Elimination Method:

 To eliminate one variable, either add or subtract the 2 equations.
Remember one of the variables should get eliminated.
 Solve for one variable first
 Substitute in any equation to find the second value.

2  k  m Since the coefficients are same, you can do both

4  k m addition/subtraction

Add Subtract
2  k  m 2  k  m
4  k m 4  k m
– 2 = 2m 6 = – 2k
Thus m = – 1 and k = – 3.

Exercise 20:

[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. f ( x)  2 x 3  2 x  3 . When f (x) is divided by ( x  2) , the remainder is

A. 14 B. 9 C. −23 D. −15

2. If the function h(x) = −x3 – 3x2 + bx +5 has a remainder of −2 when

divided by x + 2, what is the value of b ?
3
A. −6 B. −2 C. D. 6
2
[Questions requiring working]

3. What is the remainder when x3 – 3x2 – 4x + 7 is divided by x?

4. Find the remainder when f(x) = −2x3 + 3x2 – x + 5 is divided by 2x + 1.

5. Find the remainder when x3 – 2x2 + 20 is divided by x – 2.

6. What is the remainder when x2 – 3x + 5 is divided by x + 2?

Lesson of Life: The object of education is to prepare the young to educate

themselves throughout their lives ~ Robert M. Hutchins

70
 FACTOR THEOREM

Note: Recall easy way of finding the Remainder. Only difference noted
is that there will be no Remainder.

Consider a Divisor (x – a) which is also a factor of a polynomial, f(x),

 Find the value of x, i.e. by solving [Divisor = 0]  (x – a) = 0  x =
a
 Substitute x value in the polynomial f(a).
 Find the Remainder f(a).

The factor theorem says that if f(a) = 0, then x – a is a factor of f(x) .

EXAMPLE: A function is given as f ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  5x  6.

a) Show that (x + 2) is a factor of f (x)

Let (x + 2) = 0;
f ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  5 x  6
f (2)  (2)3  2(2) 2  5(2)  6  8  8  10  6  0
x=−2 Thus (x + 2) is a factor.

b) Divide f ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  5x  6 c) Factorize f (x) completely

by the factor x + 2
x2  4x  3
x  2 x3  2 x 2  5x  6
 ( x3  2 x 2 )
 4 x2  5x  6
 (4 x 2  8 x)
3x  6
 (3 x  6) Notice there is no Remainder

71
 EXERCISE 21:

[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. The value of k for which (x – 2) is a factor of f(x) = x3 – 3kx + 10 is equal
to:
A. −2 B.  1 C. 2 D. 3
3

2. If (x – 1) is a factor of x3 + kx2 + x – 6, then the value of k is:

A. 1 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

3. The expression which is a factor of x3 + 2x2 – 11x – 12 is:

A. (x – 3) B. ( x −1) C. (x + 2) D. (x – 2)

[Questions requiring working]

4. Find the value of c if x + 2 is a factor of x3 + 5x2 – x + c. If (x – 1) is a factor
of x3 + kx2 – 5x + 6, find the value of k.

5. A function f(x) is given as f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6.

(i) Find f(3)

(ii) Use the information in part(i) to factorize f(x) completely.

6. A function f(x) is given as f(x) = x3 + x2 – 17x + 15

i) Find f(1)
ii) Factorize f(x) completely

7. A polynomial function is given by f ( x)  x3  kx2  x  6 .

i) Find the value of k if (x + 1) is a factor of f(x)

ii) Find the other 2 factors.

8. A polynomial function is given by f ( x)  x 3  qx 2  5x  6 .

i. Find the value of q if (x + 3) is a factor of f(x).

ii. Hence, factorize f(x) completely.

2
9. For a polynomial ( ) = − + + it is known that (−1) = 0,

(0) = , ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, Write ( ) in factored form.

Lesson of Life: The man ignorant of mathematics will be increasingly limited in

his grasp of the main forces of civilization. ~John Kemeny

72
SUB – STRAND 2.3 Sequence and Series

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Sigma Notation
 Sequence defined recursively
 Applications of Arithmetic
sequence
 Applications of Geometric
sequence including Sum to
infinity

73
SIGMA NOTATION (SYMBOL ∑)

Note: ∑ means to find the sum of terms.

means to find the sum of all the terms starting from the first

value until the last value.

e.g. means to find the sum of all the terms starting from the 2nd

term until the 5th term.

4
Example: Evaluate n
1
2
1

This means find the sum of all the terms starting from the 1 st until the 4th term
using the formula
n2 + 1

i.e.

T1 = 12 + 1, T2 = 22 + 1, T3 = 32 + 1, T4 = 42 + 1
T1 = 1, T2 = 5 T3 = 10 T4 = 17

4
Sum: 1 + 5 + 10 + 17 = 33   n 2  1 = 33
1

Or may use tables

n n2 + 1

1 12 + 1 = 2
2 22 + 1 = 5
3 32 + 1 = 10
4 42 + 1 = 17
∑ 33

Therefore the sum of all these terms is 33.

74
EXERCISE 22: Evaluate the following:

5 5
1.  (3n 2  2)
n2
2.  (2 x  1)
x 1

4
 3  6
3.   n
n2  2 
4.  (2  r
r 3
2
)

SEQUENCE DEFINED RECURSIVELY

Note: Recursion is the process of choosing a starting term and

repeatedly applying the same process to each term to arrive at the
next term. Recursion requires that you know the value of the term
immediately before the term you are trying to find.

A recursive formula always has two

parts:
1. the starting value.
2. The recursion equation for Tn as a
function of Tn-1 (the term before it.)

[The term after the nth term is denoted

as Tn + 1]
Always 2 parts!
Recursion is described as
an "iterative" procedure.
The process of recursion can be thought of as climbing a ladder.
Each run on the ladder depends upon stepping on the rung below it.
You start on the first rung of the ladder, let’s say a1

75
EXAMPLE 1: A sequence is defined as Tn  Tn1  n 2 and T1  3 . Find
T2 , T3 , T4 and T5

T1  3 To find T2 – work out the n value in the recursive formula

Tn  Tn1  n 2 let n be 2
T2  T21  2 2 Substitute and solve
T2  T1  2  T1  4  3  4  7
2

T3  T31  32 let n be 3
T3  T2  32 [climb up the ladder]
 T2  9  7  9  16 Substitute and solve
T3  T2  32  T2  9  7  9  16

T4  T41  42 let n be 4 [climb up the ladder]

T4  T3  4 2
Substitute and solve
 T3  16  16  16  32
T4  T3  42  T3  16  16  16  32

T5  T51  52 let n be 5 [climb up the ladder]

T5  T4  5  T4  25  32  25  57 Substitute and solve
2

EXAMPLE 2: A sequence is defined as Tn1  [Tn ]2  3Tn and T1  2 . Find the 4th
term of the sequence.

T1  2 T2  2 T3  10
T2  T11  [T1 ]2  3T1 T3  T21  [T2 ]2  3T2 T4  T31  [T3 ]2  3T3
 2 2  3(2)  4  6  (2) 2  3(2)
 2  4  6  10  (10) 2  3(10)  100  30  70

Thus T4  70

76
EXERCISE 23:

1. A sequence is defined as Tn1  [Tn ]2  Tn and T1  2 . Find the 4th term

of the sequence.

2. Find the 3rd, 4th and 5th term of each sequence.

a) t1 = 5; tn = tn-1 + 5
b) t1 = 3; tn = 2tn-1 - 1
c) t1 = 7; tn = 3tn-1 + n

3. A sequence is defined as Tn  Tn1  5 and T1  4 . Write the first four

terms of the sequence.

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE/ PROGRESSION

Note: Recall from Year 11,

a is first term of the sequence
d is common difference from the two consecutive terms, i.e

n is n number of terms

is the nth term and the formula is given as

is the Sum of the nth term and the formula is given as

EXAMPLE 1: A sequence is given as  log 2, log 4, log 8, log 16,..... 

a) Find the common difference?
b) Find the 10th term of the sequence?
6
c) Calculate T
n 1
n .

77
Answers:

a) Common difference b) 10th term: t10

formula

c) sum of 6th term: S10

Sn 
n
2a  (n  1)d 
2
S 6  2  log 2  (6  1) log 2
6
2
 32 log 2  5 log 2
 3(7 log 2)  21 log 2

EXAMPLE 2: Maika placed $5.00 into an empty money box on 1st January last
year. How much did he collect after 20th February if he kept on adding 60 c daily
from 2nd January to 20th February?

Treating it as a word problem, take out the

main points:
a  $5
d  $0.60
n  31( Jan)  20( Feb )  51days
Money collected in those days i.e t51

EXERCISE 24:

1. How many terms are in the series 5 + 7 + 9 + ...+ 99 + 101?.

Find the sum of the series 5 + 7 + 9 + ...+ 99 + 101.

2. Logs are stacked in a pile with 24 logs on the bottom row and 15 on the top
row. There are 10 rows in all with each row having one more log than the
one above it. How many logs are in the stack?
78
3. Find the sum of all the even integers from 20 to 642.

4. The first term and 6th term of an arithmetic sequence are -4 and 21
respectively. Calculate the 5th term of the sequence.

5. The first, fifth and last terms of an arithmetic sequence are 3, 23 and 103
respectively.

Find the:
i) Number of terms in the sequence
ii) Sum of all the terms in the sequence

6. The first term and 15th term of an arithmetic sequence are -5 and 93
respectively. Find the 4th term of the sequence.

7. An auditorium has 20 seats on the first row, 24 seats on the second row, 28
seats on the third row, and so on and has 30 rows of seats. How many seats
are in the theatre?

8. If the sum of the first n terms of a sequence is 2n2 + 3, find the first 2 terms
of the sequence.

9. The first 3 terms of an arithmetic sequence are: < −2, 1, 4 , ….>

Find the:
i. 5th term
ii. Sum of the first 10 terms.

10. What is the sum of the multiples of 3 between 3 and 999, inclusive?
24
11. An arithmetic sequence is defined by T (n)  4n  1 .What is  T ( n) ?
n 1

13. A sequence is given as  4, 2, 0,−2,… 

(i) Show that the sequence is Arithmetic?

(ii) Find the 20th term.
(iii) What is the sum of the first 20 terms?
(iv) Show that the n th term of this sequence is given by t n  2n  6
(v) Show that the sum of the first n terms of the sequence is given by
S n  n 2  5n

79
14. Find the sum of the odd integers from 25 to 75,inclusive.

15. Find the 3rd term of the arithmetic sequence with t6 = 24 and t15 = 21.

16. What is the common difference of the arithmetic sequence with 6th term
of −56 and 11th term of 11?

17. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 8, and the sum of the first 20
terms is 730. Find the common difference.

12. Suppose on the first week of a new year you deposit $1.00 in an empty piggy
bank. On the second week you deposit $1.50; on the third week you
deposit $2.00; and each week thereafter you deposit $0.50 more than the
previous week.
a. What kind of sequence do these deposits generate?
b. What amount will you deposit in the 52nd week?
c. What is the total in the piggy bank at the end of these 52 weeks?

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE/PROGRESSION

Note: Recall, the variables

a is first term
r is common ratio from the two consecutive terms, i.e

is the nth term and the formula is given as

is the Sum of the nth term and the formula is given as

1 1 1 1
EXAMPLE 1: A sequence is given as  , 2 , , 2 ,..... 
2 4 4 8
a) Show that it is a geometric sequence.
b) Find the 15th term of the sequence?
c) Calculate the sum of 10th term.

80
 a) The common ratio b) t15 c) S10
of the is
1 1
r 2
4 2
1 1
 22  2
4 2

EXERCISE 25:

1. A ball is dropped from a height of 8 m. The ball bounces to 80% of its

previous height with each bounce. How high (to the nearest tenth of a
metre) does the ball bounce on the fifth bounce?

2. Discuss why the following are geometric sequences.

4
a) <2,8,32,128,…> b) <36,-12,4, ,…> c) <24,36,54,81,…>
3

3. A company is offering a job with a salary of $30,000 for the first year and
a 5% rise each year after that. If that 5% rise continues every year, find
the amount of money you would earn in a 40-year career.

4. For the sequence < 6,12,24,48,…> find the common ratio and the 7th
term.

5. In a geometric sequence, the first term is – 3 and the common ratio is 2.

If the sum of the nth term (Sn) is – 3069, find:
a) n, the number of terms
b) tn, the nth term of the sequence

6. The first 2 terms of a geometric sequence are 5 and 5 respectively. Find

the fifth term in the sequence.

81
 7. A geometric sequence is given as <125, 225, 405, 729….>. find the:
a) common ratio
b) sum of first 9 terms.

8. In 2005, the number of tourists going to a city was 25000. The number
has been increasing by 16% every year since then. Find the total
number of tourists who went to the city in 2015.

9. A firm exports tuna to USA. It increases its export by 5% each year.

During the first year it exports 1500 tins of tuna. How many tins of tuna
does it export in its first 12 years of operation?

SUM TO INFINITY

Note: When a geometric sequence has a common ratio between -1

and 1, (i.e. -1 < r < 1), then the term becomes smaller and smaller in
size as we move along the sequence.
For instance < 24, 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75……..> when we add all these
terms we see that we get closer and closer to 48 without ever reaching
48 exactly [Check using calculator].

This particular aspect is known as sum to infinity.

The formula which is used to find sum to infinity is

Important Note: the condition is , i.e. -1 < r < 1.

EXAMPLE 1: What is the general conditions that best ensures that the sum to
infinity exists for the sequence  a, ax, ax 2 , ax 3 ,......  ?
T ax
r 2  x Find r and replace in place of r:
T1 a
r 1
x 1
Thus -1 < x < 1
82
 3 3
EXAMPLE 2: Find the sum to infinity for the sequence 12,3, , ,.......
4 16
a = 12
 3 1
r= 
12 4

12 5
s  = 12   9.6
1 4
1 
4

[Word Problem: Application of Geometric Series]

EXAMPLE 3: Alisi performed an experiment by swinging a pendulum and

recording the angle swung by the pendulum in successive swings as shown in the
diagram below.
Pendulum swinging <100, 90, 81, …..> is geometric sequence.

Her record shows that in the

1000 first swing, the pendulum
swung at an angle of 1000. It
swung 900 in the second
swing, 810 in the third and
the pattern continues until it
comes to rest.

Calculate the:
a) angle that the pendulum swung in 8th swing.
b) sum of the angle swung by the pendulum in the first 8 swings.
c) total angle that the pendulum swung through before it comes to rest.

a) T8

Thus

83
b) S8 c) S 

EXERCISE 26:

[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. What is the most general condition that ensures that the sum to infinity
exists for the sequence 2, 2x, 2x², 2x³, ……..

A. 0<a<1 B. 0<x<1
C. -1<a<1 D. -1<x<1

[Questions requiring working]

2. Suppose a ball is dropped so that at each bounce, it goes to 2 of its
3
previous height on each rebound. If it is dropped from a height of 12m,
find the total distance travelled by the ball before it comes to rest.

3. A pile driver drives a 12 m pole into the ground. Each time it strikes the
pole, the pole is driven 2 the distance it last moved. The first strike
3
drives the pole 3 m into the ground.
i) Determine the distance the pole will be driven by the fifth strike.
ii) Use an appropriate formula or otherwise to determine the length
of the pole that will be left above the ground no matter how
many strikes are made by the pile driver.

4. The production from a farm declines as soil fertility drops. The first crop
of carrots weigh 60 tonnes. Each year after that, the total weight of
carrots produced falls by 5%.
a) Determine the weight of carrots produced in the 3rd year.
b) Calculate the total weight of carrots produced after 8th year.
c) Calculate the total weight of carrots produced over a long time.

84
5. A certain amount of yeast is mixed with some dough so that the initial
volume of the dough is 2.80 m3. The volume of the dough is then checked
after every 10 minutes. It was noticed that during the first 10 minutes,
the dough has grown by 0.64 m3 & 0.32 m3 in the next 10 minutes, & then
0.16 m3 during the next 10 minutes & so on.
a) Show that the Volume increase forms a geometric sequence
b) If the Volume of the dough keeps increasing at that rate until it can’t
increase anymore, by how much will its Volume increase altogether?
c) To what maximum volume will the dough grow?

6. A fishing village, in the first year catches 19 683 tonnes of fish. In the next
year they catch only one-third of this amount. In each year following that,
they only catch one-third of what they caught the year before.

(i) Find the amount of fish they catch each year for the first five
years.

(ii) Calculate the total tonnage caught if they continue to fish until
there were no more fish left.

7. A hot-air balloon rises 90 m in its first minute of flight. In each succeeding

minute, it rises only 90% as far as it did during the preceding minute.
What is the final height of the balloon?

8. A sequence is given as 5,15,45,135,...

(i) Is this sequence geometric? Why?
(ii) Find the formula which will give the n th term of this sequence.
(iii) What is the 6th term?
(iv) Explain why the sequence does not have sum to infinity

9. A 100L container of toxic waste is buried in a landfill. Each year some of

the contents leak into the surrounding water table. The amount leaking,
(in litres), each year follows a geometric sequence as shown below.
Geometric sequence: <15, 12, 9.6, ….>

a) Calculate the amount of toxic waste that leaks over a very long period
of time
b) How much toxic waste will remain in the container after 10 years?

85
 10. The diagram given below shows triangles inscribed in triangles. Each
triangle is an equilateral triangle. Consecutive triangles (inscribed in the
previous triangles) are obtained by joining the midpoints as shown
below.
A

F H E

I G

B D C

Triangle 1 is triangle ABC

Triangle 2 is triangle DEF
Triangle 3 is triangle GHI
The length of each side of Triangle 1 is 16 cm.

Determine:
a) The area of Triangle 1
b) The area of Triangle 2

The sequence of areas of triangles

S = < …….. area of triangle 1, area of triangle 2, area of triangle 3, ……..> is a
geometric sequence.

c) Determine the common ratio

d) What is the area of the 5th triangle?
e) What is the sum of the areas of all such triangles

11. A ball is dropped from a height of 8 m. The ball bounces to 80% of its
previous height with each bounce. How high (to the nearest tenth of a
metre) does the ball bounce on the fifth bounce?

Lesson of Life: Mathematics has a pervasive influence on our everyday lives, and
contributes to the wealth of the country ~ Anonymous
86
 SUB – STRAND 3.1 Study and Interpret
Graphs

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Relations and Functions

 Linear Graphs
 Quadratic and it’s Turning Point
 Cubic Equations that can be
factorized
 Hyperbolic Graphs
 Absolute Value Graph
 Square Root Graph
 Logarithmic and Exponential
Functions
 Graph of Circles

87
REVISION OF RELATION AND FUNCTIONS

Note: Relation has two sets of elements.

Domain: First element which are the x values.
Range: Second element which are the y values.

There are many ways of representing Relation and its Inverse:

1. Ordered Pair: write the values of x and y in brackets with a
comma in between, i.e. (x, y).
To find inverse: simply change positions of x and y, i.e. (y, x).
2. Equation: Recall that it will have equal sign. Only new feature is
that it includes two variables x and y.
For instance, y = x +1, 3x + y = 6, y = x2, etc.
To find inverse: interchange x and y variable and make new y the
subject.
y = x +2
x = y +2
x – 2 = y +2 – 2
∴ y -1 = x – 2
3. Arrow Diagram: the starting of the arrow is x while the finishing
arrow sign is y.
x y
To find inverse: simply change the arrow direction, x y
4. Graph: Plot the coordinates and draw the graph.
To find its inverse, reflect the graph in the line y = x.
f(x) y=x

f -1(x)

Function is where the domain or [x values/first element] is not

repeated.
 For graphs, use a vertical line test, i.e. when drawing a vertical
line through the graph, the line should cut the graph at only one
point. Then it will be a Function, otherwise it’s Not Function.
To evaluate f(a) : since x = a, substitute a in place of x and find the
answer, i.e. y value.

88
Example: Indicate if the following relations are function

a) y b) y

x x

Vertical line cuts once, Vertical line cuts more than once,
therefore it is a function therefore it is NOT a function

Exercise 27:

[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. Which of the following is not function?

y y
A. B.

x x

y y
C. D.

x x

[Questions requiring working]

2. The domain of a relation is given as {x : 3 ≤ x < 7, x R}.

What is the range of the inverse relation?

3. A relation is given by (x, 2x) where x { 2, 1,0,1,2}

i). List the range
ii). List the relation as a set of ordered pairs.
ii). Write the domain of inverse relation.

89
 4. A relation is represented by the graph shown below.
y

2
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
-1

a) List the domain and range.

b) Is this relation a function?

5. An equation is given as y = 3x + 1 for x Ɛ { - 1 , 0, 1 }

a) Solve for y – values

b) Write as ordered pairs
c) List the domain and range
d) Plot the points on the Cartesian plane.
e) Write ordered pairs of the inverse
f) Is the inverse relation a function?
g) Find inverse of the equation
h) Draw the graph of the inverse.

6. A relation is shown below:

a
b

e
c
d

a) List the ordered pairs

b) Is this relation a function?
c) Draw the inverse of the relation.

Lesson of Life: The difference between a mathematician and a politician is that a

mathematician tries to say the most in the least number of words, the politician
is the opposite ~Unknown

90
 REVISION OF LINEAR GRAPHS

Note: The word Linear itself tells us that it is derived from the word “Line”.
In this topic, we are going to look at how to draw straight line graphs.
There are two Methods, of which intercept method will be used more often.
 Method 1: Using Tables
 Method 2: Intercepts [To solve for x – intercept, let y=0 & to solve for y – intercept,
let x=0. Plot the intercepts and draw a straight line passing through the 2 points].
GRAPH y = mx + c POSITIVE GRADIENT NEGATIVE GRADIENT
Linear / straight line
Example: x = -1, y = 3,
3x + 2y = 6, y = -2x + 1

EXAMPLE 1: Sketch the graph of y = x + 2

Using tables Take some x – values, i.e, positive and negative numbers.
Substitute those x values to find y
y
x y=x+2 4
(x, y)
-2 -2 + 2= 0 (-2, 0)
3
-1 -1 + 2 =1 (-1, 1)
0 0+2=2 (0, 2)
2
1 1 + 2= 3 (1, 3)
2 2 + 2= 4 (2, 4)
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2x

EXAMPLE 2: Sketch the graph of 3y + 2x = 6

Using Intercepts
y
4 To find x – int, let y = 0:
Substitute 0 in place of y & solve
3 3(0) + 2x = 6
2x = 6
2 ∴ x - int = 3
To find y – int, let x = 0:
1 Substitute 0 in place of x & solve
3y + 2(0) = 6
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x 3y = 6
∴ y – int = 2

91
EXAMPLE 3: What is the equation of the graph given below?
y
4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
x

The General formula is y=mx +c

First find slope (gradient, m):
m=
y – int: (cuts at 2 i.e. c is 2)
Substitute the values in place of the variable m and c
Thus, y = x + 2

Exercise 28:

1. Find the equation of the graph:

y

2
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
-1

2. Sketch the following graphs:

a) y = - x + 1 b) x + 2y = 15

c) y = - x +6 d) y = x + 3

e) 3x-2y=6 f) y = x 7

92
 QUADRATICS AND IT’S TURNING POINT

Note: Recall the quadratic equation [form ax2 + bx + c = 0] and formula

−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
[𝑥 ]. Those notes will be very handy here.
𝑎
Look at the shape. Did you notice something?
Quadratic graph will have degree 2, i.e. the highest power of 2 for instance, y =
x2, y = - x2 +1 or y = - x2 +3x +1.
The graph will be symmetrical about the turning point (Vertex).
Symmetrical objects will have one half as the reflection of the other half.
Line of Symmetry – the line that divides the object into two equal halves.

Turning point – where the graph turns.

GRAPH y = ± a x2 POSITIVE SHAPE NEGATIVE SHAPE
(y = + a x2) (y = - a x2)
y = x2, y = -x2+ 2, Turning point
y = (x+1)2

Turning
point
To sketch the graph, follow intercept or table method from the linear graph.
Only new feature is that you may expect two x – intercepts [roots].

EXAMPLE 1: Sketch graph of y = x2

Using tables Take some x – values, i.e, positive
and negative numbers.
y Substitute those x values to find y

4 x y = x2 (x,y)
-2 (-2) 2= 4 (-2,4)
3 -1 (-1) 2= 1 (-1,1)
0 (0) 2= 0 (0,0)
2 1 (1) 2= 1 (1,1)
2 (-2) 2= 4 (2,4)
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 x

93
EXAMPLE 2: Draw the graph of y = x2 + x - 2
To find x – int, let y = 0:
Substitute 0 in place of y & solve
Using Intercepts
0 = x2 + x - 2  Factorize
x 2
y
x -1
4
0 = (x + 2) (x – 1) Solve
x + 2=0, x – 1=0
3 x = -2, 1 [2 roots]
2 To find y – int, let x = 0:
Substitute 0 in place of x & solve
1 y = x2 + x -2
= 02 + 0 -2
-2 -1 0 1 2 x = -2

-1 Shape: y = +x2
Turning point: Since symmetric, it
-2 should be at the midpoint of x –
coordinates, thus
Turning point x +x − +
Xm = = -½
y = (-0.5) + -0.5 -2
2

= -2.25
To find x – int, let y = 0:
EXAMPLE 3: Draw the graph of y = - x2 + 8 x +20 Substitute 0 in place of y & solve
0 = - x2 + 8 x +20  use quadratic
formula
0 = ax2 +bx + c,
y Substitute a = -1, b=8 and c =20
−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −8± 82 −4(− )( 0)
Turning point 𝑥 , ,
𝑎 (− )
−8± 64+80 −8± 44 −8±
𝑥 , ,
− − −
−8+ −8−
= − , − ,
x = -2, 10
20 To find y – int, let x = 0:
Substitute 0 in place of x & solve
-12 -8 -4 -2 0 4 8 10 x y = - x2 + 8 x +20
12 = -02 + 8(0) +20
= 20
Shape: y = -x2
Turning point: Since symmetric, it
should be at the midpoint of x –
coordinates, thus
x +x − + 0
Xm = = 4
y= - 4 + 8 .4 +20 = 36
2

94
Exercise 29:

1. Sketch the following graphs:

a) y  375  10 x  x 2 b) y  x 2  25

c) f ( x)  (2 x  1)( x  3) d) y   x 2  2 x  3

e) f ( x)  (2 x  1)( x  3) f) y = 3x - x2

g) f ( x)  8 x 2  2 x  3 h) f ( x)  x 2  2 x

i) y   x 2  80 x  1500 j) y   x 2  2 x  3

REVIEW OF TRANSFORMATION OF QUADRATIC GRAPHS

Note:
In general, the transformation of Quadratic equation will have the form:

Shape ± Stretching Shifting Shifting

along x – axis along y - axis

The table below shows how the transformation works by shifting the basic
shape:
General Form Explanation Diagram Example
y  x 2 Shape: Positive y  x2
This is the basic  x2 shape
shape to start
with. It will be at  x2 y   x2
the origin (0,0)
Negative
with y – axis as the
shape
line of symmetry

95
y  ax 2 Stretching: y  3x 2
-1 > a
In front i.e. the
and a > 1
coefficient of x2
Narrow
1
-1 < a < 1 y   x2
Wide 2

y  ( x  b)2 Shifting Horizontal y  ( x  3) 2

along x-axis: line
+b +b -b
move left
3
-b
move right y  ( x  2) 2

-2 x

y  x2  c Shifting y  x2  3 ans
along y-axis: + c up
+c
move up
x
-c
-c -3
move down
down
y  x 1 2

y  a( x  b)2  cCombinatio y  ( x  5) 2  3

n of all
y
shifting

5 unit left
-5
and 3 unit
x
down
-3

96
EXAMPLE 1: The equation is given as y = (x – 1)2 + 2.

(a) Sketch the graph. Clearly show the intercepts

(b)Give the coordinates of the vertex
(c) State the range of the function

Answers:

a) y

2 b) coordinates of the vertex: (1, 2)

c) Range { y : y 2, y R}

1 x
EXAMPLE 2: The quadratic equation f ( x)  ax  bx  c has b 2  4ac  0 and
2

a < 0 . It also has positive x – intercept.

Sketch the graph that best represents f (x) .

a<0 this means that a is negative so replace with negative sign

yields
f ( x)   x 2  bx  c negative shape

b 2  4ac  0 Recall nature of roots (one real root) i.e touching the x -
axis

Thus y

97
Exercise 30:

1. A function is given as f ( x)  x  2 x
2

i) Find the x and y intercept of the graph of f(x).

ii) Sketch the graph of f(x) showing the intercepts and turning points.
iii) A second function is given as g ( x)  f ( x  1) . On the same pair of
axis, Sketch the graph of g(x).
iv) Name the transformation that maps the graph of f(x) to g(x).

2. The diagram given below shows the graph of y  f (x)

y
6

5 x

-19

Find the equation of the graph of f (x)

3. The graph of f (x) has been transformed to y = g (x) and the resulting
graph is shown. Find the most appropriate equation for g (x).
g (x) y

f (x)

1
x
-1 0

4. The equation is given as y  ( x  2) 2  1 .

(a) Sketch the graph. Clearly show the intercepts

(b) Give the coordinates of the vertex
(c) Identify the axis of symmetry.
(d) State the range of the function

98
 CUBIC EQUATIONS THAT CAN BE FACTORIZED

Note: Cubic is derived from the word ‘cube’ which means power of 3 in
algebra, i.e. the highest power of 3.
GRAPH POSITIVE SHAPE y = + a x3 NEGATIVE SHAPE y = - a x3
Cubic function /
graph

To sketch the graph, follow intercept method from the linear and
quadratics graph. Only new feature is that you will expect three x –
intercepts [roots].
Also, if you see square then the point would be the vertex.
The transformation of cubic is exactly the same as quadratic
transformation.
In general, the transformation of Cubic equation will have the form:

Shape ± Stretching Shifting Shifting

along x – axis along y – axis

EXAMPLE 1: Find the equation of the graph given below

y

-3 1 2 x

The x – intercepts are given as x = -3, x = 1 and x = 2.

Take it on the left side with the x
x = -3, x=1 x=2
( x  3)( x  1)( x  2) the shape is of negative coefficient so put a negative sign
Thus, y  ( x  2)( x  1)( x  3)

99
EXAMPLE 2: Sketch the graph of y  ( x  2) 2 (1  x), show all the intercepts
clearly.

Shape x-int, let y = 0 and solve y-int, let x = 0 and solve plot
and draw smooth curve
y
y  ( x  2) (1  x )
2
y  (0  2) 2 (1  0)
y   x3 0  ( x  2) 2 ,0  1  x  4 1
x  2, x  1 y4 4

-2 1

The repeated factor in y  ( x  2) 2 (1  x) that is ( x  2) 2 means the graph turns

at x=-2 as shown above

EXERCISE 31:

[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. Which of the following has the equation x (x – 1) (x – 2)?

[Questions requiring working]

2. Sketch the following graphs:

a) y  x( x 2  1) b) y  ( x  1)( x  3) 2

c) y  (3  x)( x  2)( x  1) d) y = x2 (x+2)

100
 3. Write the equation of the following graphs

a) b)
f(x) g (x)

0 1 2 x -2 0 3 x

HYPERBOLIC GRAPHS

Note: Hyperbola will have a basic form of xy = c , where c is a constant number.

𝑐
Making y the subject yields: y = 𝑥
if c is positive( draw in quadrants 1 and 3) if c is negative(draw in quadrants
2 and 4)
y y

x x

 For the general form , important feature to note is the asymptotes.

Asymptotes are those lines that you will never cross. In the above diagrams, the
vertical asymptote is at y = 0 while the horizontal asymptote is at x = 0.
 To find the vertical asymptote: since denominator of rational function cannot be
zero,
let 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 0, i.e. c x + d = 0 and Solve
 To find the horizontal asymptote: Divide the coefficients of the variable x,
i.e.

 To sketch the graph, find the intercepts.

If the equation is not in general form, recall algebra i.e. make denominator the same.
 All hyperbolas have two distinct branches, directly opposite each other.
 The branches of hyperbolas get very close to particular lines called the
asymptotes, without ever actually touching it.

101
 EXAMPLE 1: Sketch the graph of y =
2 x y=𝑥 (x,y)
2
-2 1 (-2,-1)
1 2
2
-1 2 (-1,-2)
-2 -1 0 1 2 1
2
0 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 -
-1 0
2
1 2 (1,2)
-2 1
2
2 1 (2,1)
2

Note: The y value never reach zero because there is no number which will divide
into 2 to give zero. Therefore, the x-axis is an asymptote. Similarly the y-
axis is an asymptote because the x value never reaches 0.

EXAMPLE 2: Sketch the graph of x y = 5

Making y the subject: y = y

The shape of negative graph is:

3x
EXAMPLE 3: A function is given as g ( x)  2 
x 1

ax  b
i) Express g(x) in the form g ( x) 
cx  d

ii) Give the equations of the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.

iii) Sketch the graph of g(x), showing clearly all intercepts and asymptotes.

102
Answers:

i. Express g(x) ii. asymptotes iii. Sketch: need intercepts

Make denominator VA: Let deno. = 0 y – int, let x = 0, Solve

the same
x2
3x g ( x) 
g ( x)  2  x 1
x 1 x 1  0 02 2
y 
2 3x x 1 0 1 1
   y2
1 x 1
x – int, let y = 0, Solve
Cross multiply HA: y = coefficient of x

2x  1  3x(1) x x2

 y  1 0 ,
x  1 x x 1
Distributive law ignore denominator.
Why?
and simplify 0 x (x – 1) is zero
2 x  2  3x

x  1 0  x  2
x2 x  2
 g ( x) 
x 1

Sketch
y VA

-2 0 1 2 x

HA

103
TRANSFORMATION OF HYPERBOLA

Note:
 Vertical transformation:

where + a, move the basic graph , ‘a’ units up

– a , move the graph ‘a’ units down.

 Horizontal transformation:

where + b, move the graph ‘b’ units left or

– b , move the graph ‘b’ units right.

 Combined Transformation: In general, the transformation will

have the form:
1
𝑦 ±𝑏
𝑥±𝑎

Shifting Shifting
along x – axis along y – axis

4
EXAMPLE 5: A function is defined as f ( x) .
x
a) Sketch the graph of f(x). Use dotted lines
4
b) A second function g(x) is defined as g ( x)   1 . Write the equation
x2
of the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of g(x).

c) On the same set of axis used in (i.) above, sketch the graph of g(x) and
show all the intercepts and asymptotes clearly.

d) Describe fully the transformation that maps the graph of function f(x)
onto the graph of function g(x).

104
Answer:

a) Use tables

x -2 -1 0 1 2
4 4 4 4 4 4
f ( x)   2  4   / und 4 2
x 2 1 0 1 2

-2 -1 0 1 2
-2
-1

b) First express in the general form:

4 1 x2 4 x2 x2
g ( x)     
x2 1 x2 x2 x2
HA; coefficien t
VA; deno  0
1x
x2  0 1
1x
x2
 y 1

c) x –int , let y = 0; y – int, let x = 0

x2
y x2
x2 y
x2
0  x2
02
x  2 y  1
02

d) Shifting 1 unit up and 2 units right or translation by vector

 x  2 
    
 y    1

105
EXERCISE 32:

1. Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts and asymptotes.

x4 4x  2
a) y  b) y 
x2 x 3

2 1
c) y  1 d) y  3 
x3 x2
2. The graph of the function y  f (x) is shown below. Use it to answer the
questions that follow. y  f (x)

-2 1 x
-1

a) Find the equation of the vertical asymptote

b) State the equation of the horizontal asymptote
c) Determine the equation of the function y  f (x) . Express in the
ax  b
form y 
cx  d

3. The graph of the function y1  f ( x) is shown below. Use it to answer

the questions that follows.

i). Find the equation of the vertical asymptote

ii). State the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
iii). Determine the equation of the function.
iv). The graph of the function y2 = g(x) is obtained by reflecting the
graph of the function y1 = f(x) about the y-axis.
v). State the equation of the function y2 = g(x).

106
 5
4. A function is given as f ( x)  3 
x 1
a) Calculate the x and y intercepts
b) Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of f(x).
c) Sketch the graph of f(x), showing clearly all intercepts and asymptotes.
d) A second function g (x) is defined as g (x) = - f(x)
e) Describe fully the transformation that maps the graph of function f(x)
onto the graph of function g(x)

OTHER GRAPHS
1. ABSOLUTE VALUE | |

Note: So before we jump straight into graphing y=|x|, let's first take a
look at a graph we already know, y = x.
y
y=x

 How is y=|x| different from y = x?

Well, we know that absolute values don't change positive numbers; they
just change the negative number and make it positive.
Therefore the negative numbers on the left side will also give positive y’s.
The shape of the graph then is:
y=|x| y= |x|
y y

x x

[positive shape] [negative shape]

 The transformation will have the form:

Shape ± Stretching Shifting Shifting

Along x – axis along y - axis

107
EXAMPLE 1: Draw the graph of y  x and State the range

x -2 -1 0 1 2
y x 2 2 1  1 0 0 1 1 2 2

-2 -1 0 1 2 x

Range = {y: y ≥ 0, y  R }

EXAMPLE 2: The graph of the function f (x) is shown below.

y

2 x

Write the equation of f (x) and state the range.

Shift 2 units right and 1 unit up f ( x)  x  2  1
R  { y : y  1, y  R}

EXERCISE 33:

1. Sketch the following graphs

a) Graph y = | x | + 2 c) Graph y = –| x + 2 |

b) Graph y = –| x | + 2 d) Graph y = | x2 – 3x – 4 |

2. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x - 1 and clearly indicate the intercepts

(b) State the domain and range of the function

Lesson of Life: The laws of Nature are but the mathematical thoughts of God
–Euclid

108
 2. SQUARE ROOT GRAPH

Note: The basic Square root graph will have the form is

same as
 The shape of the graph:
y= y=

 The transformation will have the form:

Shape ± Stretching Shifting Shifting

along x – axis along y – axis

EXAMPLE 1: Draw the graph of y  x and State the domain

x -1 0 1 2 4
y x 1  undefined 0 0 1 1 2  1.41 4 2

-2 -1 0 1 2 x

Domain = {x: x ≥ 0, x  R }

109
EXAMPLE 2: The diagram below shows the graph of g ( x)  x2
g(x) P

-2 -1 0 2 6 x

a) Write down the coordinates of point P.

b) Find g (- x).
c) On the pair of axis drawn, draw the graph of g (- x).
d) Describe the transformation.
e) State the domain and range of g (- x).

Answers:

a) coordinates of point P b) Substitute – x in place of x

x = 6, Substitute

g (6)  6  2 g ( x)  x  2
 4  2  (6,2) g ( x)   x  2

c) Use tables:

x -2 -1 0
g (  x)   x  2 g (  2) g (  1) g (0)
  2  2   1  2  02
-6 -2
0  1  2 0
 undefine  undefine

d) Reflection in the y - axis

e) Domain {x : x  2, x  R}
Range { y : y  0, y  R}

110
EXAMPLE 3: The graph of the function f (x) is shown below.
y
f (x)

1 x

a) Write the equation.

b) State the domain and range of f (x)

a) Shifted 1 unit right and 2 units up b) D  {x : x  1, x  R}

and it’s a positive graph R  { y : y  2, y  R}
y  x 1  2

EXERCISE 34:

1. State domain and range of the graph:

0 x

2. Sketch the graph of y= 2 and state the domain and range.

3. The graph of the function g (x) is shown below.

y

-1 x

a) Write the equation of g (x) .

b) Write down the y – intercept of g (x)
c) State the domain and range of g (x)

111
4. The graph of the function f (x) is shown below.
y

1
x

a) What is the equation?

b) State the domain and the range of f (x)
c) Reflect the graph on y = x line.
d) Write down the equation of the inverse.

3. LOGARITHMIC / EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Note: On your calculator,

You will notice the two functions: ex and ln x are on the same button
because they are inverses of each other. If we plot them on the same
axes, we see that they are just reflections of each other in the line
y = x.

Similarly, if we see the button: 10x and log. These two are inverses of
each other. This log is of base 10 only. Don’t use this if you have to
find log of other numbers. For that case, recall the rules of logarithm.

Using Tables [get some x values, substitute and find y values, plot
points and draw graph]. Recall, anything raised to power zero gives
one, thus the y – intercept of any exponential graph is always 1, (0,1)
except for the transformed graph.

112
 EXAMPLE 1: Sketch graph of y  log 2 x

x 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2

y  log 2 x -3 -2 -1 0 1
log x

log 2

y
2

1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2

-1

-2

 The y-axis is an asymptote because log 0 is undefined

EXAMPLE 2: A function is given as f ( x)  3x

i. Find the coordinates of the y – intercept

ii. Sketch the graph of f(x) and label it clearly

Another function is defined as g ( x)  log 3 x

iii. On the pair of axes, Sketch the graph of g(x), showing the x – intercept
clearly
iv. Describe fully the transformation that maps the graph of f(x) onto the
graph of g(x).

Answers:
i. y – int, let x = 0 and solve
f ( x)  3 x
 y  3x
 30  1
(0,1)

113
 ii. Sketch: using tables

x -2 -1 0 1 2
y  3x y  3 2 
1
y  31 
1 y  30  1 y  31  3 y  32  9
9 3

ii / iii Sketch
y
f ( x)  3 x
4

3
Prove that and
2 are inverses of
each other.
1 To find the inverse:
x
-2 -1 0 1 2
Interchange x and y
-1

-2

iv. Reflection in the line y = x.

4. GRAPH OF CIRCLES

Note: The equation of a circle at the centre of origin (0, 0) with the radius, r, is
given as
 The equation makes a circle as long as the exponents on x and y are both 2
(power 2) and the coefficients on x and y are both same (usually 1).
 The general equation of a circle with radius r and centre ( ) is

114
EXAMPLE 1: Sketch the graph of x 2  y 2  16

Graphing a circle centered at the origin with r 2 = 16, thus r = 4.

EXAMPLE 2: Write the equation of the graph

r=5

x 2  y 2  r 2  52
 x 2  y 2  25

Sketch the graph of x  3   y  1  25

2 2
EXAMPLE 3:

EXERCISE 35:

1. The coordinates of the end points of the diameter of a circle are (-4, 0)
and (4, 0).

a) Write down the equation of this circle.

b) Determine the domain and the range

115
 2. A function is given as f ( x)  2 x .

a) Sketch the graph of f(x) and label it clearly

b) Find the expression for g ( x)   f ( x)
c) Sketch the graph of g(x) and label it clearly
d) Describe fully the transformation that maps the graph of f(x) onto
the graph of g(x).

1
3. The diagram below shows the graph of y  .
2x
y

A
x

a) Give the coordinates of point A.

b) On the pair of axes, draw the graph of its inverse.

4. Sketch the graph of x2 + y2 = 9 and state its domain.

5. Sketch the following circles:

a) x 2  y 2  32 b) x 2  y 2  36

c) 2 x 2  2 y 2  8 d) x  2   y  3  9
2 2

e) 3x  1  3 y  2  12 f) x  2   y  1  14
2 2 2 2

6. Sketch the following graphs:

a) y  log x b) y  log 3 x c) y  log 2 x  1

7. Sketch the graph of y=(4) and give the equation of its inverse function.

8. Sketch the graph y2= 9 x2 and state its domain and range.

Lesson of Life: If there is a God, he's a great mathematician ~ Paul Dira

116
SUB – STRAND 3.2 Simultaneous Equations

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Simultaneous Equations:
Applications
 Linear and Quadratic Equation
 Linear and Hyperbolic Equation
 Linear Equation and Circle

117
APPLICATIONS OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Note: Simultaneously means to solve for variables at the same time.

Three methods include:

 Elimination method
 Substitution
 Graphical method

Elimination method:
 To eliminate one variable, either add or subtract the two
equations. Remember one of the variables should get
eliminated so there may be a need to multiply equations by a
constant.
 Solve for one variable first
 Substitute in any equation to find the second value.

Substitution method involves the substituting of one equation into

another equation. Then solve for the two variables.

Graphical method is not to be encouraged since a lot of approximation

is required in some cases.

EXAMPLE 1: Solve these two equations simultaneously:

4x – 3y = 3 and 10x + 3y = 4

4x – 3y = 3
+ 10x + 3y = 4

14 x = 7
x = ½ or 0.5
Substitute in any equation:

4x – 3y = 3
4(0.5) – 3y = 3
2– 3y = 3
2-2– 3y = 3-2
– 3y = 1
y=-

118
EXAMPLE 2:

A total of 925 tickets were sold for $5925. If adult tickets cost $7.50 and
children’s tickets cost $3.00, how many tickets of each kind were sold?

Answers:
Let x be the number of adult tickets.
Let y be the number of children’s tickets.

x + y = 925 Multiply this equation by 3 and subtract

7.5x + 3y = 5925

3x + 3 y = 2775
7.5x + 3y = 5925

-4.5 x = - 3150
x = 700

Substitute in any equation:

x + y = 925
700 – 700 + y = 925– 700
Y = 225

Thus 700 adult tickets and 225 children’s tickets.

EXERCISE 36:

1. Two numbers have a sum of 90 and one is 5 times the other.

a) Write down the pair of simultaneous equation.

b) Solve for the values of the two numbers.

2. The total number of girls and boys in a class is 42. There are more girls
than boys in the class. The difference between the number of boys and
girls is 16. Find the number of girls and boys in the class.

3. The total numbers of mangoes and oranges in a pile is 47. There are more
mangoes than oranges in the pile. The difference between the number of
mangoes and oranges in the same pile is 17.
a) Use the above information to give a pair of simultaneous equations
b) Find the number of mangoes and oranges

4. The cost of book B is $15.00 more than three times the cost of book A. If
the cost of books A and B together is $75.00, what is the cost of book A?

119
POINTS OF INTERSECTION(S)

1. LINEAR AND QUADRATIC EQUATION

Note: Quadratic equation and straight line graphs will meet at, at most two
places. The answers to be written in coordinate form: (x, y).

You may be required to use factorization technique or quadratic formula.

EXAMPLE 2: Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola

y = x2 – 2 and the straight line y – 2x = 1.

Graphically,

Using Substitution method:

Substitute the first equation in the second one by replacing in place of y.

y = x2 –2

y – 2x = 1
(x2 –2)– 2x = 1 Collect all on one side, since it’s a trinomial.

x2 –3– 2x = 0 Rearrange from highest degree

x2 – 2x –3 = 0 Factorise

x –3 Thus (x –3) (x + 1) = 0
x 1

x = –1, 3
120
Substitute the x value in any equation to solve for y:

If x = –1, y = x2 –2 = (–1)2 –2 = –1
If x = 3, y = x2 –2 = (3)2 –2 = 7

(1,1)and (3,7)

2. LINEAR AND HYPERBOLIC EQUATION

Note: Hyperbolic equation and straight line graphs will meet at, at most
two places.
You may be required to use factorization technique or quadratic formula.

EXAMPLE 5: Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the y = −

and the straight line
y = 2x – 1.

Graphically,

Using Substitution method:

Substitute the first equation in the second one by replacing in place of y.

y=
−

y = 2x – 1

121
2x – 1= Take denominator on the left side.
−

(2x – 1) (x –2)= 5 Expand the brackets

2x2 – 4x–x+2 = 5 Collect all on one side, since it’s a trinomial.

-5 -5
2
2x – 5x – 3 = 0 You may use quadratic formula.

a = 2, b = – 5, c = – 3
−− ± (− )2 −4( )(− ) ± + 4 ± 4 ±
Substitute the values: =
( ) 4 4 4


Substitute the x value in any equation to solve for y:

If x =3, y = 2x – 1 = 2(3) – 1 = 5
If x = –½, y = 2x – 1 = 2(–½) – 1 = –2
 (3,5) & ( 1 ,2)
2

3. LINEAR EQUATION AND CIRCLE

Note: Circles and straight line graphs will meet at, at most two
places. You may be required to use factorization technique or
quadratic formula.

EXAMPLE 6: Find the points of intersection for the equations: x2 + y2 = 25 and

y = x + 5.

Graphically,

x2 + y2 = 25

y=x+5

122
Using Substitution method:
Substitute the first equation in the second one by replacing in place of y.
y=x+5

x2 + y2 = 25

x2 + (x + 5)2 = 25 Expand the brackets

x2 + (x2 +10x +25)= 25
2 x2 +10x = 0 Factorize
2x (x +5) = 0 Solve
x = - 5, 0

Substitute the x value in any equation to solve for y:

If x =0, y = x + 5= y = 0 + 5=5
If x = –5 , y = x + 5= y = –5 + 5=0

 (0,5)and (5,0)

EXERCISE 37:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. The line y = x + 3 intersects the circle x2 + y2 = 9 at two points. The x-
coordinates of these two points are

A. x = 3, x = -1
B. x = -3, x = 1
C. x = 0, x = 3
D. x = 0, x = -3

[Questions requiring working]

2. Solve these equations simultaneously:

a) 4x – y = 3 and 10x + 3y = 2 d) xy = 6 and x + y = 5

b) 4x = 17 – y and x – 3y –1 = 0 e) x2 + y2 = 9 and x + y = 3

3. Determine the coordinates of the point(s) where the parabola

y = x2 – 6x + 8 meets with the line y = -2x + 4.

123
 4. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the circle x2 + y2 = 5
and the straight line y - x + 3 = 0.

5. Determine the coordinates of the point(s) where the hyperbola x y = 15

meets with the line y = 2x - 1.

6. Find the co-ordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = 3x + 1

with the parabola y = x2 – 3.

7. Find the the points of intersection of the function y  x 2  4 x  3 and the

straight line
y = 2x – 5

8. Two points are A (-2, 3) and B (2, 6).

a) Find the distance between the two points.

b) Determine the equation of the line passing through the two
points.
c) The line passing through points A and B intersects with another
line 2y + 4x = 1. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection
between the two lines.

9. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola

y  x 2  6 x  8 and the straight line y = x – 4

10. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola

y  x 2  7 x  9 and the straight line y  x  3  0 .

11. Graph of y  x 2  4 and the straight line y  x  K , have only 1 point of

intersection. Determine the value of K.

12. Find the point of intersection of the curve y = - with the line y= x - 3.

Lesson of Life: Travel by aeroplane would not be possible without the

mathematics of airflow and of control systems ~ unknown
124
 SUB – STRAND 4.1
Applications of
Coordinate Geometry

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Gradient/distance/midpoint/
Equation of a line
 Relationship between angle from
positive x – axis and the gradient
 Parallel/Perpendicular lines
 Collinear points

125
 REVIEW OF FORMULAE

Note: There are certain formulae that you have learnt in Years 10 and 11 are given
below:

Requireme Graphically interpretation Formula

nts
Distance -
first point
is
the second
point

Midpoint points Midpoint: M(xm, ym) =

and + +
2
, 2
,

where xm is the average

of x values and ym is the
average of y values.

Gradient points
or Slope 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 ∆𝑦
and m= o𝑟
𝑅𝑢𝑛 ∆𝑥
(m)
−
𝑜𝑟
−
m is positive
m is negative
m is zero
m is undefined

m is gradient and c is the y – intercept. y = mx + c

point with gradient m y- =m(x- )

Equation two points and − −
of line =
− −

126
GRADIENT OF A LINE MAKING AN ANGLE WITH THE
POSITIVE x AXIS

Note: Using Gradient of a line to find the angle 𝜽 with the positive x
axis: Consider a diagram given below:

Using basic trigonometry, to find angle:

𝑂
Using TOA: 𝜃= Refer to the diagram on the left,
𝐴
− ∆𝑦
Then: 𝜃= 𝑜𝑟 Recall this formula is for
∆𝑥
−
gradient, thus
 𝜃= m Make angle, 𝜃, the subject
-1
 𝜃 tan m

The two places of an angle:

Diagram Angle Example

First Quadrant: Two points (1,1) and (3,2)
x1 , y1  x2 , y2 
𝜃 𝜃 tan -1 m
y2 − y1 2−
𝜃= =½
x2 − x1 −

𝜃=½ 𝜃 tan -1 (½) = 26.27o

Second Two points (-3,3) and (-1,0)
Quadrant: x1 , y1  x2 , y2 
𝜃 𝜃1 𝜃 tan -1 m
y2 − y1 − −
𝜃= =
− −− 2
𝜃1 = 180  x2 − x1
− −
𝜃1 is the angle 𝜃= ( 𝜃 tan -1 ( 2 ) = -56.31o
2
from positive x-
𝜃1 = 180  56.31 = 123.69 o
axis

127
EXAMPLE 1: What is the gradient of the line = 2?
=2
2= Take y on the right
3x ( 2) = x3 Use distributive law
6=y
m
Thus m =

EXAMPLE 2: The diagram given below shows a flight of stairs.

rise
tread

Each step has a ‘rise’ of 17cm and a ‘tread’ of 28cm. If a plank was placed on the
flight of stairs, calculate the:
a) Length of the plank.
b) Gradient of the plank.
c) Angle the plank would makes with the horizontal.

Answers:

a) Length
Since it’s a right – angle triangle, you may use Pythagoras theorem, i.e.
2 2
+ 2 or
2
∆ 2+∆ 2
2
d (plank)2 + 2
d (plank) = √
d (plank) = 32.76cm

b) Gradient
m= = 2 = 0.61

c) Angle
𝜃 𝜃 tan -1 (0.61) = 31.26o

128
EXAMPLE 3: Tracy wants to visit Amy for her birthday. She decides to walk to
the Corner Store way in order to purchase a gift, passing Abby’s Book Store to
present the gift. On returning home, she will take the shortcut through the park
and past the pond.

a) State the coordinates of the following: Tracy, Amy, Book Store and Pond
(point P)
b) If each unit on the grid represents 200m,
i. How many metres will she walk going to Amy’s place?
ii. How many metres will she walk going home?

c) As Tracy is walking home through the field, she stops to dangle her feet in
the pond that is exactly half way between Amy and Tracy’s house.
i. Give the coordinates of the pond.
ii. What is the distance from the pond to Tracy’s home?

d) Calculate the smallest angle the line joining the points Tracy and Amy
makes with the horizontal.

Answers
a) Tracy (1, 2)
Amy (7, 10)
Book Store (7, 6)
Pond (4,6)
b) Towards Corner store = 6 unit
To Amy’s place = 8 unit
i. Total distance to Amy’s place = 1.2 + 1.6 = 2.8 km
ii. Method 1: Pythagoras theorem
2 2
+ 2
2 2 2
+
d( ) =√
d( ) = 2 km

129
 Method 2: Distance formula Tracy (1, 2) and Amy (7, 10)
d  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2

 (7  1) 2  (10  2) 2
 100
 10units
 10  200
 2000m
 2km

c) Pond is in the middle

i. find the midpoint of the two points: Tracy (1, 2) and Amy (7, 10)
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M(xm, ym) = ,
2 2
2
=( 2 , )
2
= (4, 6)

ii. Since it’s in the middle, then divide by two the distance from Amy
to Tracy
2
So
2

∆
d) 𝜃 tan -1 m. Recall the gradient formula ∆
-1 ∆
𝜃 tan (∆ )
-1
= tan ( )
2
= 53.1o

EXERCISE 38:

[Multiple Choice Questions]

1. The teaching building of a university is mapped on a coordinate grid with
the origin being at library. Math’s building is located at the point (1, 5)
and History’s building is located at (4, 9). How far is it from Math’s
building to History’s building?

A. √ B. √ C. 5 D. 7

2. The gradient of the line ½ x – 2y = 6 is

− −
A. B. C. D. 1
2

130
 3. The straight line shown cuts the x – axis at (1,0) and the y – axis at
(0, √ ). What is the size of angle to the nearest degree?

o
A. √ B. 60 o C. 120 o D. 135 o

4. Which one of the following angles does the line joining the points P(1, 5)
and Q(5, 7) make with the positive x axis.

A. 270.4° B. 233.6° C. 63.4° D. 26.6°

[Questions requiring working]

5. A diameter intersects the circumference of a circle at the points (-3,3)
and (1,0). Find the

a. length of the diameter

b. length of the radius
c. coordinates of the centre of the circle.

6. Ship A is 8km North and 6km West of a lighthouse. Ship B is 12km South
and 4km West of the same lighthouse. What is the shortest distance
between the two ships?

7. Prove that the triangle joining the points P(2,7), Q(4,-1) and R(-2,6) is
right angled.

8. Show that the points (-3,0), (3, √ ) and (9,0) form an equilateral
triangle.

9. The lines A(2, 6), B(2, 11) and C(5, p) form and isosceles triangle where
AC = BC .
a) Find the value of p.
b) Determine the coordinates of the midpoint of the line that joins
points A and B.
c) Find the equation of a line passing through points A and B.

131
10. Find the equation of a line through the point (0, 4) which makes an
angle of 135° with the positive x-axis.

11. A Rental Company charges $60 per day plus 30 cents per kilometer for
the hire of a particular type of car. Kaviyansh hired one of these cars for
one day and travelled x km.
a) Give the equation for the cost, $y, that Kaviyansh paid for hiring and
for travelling x km.
b) What do the gradient and y – intercept in the equation in part (b)
represent?

12. The figure OABC shown in the diagram below is a parallelogram. Use it to
answer the questions that follow.

A(2, 5) B(6, 5)

O C(4, 0)

a) Find the gradient of the line joining points B and C.

b) Find the equation of the line joining B and C.
c) Find the distance of the line joining points O and A.
d) Hence, find the perimeter of the parallelogram.

13. Three points A (2,6), B (2,11) and C (5,p) form an isosceles triangle where
AC  BC .
a) Find the value of p
b) Determine the coordinates of the midpoint of the line that joins
points A and B.

14. A line has gradient 3.Caculate the angle between the line and the
positive direction of the x -axis.

15. Seruwaiya and Jocelyn are visiting Fiji. They head off in different
directions from the Tourist Information Office in Nadi. An hour later,
Seruwaiya has walked 400m East and 100m North while Jocelyn has
walked 500m East and 300m South. Calculate the distance between them
to the nearest metre.

132
 16. Find the equation of the line which intersects the x axis at 4 and the y axis
at -2.

17. Points A ( 2, 2) and C ( 6, 4) lie on the circumference of a circle.

Further ̅̅̅̅ is the diameter of the circle. A general point B (x, y) can lie
anywhere on the circle.
y B (x, y)

A ( 2, 2)

C ( 6, 4)

a) Express the gradients of the chords ̅̅̅̅̅and ̅̅̅̅ in terms of x and y.

b) Write down the relation between the two gradients obtained in (i)
above.

PARALLEL LINES

Note: Parallel lines have the same slope/gradient. If m1 is gradient of the first

line and m2 is the slope of the second line, then it is parallel lines if

EXAMPLE 1: Find the equation of the line parallel to 3x + 2y - 7 = 0 and

passing through the point (2, 4).

Answers:
Key words / sentences
 line parallel to 3x + 2y - 7 = 0:
Make y the subject to find m
3x + 2y - 7 = 0
− −
y = 2 = 2 +2
−
m1= Note that parallel means same gradient.
2

−
Thus m = 2

133
 −
 given a point (2, 4) (x1,y1) and m = ,
2
Equation of the line is: y y1 = m ( x1 ) Substitute the values
provided,
−
y – 4 = 2 (x – 2)

 Make y the subject

−
y–4= 2 +3
+4 +4

−
+7
2

PERPENDICULAR LINES

Note: Recall Perpendicular simply means 'at right angle'. A line is

perpendicular to another if they meet at 90 degrees.
Graphically,

Moreover, two lines are perpendicular if the product of gradient is

negative one that is

EXAMPLE 2: The figure ABC below is an isosceles triangle.

y
C(x,y)

B(8,3)

k
A(2,1)
x

134
 a) Find the gradient of line segment AB.
b) Line k is a perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB. Determine the
coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment AB.
c) Write the equation of Line k.

Answers:

y2  y1
a) Gradient formula : m
x2  x1
A (2,1)  (x1 , y1 )
Substitute the values provided
and B (8,3)  (x 2 , y 2 )

y2  y1 3  1 2 1
m   
x2  x1 8  2 6 3
1
m 
3

b) Coordinates of the midpoint

 x  x2 y1  y 2 
M ( xm , y m )   1 , 
 2 2 
 2  8 3  1   10 4 
M ( xm , y m )   ,  , 
 2 2   2 2
 ( xm , y m )  (5,2)

c) Midpoint will be the first point (x1 , y1 )  (5,2)

 Since perpendicular:
m1m2  1
1 1
m2   1   3
m1 3

 The equation of a line:

y  y1  m( x  x1 )
y  2  3( x  5)
y  3x  15  2
 y  3 x  17

135
 COLLINEAR POINTS

Note: Collinear points are points that lie on the same line.

The gradient between each pair of points will be the same. Consider
the points Q, R, S and T. Since they are collinear, their gradients will be
same.

EXAMPLE 3: If points P (3,-2), Q (4,2) and R (x,6) are collinear, then find the
value of x.

Graphically,

 Find gradient of ̅̅̅̅

P(3,-2)  (x1 , y1 ) & Q(4,2)  (x 2 , y 2 )

Use gradient formula:
y  y1
m( PQ)  2
x2  x1
2  2

43
4
 m( PQ)  4
1

136
 Collinear points will lie on the same line, means same gradient.
 m( PQ)  m(QR)  m( PR)  4

 Consider points QR:

Q(4,2)  (x1 , y1 )
Substitute the given values
and R(x,6)  (x 2 , y 2 )

y 2  y1
m
x2  x1
62
4
x4
 Solve for x: you may use distributive law

4( x  4)  4
4 x  16  4
4 x  20
x5

Thus x = 5

EXERCISE 39:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. The equation of the line containing the point (1,2) and is perpendicular to
the line with equation 2x + 4y = 3 is

A. y = 2x B. 2y = x C. y = 2x – 4 D. 2y = x + 2

[Questions requiring working]

2. The following equations represent four straight lines.
(i) 3y + 4x = 2 (ii) 4y = 3x + 2
(iii) 3y + 4x = 2 (iv) 2 = 4x – 3y

a) Find gradient of each line.

b) Which two lines are parallel? i.e. have same gradient
c) Which two lines are perpendicular?

3. Find the equation of the line through point ( 2, 3) and perpendicular to

3y = 6 – 2x.

137
 4. Test whether (1, 2), (2, 4) and (3, 6) are collinear.

5. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and
2
perpendicular to 3y x= .
6. Line l is perpendicular to the line y = 3x + 2 and meets the x axis at x = 5.
y y = 3x + 2

Line l

5 x

a) Calculate gradient of each line l.

b) Find the equation of line l.

7. Test whether the points (1, 2), (3, 9) and (5, 6) are collinear.

8. For what value of p will the line 2 x + p y = 6 :

x 4
a) Parallel to the line y  
5 5
b) Perpendicular to the line y = 2 x + 2

9. Three points A, B and C are collinear. If the coordinates of the three

points are A (3, 4), B (2, -1) and C (0, p), find the value of p.

10. The points A (x, 0), B (0,4) and C (7, 5) form the vertices of a triangle.
a) Find the length of the side joining points B and C.
b) Given that the gradient of the line joining points A and B is 2,
what is the value of x?

Line m is perpendicular to the line segment AB and passes through the

midpoint of AB.

c) What is the gradient of line m?

d) What is the midpoint of the line segment AB?
e) Hence, what is the equation of line m?

Lesson of Life: Music is the pleasure the human mind experiences from counting
without being aware that it is counting. ~Gottfried Leibniz

138
SUB – STRAND 5.1 Non – Right Angle
Triangles

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Pythagoras Theorem and

SOH/CAH/TOA
 Sine and Cosine Rule
 Exact values
 Area of Triangle
 Conversion of Angles
 Arc Length, Area of Sector and
Segments
 Solving Trigonometric Equations

139
 SINE and COSINE RULE

Note: Recall for right − angle triangles:

 Use Pythagoras theorem, i.e. 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
to solve for the unknown sides where c is the hypotenuse or the
longest length, while ‘a’& ‘b’ are the other 2 lengths of the triangle.

b c

a
 Use SOH/CAH/TOA to solve for the unknown sides and angles,
where O is opposite side of an angle, A is the adjacent side (i.e. next
to angle) and H is the hypotenuse or longest side (i.e. opposite of
right angle, 900).
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑂
Sin 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻

O H 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴
Cos 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻
𝜃
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑂
Tan 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴
A

For a non – right angle triangle,

Use the Sine/ Cosine Rule to find unknown sides and angles.
 SINE RULE
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
= = Or : = =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

 COSINE RULE a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc Cos A

Where small letters [a,b,c] represent the sides, and capital letters
[A,B,C] are representing the opposite angles.
C

a b

9cm 440
0
B c 37
A

140
EXAMPLE 1: In the right triangle given below, find the value of Cos Ɵ?

Ɵ
x

Answer:
 Aim is to find the value of Cos Ɵ, Use ‘CAH’:
Cos = ℎ =  Label the A and H

(O) H?
3
Ɵ
x (A)

 A is marked ‘x’ and the expression for Substitute in the expression:

‘H’ is needed in order to find Cos ,
thus use Pythagoras theorem

H 2  a2  b2
H 2  x 2  32
H 2  x2  9
H 2  x2  9
 H  x2  9

EXAMPLE 2: Find the value for the angle Ɵ in the triangle shown below:

6
5

Ɵ
7

141
Answer:
Since only one angle given, let it be A: [Diagram not drawn to scale]
C

a=6 b= 5

B Ɵ

c= 7 A

Use Cosine Rule to find the missing angle:

a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc Cos A

2bc Cos A = b2 + c2 – a2 ( take 2bc Cos A to the left and a2 to the right by doing
opposite operations)
b2  c 2  a 2
Cos A =
2bc
5  7 2  6 2 38
2
Cos A = 
25 7 70
38
Cos A =
70

To solve for A, do the opposite operation:

38
A = Cos -1 ( )
70
A = 57.12o

EXAMPLE 3: Esekaia sails 3 km North and 6 km West from a Port P to

destination A. Samit sails 2 km South and 8 km East from Port P to destination B.
How far in a straight line is destination A from B?

N A 6 km

W E
3km

S Port P Start

2 km
8km
B

142
Answer:
Diagrammatically, we are interested in the bigger triangle,

3+2= Using Pythagoras theorem:

5 km x

8+6=14 km

EXAMPLE 4: The diagram below shows 2 angles of elevation of the flagpole,

240 and 350 at points A and D respectively. If point D is 50m from point A, find
the distance AB .
B

240 350
A 50m D C

Answer: B
Consider the non-right angle triangle on the left side:

Using straight lines,

1800 = 350+ x0
24 145 350
x = 1450 A

 Using total angle inside triangle: B

1800 = 1450+ 240 + y
1800 = 1690+ y 110
−1690 −1690
y = 110

24 145 350
A a = 50m
143
 B
 Since we need to find the length AB , use sine rule: 11 0

𝑎 𝑏
= a
sin 𝐴 sin 𝑩
𝐴𝐵 50 AB ?
= sin 11 x sin 145
sin 145
𝐴𝐵 50
x sin 145 = sin 11 x sin 145
sin 145
1450
50 sin 145 A
=
sin 11 b= 50m
= 150.30m

EXERCISE 40:

1. What is the value of Ɵ in the triangle shown? Ɵ

10

350

12
2. Find the value of x in the given triangle.

x
4cm

350

5.2cm
3. Find the value of angle marked a.
500

11

12
4. Use the cosine rule to solve for x.
9m
0
10m 100

144
5. The distance between two points B and C on opposite sides of a lake is
required. A surveyor locates a point A which is 90m from point B and
120m from point C. Angle BAC is 500. Calculate the length .
B

90m

A 50o

120m
C
6. A private plane flies 1.3 hours at 110 mph on a bearing of 40°. Then it
turns and continues another 1.5 hours at the same speed, but on a
bearing of 130°. At the end of this time, how far is the plane from its
starting point? What is its bearing from that starting point?

7. When the top of a tall pine tree is viewed from the top of a 8 – storey
building (point A) 80 m above the ground, the angle of depression = 200
and when it is viewed from point B on the ground, the angle of elevation
= 250. If points A and B are on the same vertical line, find h, the height of
the tall pine tree. (Diagram not to scale)
A
200

80 m Tall pine tree

200

250
B
8. Rajjie is stationed at a Point Y, 20 m from the base of a tall building. He
looks up to the top of the building at an angle of 700. Diagram not to
scale.
a) How high is the building?
b) Rajjie then moves back
some distance so that he
Tall building stands at Point X and
now looks to the top of
the building at an angle
50 0
700 of 500. Calculate the
distance ‘a’.
X a Y 20 m

145
FINDING EXACT VALUES OF SINE, COSINE AND TANGENT

There are two special triangles in trigonometry. One is the (45°−

45°− 90°) isosceles right triangle with both the base and height of
length one unit.

The other is the triangle 30°- 60°- 90° which is made by dividing an
equilateral triangle of length 2 units into two halves.

30°
60°
2 2 2
h

60° 60°
60° 2 60°
1
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the third side h yields:
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
22 = ℎ2 + 12
∴ ℎ2 = 22 − 12
ℎ2 = 3
ℎ2 = 3
ℎ= 3

The table below shows the ratios of sides in a surd form:

Trig Function
/ Angles 30o 45o 60o 90o
1
Sin q
0
Cos q

Tan q 1 undefined

146
 AREA OF TRIANGLE

Right - angled triangle Non - right angled triangle

Given Base and Two sides and the angle
B between them are known
perpendicular Height
Given Side, Angle, Side
a
h C
c

b b

Area: A = ½ bh A
or
A = ½ ab Sin C
Where b – base and
h – Perpendicular height or
A = ½ ac Sin B A = ½ bc Sin A

Example 1: Show that the A = ½ ab Sin C is equivalent to ½ base height.

Consider a right angle triangle. A

height

C base B

 Label the sides and angles:

A

height
b c

900
C base a B

 Use the formula for non – right angle triangle:

Area = ½ a b Sin C
= ½ base height (Sin 900)  Since 900 is one
∴ Area = ½ base height

147
Example 2: What is the area of the triangle given below?

12

20
Answer:
Perpendicular Height: h = 12
Base: b = 20
Thus Area = ½ bh = ½ × 20 × 12 = 120 cm 2

EXAMPLE 2: The diagram below shows a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle

of radius 4 cm at centre O. (Diagram not to scale).

4 cm O

Calculate:
a) Angle of each sector formed.
b) the area of one of the triangle
c) the area of shaded region.

a) Angle b) area of one of the triangle c) area of shaded

region
1
Tangle  360 0 A  abSinC A  2  A
2
1
6 x  360 0  (4  4) Sin 60 0  2 4 3
2
x  60 0  4 3cm 2  8 3cm 2

148
EXERCISE 41:

1. Calculate the area of triangle ABC shown below.

C

h 12cm

A 15cm B

2. Use the diagram given to answer the questions that follow.

a
a) Write an expression which could be used to calculate the area of
the shaded region.
b) If a = 120 cm and b = 40 cm, calculate the area of the shaded
region.

3. The diagram below shows a regular octagon

RSTUVWXY inscribed in a circle of radius 16cm .
That is OR  16cm.

a) Find the area of triangle ROS.

b) Find the area of the octagon.

W

4. The diagram below shows a regular pentagon

PQRST inscribed in a circle of radius 15cm.

a) Show that angle POQ is 720.

b) Find the area of triangle POQ .
c) Find the area of pentagon.

S
Lesson of Life: Go down deep enough into anything and you will find
mathematics ~ Dean Schlicter
149
CONVERSION OF DEGREES TO RADIANS and VICE VERSA

Another unit for measuring angles is radians. Why learn radians? -

What’s wrong with degrees?
It used in many areas of mathematics. In science and engineering, radians
are much more convenient (and common) than degrees. Many problems
can be solved directly if we know the angle in radians especially in
calculus (differentiation and integration).
How do we measure angles?
There are two main units of measuring angles: degrees (symbol ‘°’) and
radians.
One Radian: the angle made when we take the radius and wrap it along
the edge of a circle.

One complete circle = 360o or 2π radians

 From above,
𝜋 radians = 180°
2π radians = 360°

 To convert degrees to radians: multiply by 𝜋/ 180

θ°
𝜋 = angle in radians
180°

 To convert radians to degrees: divide by 𝜋/ 180 or multiply by 180 / 𝜋

180°
Angle in radians 𝜋
= θ°

Conversion of some common angles

The table shows the conversion of some common angles.
Units Values
Radians π π π π 2π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π
6 4 3 2 3 4 4 2 4
Degrees
135°

225°

315°
120°

180°

270°

360°
30°

45°

60°

90°

150
Example 1: Convert the following angles to radians

a) 45° b) 15° c) 25°

θ° θ°
angle =
° angle = 𝜋 angle = 180° 𝜋
180° 180°
15° 25°
=
45° = 180° 𝜋 = 180°
𝜋
180° π 5π
= =
= 12 36
4

Example 2: Convert the following angles to degrees

5π 4π
a) b) c)
5 2 7
180° 180° 180°
angle = angle = θ 𝜋
angle = θ
𝜋
1 ° 5π 1 ° 4π 1 °
=5 = =
2 𝜋 7 𝜋
= 45 ° 720°
= 36° =
7
𝑜𝑟1 2. 6°

ARC LENGTH, AREA OF SECTOR and SEGMENT

Note: Refer to the Parts of a circle

Segment

O Arc, S
r θ

SS
Sector

where r is the radius of the circle

θ is the angle in radians
O as center of circle

151
 1. ARC LENGTH (S)
The arc length is the measure of the distance along the curved line
making up the arc.

Formulae:
S=rθ
[Angle must be in radians]

2. AREA OF SECTOR
Sector is the area enclosed by an arc and the two radii
Formulae:
𝜃
Area sector = 360° 𝜋 r 2
Since 360° = 2π radians , substituting yields
𝜃
Area sector = 2𝜋 𝜋r2 O
𝜃
𝜃
= 2 r 2 , rearranging
= ½ r 2θ r
[angle must be in radians]

3. AREA OF SEGMENT
Segment is the region bounded by a chord and an arc.
Formulae:
Area segment = Area sector – Area triangle
= ½ r 2 θ – ½ r 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
or
2
= ½ r (θ – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)
[angle must be in radians]

Example 3: The diagram below shows a circle of radius r. OAB is a sector of the
circle and has an angle of 5°.

B
O
r 95°

152
 i. Convert the angle to radians.
ii. Given that the segment has an area of 100 cm 2, calculate radius of the
circle.
iii. Calculate the length of minor arc AB.
iv. Hence or otherwise, determine the perimeter of the sector.

Answers:

i. Conversion to radians ii. radius of the circle

°
angle = 180° Area segment = ½ r 2 (θ – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)
19π
100 = ½ r 2 ( 36 –
5°
= 180° 19π
𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
36
100 = 0.330934045 r 2
1 100
=
36 =r2
0.330 34045
r 2 = 302.175
r = 17.38 cm
iii. Length of minor arc AB iv. Perimeter of the sector:
add all sides
P= Length of arc
S=r AB
1
= 17.83 36 = 17.38 + 17.38 + 28.82
= 28.82 cm = 63.58 cm

EXERCISE 42:

1. The diagram below shows a sector of a circle with the radius of 6cm and
the length of the arc is 9cm.
A
9cm

Ɵ B

a. Show that the angle Ɵ = 1.5 rad.

b. Calculate the area of the sector OAB.
c. Calculate the area of the shaded segment.
153
 2. The diagram below shows a regular octagon inscribed in a circle of radius
4 cm with centre O.

Calculate the following:

a. Length of arc PQ
O b. Area of sector OPQ
P
c. Area of triangle OPQ
d. Area of the octagon
Q

3. An equilateral triangle is inscribed in a circle with centre O. The radius of

the circle is 5 cm.
A
a. Find the area of the sector OAPB.
P
b. Find the area of the AOB
c. Hence, calculate the area of the shaded region.
B
4. A

8 8

B Q C
8
In the diagram given above, P is the midpoint of AB; Q is the midpoint of BC

a. Find the length of the arc PQ.

b. Determine the area of the sector PBQ to the nearest whole number
c. Find the area of the shaded region.

Lesson of Life: The physical sciences (chemistry, physics, oceanography,

astronomy) require mathematics for the development of their theories -
anonymous

154
SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

Note:
When solving any trigonometric equation, emphasis must be given to the
angle, , which can be either in degrees or radians.

To solve for , follow solving an algebraic equation:

 The value consisting , to be removed last.

 Do opposite operation on both sides of the equation till you reach the
trigonometric expression containing sine, cosines or tangent.
 At this point in time, keep in mind that there will be at least two
angles, within 0o to 3600 or 2 radians.
 If Trig expression is positive, then you will directly get the acute angle
If Trig expression is negative, then You may (ignore the negative
sign to) get the acute angle , use this to find the angle
 Use quadrants to find the other angle . Angles will be considered
from the positive x – axis.
Quadrant II Quadrant I Mnemonic
Sine + All +
All Science Teachers Cry
Tangent + Cosine + or
Add Sugar To Coffee
Quadrant III Quadrant IV

 If you look at the quadrants, the designated trig expressions will be

positive, the others will be negative. Further simplifying,
1
90° or 2 π Sine +
Sine + Sine All Cosine +
Cosine − + + Tangent +
Tangent −
180° or π 0°, 360°
or 2π

Tangent + Tangent + + Cosine Cosine +

Sine − Sine −
3
Cosine − 270° or π Tangent+
2

155
Example 1: Solve tanq  1  0, 0  q  2
Last
tanq  1  0, 0  q  2 means that angle to be between 0 – 2

tanq  1  1  0  1, We reached at the trig expression: Consider the

tanq  1 two quadrants. Find the acute angle in Q I.
q1  tan 1 1 Note that calculator Mode to be in degrees.

q1  45o
Press Shift tan 1 =

 Use quadrants to find the angle q 2 . Consider sign (+) of ‘tan’, that is in Q III
q 2  180  q1
 180  45
 225o

Find the solution set for 2Cosq  3  0,0  q  360

o 0
Example 2:
2Cosq  3  0, 0o  q  3600 Means that angle to be between 0 –
360o
Last

2Cosq  3  3  0  3

2Cosq  3 We reached at the trig expression: Consider the

 two quadrants. But before that, find the acute
2 2
angle by ignoring the negative sign (−). Note that
 3
Cosq  calculator Mode to be in degrees.
2

156
 Acute angle:
When dealing with surds,
 3
q  Cos    30o
1

 2  press the division sign (÷), that is Press
  30o
Shift cos ( ÷ 2 ) =

 Use quadrants to find the angles q1 and q 2 . Consider negative sign (−) of
Cos, that is in Q II / III
q1  180  30  150o

q2  180  30  210o

EXAMPLE 3: Solve the trigonometric equation sin( x  300 )  0.4, where

−1800  x  1800 .

Acute angle: It already has trig expression:

Consider the two quadrants. Note that
sin( x  300 )  0.4 calculator Mode to be in degrees.
( x  300 )  sin 1 0.4
  23.58o
Shift sin 0 . 4 =
Press

 Use quadrants to find the angles q1 and q 2 . Consider positive sign (+) of sin,
that is in Q I / II
q 2  180    180  23.58  156.42o   q1  23.58o

QI & II :
QI : x  30 0  23.58,
x  300  23.58,
x = − 6.42o

x = 126.42o

157
So far the coefficient of the variable was one. If the coefficient changes to
other number, let’s then expect the solution to double, that is
1x  two solutions
2x  four solutions
3x  six solutions and so on.

For the first cycle, angle is found the normal way as before.
For the second cycle, the angles can be found as:

Quadrant II 90o , 450o Quadrant I

One cycle

Second cycle
o o
180 , 540 0 , 360 , 720o
o o

270o , 630o
Quadrant III Quadrant IV

EXAMPLE 4: Solve 2 cos 2 x  3 for 0  x  2

2 cos 2 x  3 0  x  2 Angle to be between 0 – 360o

Last
We reached at the trig expression and the value
2 cos 2 x 3
 in front of the variable is 2, so it has 4 solutions.
2 2 If you find easier in degrees, you may do so.
3 Once all solutions are found, then you can
Cos 2 x  convert to radians as the question requires
2
you to give answers in radians.

Acute angle:

 3 (when dealing with surds, press the

2 x  Cos 1    30o

 2  division sign (÷), that is Press
  30 o
Shi co ( ÷ 2 ) =
ft s

158
 Use quadrants to find the four angles: Cos is positive in Quadrants I / IV

  q1  30o , q3  360    360  30  390o

q 2  360    360  30  330o

q 4  720    720  30  690o

Divide by 2, to all the angles

To convert in radians, divide by 180 and multiply by :

EXERCISE 43: Solve


1. sin( x  )  0, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. 2. 2 sin x + 3 = 0 , for 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600.
4

1 
3. cos 2 x  , for 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600. 4. 2 cos ( q  ) = 1 for 0  q  2 .
2 4


5. tan 2 x  1  0, for 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600 6. Sin (2x + ) for 0  x  2 .
4

Lesson of Life: If people do not believe that mathematics is simple, it is only

because they do not realize how complicated life is. ~John Louis von Neumann

159
 SUB – STRAND 5.2 Trigonometric Identities
and Graphs

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Basic trigonometric identities

 Derive from basic identities
 Transform trigonometric graphs

160
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Note: Some basic formulae:

 Sin2 𝜃 + Cos2 𝜃 = 1  1 + tan 2 q = Sec 2 q

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
 1 + cot 2 q = Cosec 2 q Tan 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

1 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
Secant 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

1 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
Cosecant 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

1 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
Cotangent 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

EXAMPLE 1: In the right triangle given below the sides are marked Cos A, 1 and
x.

Cos A
x
A

Find the expression that represents the side marked x:

Recall Pythagoras theorem:

2
+ 2= 2 ;
2
+( )2 = 12 Make x the subject
2
= 12 − ( )2 ,
x = √1 − ( )2 use identity 
= √( 2
) =

EXAMPLE 2: Proof that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

Answer
 For any right angle triangle, use the expression SOH / CAH

O
H
θ
A

161
 Start with the left side:
sin2 θ + cos2 θ Substitute the expression
2 2
=( ) +( )
= + same denominator so collect the numerator

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
= recall Pythagoras theorem
𝐻 2 = 𝑂2 + 𝐴2
=
=1
Thus sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

2 2
EXAMPLE 3: Using the identity S + =1 to show that 1 + cot 2
q =
Csc 2 q
Divide the whole equation by S𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃:
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1
+ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃

𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1
1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜃 𝜃

cos 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1
Cot𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 cot 2 q = similarly csc 2 q =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

So 1 + cot 2 q = Csc 2 q

EXERCISE 44:

1. In the right triangle given below, find the value of Cot Ɵ.

3 5
θ

2. In the right triangle given below, work out the value of sec Ɵ.

a c
θ
2 2
3. Using S + =1 , prove that n2 +1 =s 2

2 2
4. Find the exact value of + − 5.

5
5. Simplify .
2

162
 2 2
6. Find the value of in terms of t if 1 − = t.

7. Prove that sin x. sec x. cot x = 1.

2 2
8. Show that 3 − 2= 1 - 3S .

9. Show that Tan = .

°
10. Solve the trig equation: Sin2 + Cos2 3 =1 , for 00 < < 500

GRAPHS OF BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

Trigonometric Shape Period Range

[y values]
y
1
y  sin x 360or 1  y  1
2 radians
0° 36 ° 0 90° 180° 270 360° x
-1

y  cos x
y
0° 36 ° 1 360or 1  y  1
2 radians

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

-1

y = tan x 180or yR

 radians
0° 36 °

0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Note these graphs are functions since domains are not repeated.

163
 TRANSFORMATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC GRAPHS

Note: General form of Transforming Trigonometric graphs

y = A Sin (Bx C) or y = A Cos (Bx C)
y = A Bx C

Amplitude: Shape: Period: C shifts the y-axis

The height / + A Sin B helps determine
or the graph by
distance the period of the
graph (the length of units.
+ A means the – A Sin the interval needed
+ shifts the y-
graph is oriented for the graph of the
as usual function to start axis to the right or
– A means that + A Cos repeating itself). the graph moves by
the graph is
units to the left.
inverted

– A Cos − shifts the y-

axis to the left or

the graph moves by

units to the right

While sketching the graph, label clearly the y – intercept, period, amplitude and draw a
complete smooth curve. You may use the table method but make sure the shape is
complete.

EXAMPLE 1: A trigonometric function is defined by the equation y = 3 Sin 2 Ɵ.

Find the amplitude and the period of the function.

General form
Amplitude period
y = A Sin (Bx  Ɵ)

Compare y = 3 Sin 2 Ɵ
360
Therefore Amplitude is 3 and the period is  1800 or radians
2

164
 EXAMPLE 2: Sketch the following graphs using the table method:

1 
a) y  sin x b) y  sin x  c) y  sin 2 x
2 

Answer [Either in degrees or in radians]

x (x,y) x (x,y) x (x,y)
0 0 (0,0)
0 0 (0,0) 0 0 (0,0) 1
0.7 ( ,1)
1
( ,1) ( ,0.7)
0
1 ( ,1) ( ,0)
0 ( ,0)
–1 0.7 –1
( ,–1) ( ,0.7) ( ,–1)
0 ( ,0) 0 ( ,0) 0 ( ,0)
1
( ,1)
0
The sine graph completes its Since the period is half, ( ,0)
shape from 0 to 2 . the half of sine graph is shown
–1
from 0 to 2 . ( ,–1)
0 ( ,0)
y
y
1 Since the period
is doubled, the
1
two complete
0 x shape of sine
graph is shown
0 x from 0 to 2 .
-1
y
or
1

1
0 x
or -1
0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x
y
or y
1
1
0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x
-1 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

-1
165
EXAMPLE 3: Sketch the following graphs:
a) y  cos x b) y  2 cos x c) y   1 cos x
2

Answer: using the transformation method

Amplitude(A) is 1 A is 2, so the height is 2 A is 1 ,

2
but it’s a negative graph

EXAMPLE 4: Sketch y = 3 sin ( x + 4 )

A=3; B: period=2π;
C: Shift the graph 4 units to the left or Shift the y-axis by units to the right
4

EXERCISE 45:


1. A trigonometric function is defined as f(x) = Sin (2x + ) for 0  x  2 .
4
(i) Write the period of the function f(x).

(ii) Solve the equation Sin (2x + )=0
4
166
2. The graph of h(x) is shown below within the domain 0 o  q  270 o .
Use it to answer the following questions.

h(x)

0° 90° 180° 270° x

i) What is the period of the graph of h(x) shown above?

ii) What is the amplitude of h(x)?
iii) Write down the equation of h(x).

3. The two functions are given as y  3 cos x and y  sin x .

i. Sketch the graph of y  sin x .

ii. On the same pair of axes, sketch the graph of y  3 cos x.

sin q
iii. Given that cos q  tan q , find the x – coordinates of the points of
intersection of the two graphs.

4. A trigonometric function is defined as f(x) = 3 Cos 2x where 0  x  2 .

(i) Write the period of the function f(x).
(ii) Write down the minimum value of f(x).
(iii) Sketch the graph of f(x).

5. Sketch the following graphs using the domain as 0  q  2 .

  
a) y  2 cos x   b) y  sin( x  ) c) y   2 Cos x
 2 2
   
c) y = cos (3x – π) e) y = 3sin  2 x   f) y = -3 cos  x  
 2  2

6. Sketch the following graphs using the domain as 00  x  3600.

a) y = 2 cos x b) y = cos (2x + 1800) c) y = - 3sin (2x + 900)

d) y = – sin 2x e) y = sin 2 x f) y = - ½ cos (2x + 450)

Lesson of Life: The study of mathematics can satisfy a wide range of interests
and abilities. It develops the imagination- anonymous

167
 MATRICES AND
TRANSFORMATION
GEOMETRY

SUB – STRAND 6.1

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Image of a point after matrix

transformations
 Finding transformations represented by
matrices
 Invariant Properties
 Transformation matrix and its inverse
 The determinant as scale factor for
area.
 Combination of transformations.

168
INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES

Note: Recall that a matrix is nothing but a convenient way to organize

data in rows and columns. Suppose you eat the following amount of fruits
each day. The table below shows the number of fruits consumed for 3
days.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday

Apple 1 2 3
Guava 2 1 1
Banana 1 1 2
mango 3 3 1

This can be re-organized in a matrix below in four rows and 3 columns:

The matrix is a 4 × 3 matrix and is read “4 by 3”. This is called the order of
a matrix. It does not mean multiplication.
Another way to represent the information in a table is

Apple Guava Banana Mango

Monday 1 2 1 3
Tuesday 2 1 1 3
Wednesday 3 1 2 1

As a matrix this can be written as:

It is a 3 × 4 matrix.
Though it represents the same information, but these two matrices are
not equal.

Two matrices are equal when they have the same dimensions and same
corresponding elements.

169
TRANSFORMING POINTS

Note: Transformation by Matrices is useful for modeling, simulations and

computer graphics.
 Before actually looking at the transformation, some knowledge of
multiplication of 2 × 2 matrices is essential in order to transform points in a
plane.
Two matrices may be multiplied if the number of columns of the first matrix is
equal to the number of the rows of the second matrix. Moreover, matrices are
multiplied row by column, i.e. you take the first row of the matrix A and multiply
with the first column of the matrix B.
 The ordered pairs [coordinates, (x,y) can be represented by 2 X 1 column
matrix:

 Finally, to transform a point, i.e. from Object point (A) to an image point
[symbol A‘]:
- Write the transformation matrix first.
- Change the coordinate points and write it as a column matrix on the right
side.
- Perform matrix multiplication.
- (Transformation matrix) × (point matrix) = image point
- Write as coordinates (x,y).

 A unit square has side of length 1 unit. Consider the diagram given below: Let
ABCD be the points of the corners.
The coordinates of the corners of a unit square are
(0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 1) (1, 0)
1 A B

0 1
D C

 Transformation

170
EXAMPLE 1: Find the image points of the vertices of a unit square under the
 
transformation matrix M = 02 02 .

Steps:
Write the transformation matrix first: 02 02
Change the coordinate points and write as column matrix:
2
0 0  
0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 1 
Perform matrix multiplication.
Note: You may do it separately or take all points at once.

Let’s find image point of (1,1): Identify rows of first matrix columns of second
matrix,
Column 1
Row 1 2
Row 2 0
 0
2  
1
1 Matrices are multiplied row by column

2 ×1+ 0 ×1 = 2
0 ×1+ 2 ×1 = 2
=  22
Hence, the image point of (1,1) as coordinates is (2,2).

Now, lets find the image points of the other three points all at once:
C1 C2 C3
Row 1 2
Row 2 0
 0  
0 0 1
2 0 1 0 
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
Row 1
 
2×0 2 ×0 2 ×1
+0×0=0 + 0 ×1 = 0 + 0 ×0 = 2 = 00 0 2
0
2
0×0 0 ×0 0 ×1
Row 2
+2×0=0 + 2 ×1 = 2 + 2 ×0 = 0

Hence, the image points are (2,2), (0,0), (0,2), (2,0).

171
EXAMPLE 2: The image of point P (m,-3) under transformation by matrix
1 2 
  is Q (-2,3). Find the values of m and n.
3 n

To find transformation image point:

Steps:
1 2
Write the 2 × 2 matrix first:  
3 n 

Change the coordinate points and write as column matrix: 13 2n 3m
Perform matrix multiplication:
C1
Row 1 1 2 m   
Row 2 3 n  3 = 3
2  

1 ×m + 2 ×  3 = m  6
3 ×m + n ×  3 = 3m  3n = 3 2
Equate the Row 1 equations Row 2 equations separately. Solve.
m 6 = 2
m  6+ 6 =  2 + 6 Substitute in place of m:
3(4)  12  3n = 3
m  4  12  3n = 3
=
n=3
Therefore m = 4 n = 3.

Attempt the following questions to check whether you have understood.

The coordinate points are given as P (1,1), Q (3,2), R ( 3,1).

Find the coordinates of P’ Q’ and R’, under the transformation by the following
matrices:
3 0  4  2
a) M =   b) N =  
0 3 3 1 

 1 0  2 1
c) P =   d) Q =  
 0 1 2 1

172
FINDING THE TRANSFORMATION WHICH A 2 X 2 MATRIX
REPRESENTS

Note: To describe a transformation:

 Draw the object by plotting the coordinates given and join to form
a shape.
 Multiplying with the matrix to find the image points denoted by A’.
 Plot the image points and join to form the shape of the image
 Describe the transformation.

Types of transformation:
1. Rotation
2. Enlargement
3. Shear
4. Reflection

 If no points are given, in order to describe a transformation, a unit

square can be considered and the image of each vertex of the
square is calculated by matrix multiplication.
 A point (or set of points) which remains unchanged after a
transformation is said to be invariant.

Notice that the origin (0, 0) always remains invariant (unchanged) under
a 2 × 2 transformation matrix.

 The determinant of a transformation matrix gives the area scale

factor.
i.e. If A is a transformation matrix, |A| is the scale factor for area.
Area scale factor = determinant
So area of image = determinant × Area of object

 Inverse Matrix: If a transformation represented by matrix M maps

a point P to its image point, P’, then P’ will map back to its original
position, P under the transformation by M –1. The general formula
for inverse of a matrix is
M= , M –1 =

173
 o
1. Rotation of (angle in degrees)

Note:
 In mathematics context, Rotation is a transformation in which the objects
are rotated by a fixed angle,𝜃, about the centre. It can rotate either
clockwise (– 𝜃 ) or anti – clockwise (𝜃 ).
• In rotation, the centre is the only invariant point.
• Invariant features of rotation are length, angle size and area.

EXAMPLE 3:
The diagram below shows rectangle OABC
y

C B
1 OBJECT

-2 O 1 2 A x

0 1 
The rectangle is transformed by matrix P =   to give the image O’ A’ B’ C’ .
 1 0 
The coordinates of O’ is (0,0).
i. Find the coordinates of A’, B’, C’, the images of A,B C respectively under
transformation by matrix P.
ii. On a pair of axes, draw accurately the object and its image.
iii. Describe fully the transformation given by matrix P

Answers: C1 C2 C3
i. A B C
Row 1  0 1   2  0 
2
   
Row 2  1 0  0 1 1 
    
0 ×2 0 ×2 0 ×0
+ 1 ×0 = 0 + 1 ×1 = 1 + 1 ×1 = 1 A’ B’ C’
– 1×2
+ 0 ×0 = – 2
– 1×2
+ 0 ×1 = – 2
– 1×0
+ 0 ×1 = 0
   
 0 2 1 2 10

Thus, A’ (0, –2), B’ (1, –2) C’ (1,0)

174
ii.

C
B
1 OBJECT

-2 O O’ C’ 2 A x
IMG
1
-1

-2 A’ B’

iii. Rotation of – 900 or 2700 about the origin.

2. Enlargement by a Scale Factor, k

Note: The general matrix for an enlargement is , where k is the length

scale factor and k 2 (determinant) is the area scale factor.
 In enlargement , the centre is the only invariant point.
 Angle size is invariant under enlargement.
e.g. represents an enlargement with scale factor 4.

EXAMPLE 4: The diagram below shows triangle ABC

1 A B

-2 0 1 2 3 x

2 0
The triangle is transformed by matrix M =   to give triangle A’ B’ C’ .
0 2

i. Find the coordinates of A’, B’, C’, the images of A,B C respectively under
transformation by matrix M.
ii. Describe fully the transformation given by matrix M.

175
Answers:
i. A B C
    
2 0121 
0 2 11 3
2 ×1 2 ×2 2 ×1
+ 0 ×1= 2 + 0 ×1 = 4 + 0 ×3= 2 A’ B’ C’
0×1
+ 2 ×1 = 2
0×2
+ 2 ×1 = 2
0×1
+ 2 ×3= 6
   
 22 42 62

Thus A’ (2,2), B’ (4,2) C’ (2,6).

ii. First plot for clarity purpose

4 C img

2 obj

1 A B

-2 0 1 2 3 x

Enlargement by the scale factor 2 with the origin as the centre.

3. Shear

Note: A shear is a transformation which changes the shape of an object but not its area.
 Invariant line is the fixed axis in a shear. Thus, Shear is a transformation which
moves points parallel to a given line. The fixed line is called the axis of shear.
Shear factor is the distance moved by a point that is one unit from the fixed
axis.

 The general matrix for a shear parallel to:

 the x-axis is: ,

 the y-axis is: where k is the shear factor.

The Properties of shear
1. The points on the fixed axis are invariant
2. Area is invariant under a shear

176
EXAMPLE 5: The diagram given below shows the unit square OABC.

C B

O A

1 2 
The unit square OABC is transformed by matrix M =  
0 1 
i. Find the coordinates of O’A’B’ C’, the images of O, A, B C under the
transformation by matrix M.
ii. Which point(s) is/are invariant?
iii. Describe fully the transformation given by matrix M.
iv. Find the single matrix that will map O’A’B’C’ back into OABC.

Answers:
i. O A B C
     
1 2 01 10 
0 1 0 0 11
1 ×0 1 ×1 1 ×1 1 ×0
+ 2 ×0= 0 + 2 ×0= 1 + 2 ×1= 3 + 2 ×1= 2
0×0 0×1 0×1 0×0
+ 1 ×0 = 0 + 1 ×0 = 0 + 1 ×1 = 1 + 1 ×1 = 1

O’ A’ B’ C’
    
 00 10 13 12
Thus O’ (0,0), A’ (1,0), B’ (3,1) C’ (2,1) .
ii. Points that do not change are O (0, 0) A (1, 0).
iii. For clarity purpose, show on the axes:

1C obj B img

-2 0 1 A 2 3 x

Thus, shear parallel to x – axis with a shear factor of 2 units.

iv.
1 2
M =  ,
0 1 

M–1 = 
1 1
M 0 1 
2  1 1
11  0  2 0
  
2 1
1  0
2
1 
177
 4. Reflection

Note:

 Under Reflection, all points on the mirror line are invariant. Other
invariant features are length, angle, size and area.

 The general matrix for Reflection in:

 the x-axis is: ,

 the y-axis is:

EXAMPLE 6: The object has points A(0,0), B(2,0) C (1,1) while the image points
A’(0,0), B’(2,0) C’ (1,-1). What transformation does this represent?

Reflection in x – axis
When multiplying by this matrix, the
C x coordinate remains unchanged, but
1 the y coordinates changes sign.

-2 O A 1 2 B x

EXERCISE 46:

1. A triangle has vertices at A(1,0), B(1,3) C (2,0). On a pair of axes, draw

0 1 
ABC . Transform ABC using the matrix M    . Label the images
1 0
A' B' C ' describe the transformation.

2. The diagram given below shows the unit square OABC.

C B

O A

The unit square OABC is transformed by matrix N = 0 1 0 1 
i) Find the coordinates of O’A’B’ C’, the images of O, A, B and C under the
transformation by matrix N.
ii) Describe fully the transformation given by matrix N.

178
3. The diagram given below shows triangle AOB.

A (0,3)

O B (3,0)
 
Triangle AOB is transformed by matrix M = 12 36 to give Triangle A’O’B’.
i. Find the coordinates of A’ and B’, the images of A and B under the
transformation by matrix M.
ii. Describe fully the transformation given by matrix M.

4. A triangle has vertices at A(1,0), B(1,3) C (2,0). On a pair of axes, draw

0  1
ABC . Transform ABC using the matrix M    . Label the images
1 0 
A' B' C ' describe the transformation.

5. A triangle has vertices at A(1,0), B(1,3) C (2,0). On a pair of axes, draw

1 0 
ABC . Transform ABC using the matrix M    . Label the
0  1
images A' B' C ' describe the transformation.

6. Figure OAB in the diagram given below is an isosceles triangle. It is

transformed by the matrix
 
M = 0 1 10

i. Find the coordinates of O’ A’ B’.

ii. Sketch the points O’ A’ B’.
iii. Find the single matrix that will map O’A’B’C’ back into OABC.

179
 7. The triangle OAB is to be transformed by Matrix M where M = 10 0 1  
(1,2)

(1,0) (3,0)

Copy the diagram given and on the same axes mark points O ’, A’, B’ after the
transformation.

i. Describe the transformation represented by M?

ii.  
Another transformation of the plane is given by N = 0 1 10
Find and draw the image of O’, A’, B’ as O’’, A’’, B’’ respectively.

iii. What single transformation would map OAB to O’’, A’’, B’’?

1 0
8. A unit square is transformed by matrix N =  
3 1
i) Find the coordinates of the images of the vertices under the
transformation by matrix N.
ii) Describe fully the transformation given by matrix N.

COMBINED TRANSFORMATIONS

Note:
Combined transformation: Sometimes you need to transform the first image
point to get the second image point with another matrix. These are known as
double image points, A’’.

Finding a single matrix for combined transformation: If point P is transformed

by matrix A to get P’ and further transformed by matrix B to get P’’ then

a single matrix that will map P’ directly to P’’ is the matrix B.A

EXAMPLE 5: The diagram given below shows triangle PQR.

180
 Q (3,2)

P (1,1) R ( 3,1)
3 0
Triangle is transformed by matrix M =   .
0 3
i. Find the coordinates of P’ Q’ and R’, under the transformation by
matrix M.
ii. Describe fully the transformation given by matrix M.
iii. Find the area of triangle P’ Q’ R’.
iv. Triangle P’ Q’ R’ is further transformed to triangle P’’ Q’’ R’’ by
 
another matrix N = 10 0 1 . Find the single matrix that will map

triangle ABC onto A’’ B’’ C’’.

Answers:
i. P Q R
    
3 0 13 3
0 3 121
3 ×1 3 ×3 3 ×3
+ 0 ×1= 3 + 0 ×2= 9 + 0 ×1= 9 P’ Q’ R’
0×1
+ 3 ×1 = 3
0×3
+ 3 ×2 = 6
0×3
+ 3 ×1 = 3
 3    
99
363

Thus P’ (3,3), Q’ (9,6) R’ (9,3).

-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9x

ii. Enlargement by the scale factor 3 with centre (0,0).

iii. Area scale factor = determinant = 3 × 3 – 0 ×0 = 9

181
 Thus Area of image = Area scale factor × Area of an object
= 9× ½ base× height = 9× ½ ×2× 1 = 9 unit2
iv.

C1 C2
N × M = Row 1 10 0 1
Row 2
  3 0
0 3

0 ×3 0 ×0
+ – 1 ×0= 0 + – 1 ×3= –3
×3 ×0
+ 0 ×0 = 3 + 0 ×3 = 0


= 30 3
0 
EXERCISE 47:


1. Given S = 7 4 1 2   
G = 13 52 .

Find:
i. G×S
ii. G-1

2. A square has vertices at A (0, 0), B(0, 2), C(2, 2) and D(2, 0).

i. On a pair of axes, draw the square.

1 2
ii. Transform the square using the matrix M    . Label the
0 1 
images as A' , B' , C ' , D' Describe fully the transformation given
by matrix M.

  1 0
iii. Transform square A' B' C ' D' with matrix P    label the
 0 1
image A' ' B' ' C ' ' D' ' .
Describe fully the transformation given by matrix P.
iv. Find the matrix which will transform square ABCD directly onto
A' ' B' ' C ' ' D' ' .

3. Object P having an area of ‘A’ square unit is transformed by the matrix

3 0
  .
0 3

182
 Find the area of the image P’ give answer in terms of ‘A’.

4. The diagram given below shows the unit square OABC.

C B

O A
The unit square OABC is transformed by matrix M = 34  2 
1 . Work out
the area of the image.

4 1
5. A square, having an area of K units is transformed by matrix Q =  .
1 2 
What is the area of the transformed square? [Write in terms of K.]

6. A triangle has vertices A (1, 0), B (1, 3) and C (2,0).

i. On a pair of axes, draw ABC .

1 0 
ii. Transform ABC using the matrix M    . Label the images
0  1
as A' , B' C ' Describe fully the transformation given by matrix M.

 1 0 
iii. Transform  A' B' C ' with matrix P    label the image
 0  1
A' ' B' ' C ' ' .
Describe fully the transformation given by matrix P.
iv. Find the matrix which will transform ABC directly onto A' ' B' ' C ' '
.

7. A triangle has vertices O(0,0), P(1,0) and Q (2,3). It has to be transformed

by the matrix M = ( )
i. Find the coordinates for O’, P’ Q’ which are the images of O, P and Q
respectively under matrix M plot on the same pair of axes in the
answer book.
ii. Describe the transformation represented by matrix M.
iii. What is the area of the transformed triangle?

Lesson of Life: Mathematics has beauty romance. It’s not a boring place to be,
the mathematical world. It’s an extraordinary place; it’s worth spending time
there ~ Marcus du Sautoy

183
 SUB – STRAND 7.1 Statistical Analysis

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION

 Introduction
 Measures of centre
 Measures of spread including
standard deviation of both
grouped and ungrouped data.
 Adding or multiplying a constant to
every value
 Interpret information from
different types of graph

184
INTRODUCTION

Note: Statistics is the collection, display and analysis of data. Some important
terms that can be useful are:
 A population considers every member of the group for instance "all
students in a school". Sometimes it becomes very difficult to involve the
whole population because the
1. whole population may not be accessible.
2. study may not be economical.
3. study may take a lot of time etc.
The problem is solved by picking a smaller group from the population for
the survey.
This group is called a sample.
 A Sample is when we collect data just for selected members of the group. It
is a subset of the population. This depends on what actually you want to
find out.
For instance, if a school has Years 9 to 13 and a survey has to be conducted
to decide on some important school matter, then taking students randomly
from all the forms is a good sample.
 Random sample: a sample selected where each element has an equal
chance of selection.
For example, if 5 students are picked from your form to represent the form
in a meeting then 5 names picked from a hat/glass is a fair sample.
Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements,
observations or even just descriptions of things.

185
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Note: A measure of central tendency (also referred as measures of centre or

central location) attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single value that
represents the middle or centre of its distribution.
There are three main measures of central tendency: the mode, the median and
the mean. Each of these measures describes a different indication of the typical or
central value in the distribution.

Related formulae:

Measures of central UNGROUPED DATA – GROUPED DATA –

tendency individual scores [ frequency tables
x1 , x2 ,......, xn ] f – frequency
x – data
1st data 2nd nth
Mean / Average
x 1
x  x2  ......  xn
or x
 fx or  fx m
Note Sigma sign Σ n f f
indicates the sum.
Mean is the most or x 
x xm – midpoint of the class
n interval
common of the three.
The symbol "μ" is used
for population mean.
The symbol " x " is
used for sample mean.
Median – middle Arrange score in an ascending median score
score order. Locate the middle corresponding to the
The median is the score by cancelling the data cumulative frequency of
midpoint of a from both left/right till you  f
distribution when all reach to the number in the 2
the scores are placed middle.
in order For even number of scores, it
is the middle of two numbers,
i.e.
x1  x2
2

x1 , x2 ,......xn1 , xn
median
Mode – most Identify the score that is Score that has the highest
common number occurring most frequently frequency

186
 FINDING SPREAD

Note: Measures of spread describe how similar or varied the set of observed values are
for a particular variable (data item). Measures of spread include the range, quartiles
[spread of a data set by breaking the data set into quarters], interquartile range and
standard deviation.

Related formulae:

Measures of Spread UNGROUPED DATA – GROUPED DATA – frequency tables

individual scores
Range (R)highest R = Hs – Ls R = Hs of x – Ls of x
score minus the the difference
lowest score between the highest
and lowest scores.
The median divides the data into two equal Quartiles from Cumulative frequency Graphs:
halves. The median of these two halves are
called upper and lower quartiles
 To find quartiles, first find the median.
Put this value aside.
 This then gives two sets of values of
the same size- a low group and a high
group.
 The lower quartile is the median of
the low group.
 The upper quartile is the median of
the high group.

To find the UQ, come across horizontally from

75% of the total frequency.
For the lower quartile , use 25%.
1
of 32  8
4
 LQ  28

3
of 32  24
4
 UQ  33
interquartile range IQ = UQ – LQ
(IQ)
Semi-interquartile Semi IQ = ½ of IQ or
range

187
STANDARD DEVIATION OF UNGROUPED DATA

The standard deviation (symbol ) of a set of numbers is a measure of their

spread about the mean. The square of the standard deviation (𝜎 ) is called
the variance.
(𝑥−𝑥 )2 (𝑥−𝑥 )2
 Variance : 𝜎 = , so 𝜎 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) =
𝑛 𝑛
where 𝑥 is mean , 𝑛 is number of data values, 𝑥 is each data value.
(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) means subtract the mean from each data value, square and
finally add up the resulting values.

 Using calculator: If you are using Casio fx-82 MS calculator, use the
procedure for data

To write in SD mode
 Press mode 2

On the screen you should see SD.

To clear memory( You must always clear the memory for each new set of
data.)
shift mode
 Press

On the screen you should Stat clear. Press the = button.

 Press x1 M+ x2 M+ ….. M+ xn M+

(press each number together with M+ button till the last score)
On the screen you should see ‘n = last number ’ . This means that altogether
that many data entry has been entered in your calculator

 Press

 For standard deviation, Press Shift 2 2 =

 For mean, Press Shift 2 1 =

Note: the other calculators may have slightly different features.

188
 EXAMPLE 1: The mean weight of a group of 6 students is 62kg. Another
student whose weight is 52kg is to be included in the group. Find the mean
weight of 7 students.

Mean is 62kg
n is 6
Total?

If another student’s weight of 52kg is added, then Total will increase by 52 as

well as the number of students will now be 7, i.e. n is 7.
Total
Mean 
n
Total  52 372  52
x 
7 7
 x  60.571  60.6kg

Thus, the mean weight of 7 students is 60.6kg.

EXAMPLE 2: Use the first formula to find the standard deviation of

5,6,10,4,7,2,8,8,5

x  x  ......  xn
x 1 2
n
5  6  10  4  7  2  8  8  5

9
55

9
 6.11

  ( x  x) 2

n
(5  6.11) 2  (6  6.11) 2  (10  6.11) 2  .....  (5  6.11) 2

9
46.889

9
 5.2098  2.28

189
EXAMPLE 3: Use a calculator to find the mean and standard deviation.

a) 5,6,10,4,7,2,8,8,5
b) 102,324,627,231

 Put calculator mode on SD and clear the memory.

Press each number with M+ sign.

a) Press 5 M+ 6 M+ 10 M+ 4 M+

 7 2 M+ 8 M+ 8 M+
M+

5 M+

Shift 2 1 = x  6.11

Shift 2 2 =   2.28

 Once again clear the memory

Press
102 M+ 324 M+ 627 M+ 231 M+

Shift 2 1 =
x  321

Shift 2 2 =   193.46

EXAMPLE 4: The following are the amount of weekly salaries received by the
10 employees of a small company.

$120, $132, $144, $180, $180, $204, $204, $204, $228, $192
Calculate the
a) Mean b) Mode c) Range
d) Median e) lower quartile f) Inter-quartile
g) Standard deviation

190
Answers: It is an ungrouped data

a) Mean b) Mode c) Range

x  x 2  ......  x n
x 1 $204 228 – 120 = $108
n
$120  $132  ...  $192

10
$1788

10
 $178.80

Arrange the data in ascending order to find median and the quartiles

$120, $132, $144, $180, $180, $192, $204, $204, $204, $228

LQ Median UQ

d) Median e). LQ = $144 f). UQ =$204

$180  $192

2
$372
  $186
2

g). s.d = 33.71 (using the calculator)

Exercise 48:

a) A study is conducted on how the weight of a person affects the health. These
are the weights of 20 girls of height [150 – 155cm]

42.5 45.3 45.7 51.0 55.1 55.7 55.7 59.1 59.5 59.7
61.0 62.5 65.2 67.3 69.8 71.0 74.6 75.2 79.3 82.0

1. Calculate the
b) Mean b) Mode c) Range
e) Median e) lower quartile f) Inter-quartile
g) Standard deviation

2. Do a research and find out the desired weight and BMI of the required
heights.
3. What are the health issues if you are under weight or over weight?

191
b) For each of the following data given below, use calculator to find the mean
and Standard deviation.

1.{1,3,3,5} 2. {7,7,7,7}

3. {30,30,30,30} 4. {2,6,8,12}

5. { 7,6,8,7,5,9,8,6,7,10} 6. {2,3,0,3,2,1,4,3}

7. {2, 2, 4, 6, 6, 8, 10, 10} 8. {2, 2, 4, 4, 8, 8, 10, 10}

STANDARD DEVIATION FROM FREQUENCY TABLES

Note: Recall that Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Thus the formula is

where

𝑥 is mean , is total frequency, f, 𝑥 each data value in turn.

𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) means subtract the mean from each data value, square and
multiply by f and finally add up the resulting values.

Since calculating the mean and standard deviation is tedious, we can save
some of this work by extending columns of a frequency distribution table.

x f f×x

……..
.
.
.
.
Totals

192
EXAMPLE 1: Kellan took a survey of 20 boys to find how many pairs of shoes
each boy owned. He summarized the results in the table below:

x f
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 6
total 20

Calculate the standard deviation.

Answer: set up a complete frequency table a fill in the columns

x f f×x (x  x)2 f  (x  x)2

1 1 1 (1- 3)2 = 4 4
2 4 8 (2- 3)2 = 1 4
3 9 27 (3- 3)2 = 0 0
4 6 24 (4- 3)2 = 1 6
totals 20 60 14

Mean x 
 fx  60  3 standard deviation  
 f (x  x) 2

 f 20 f
14

20
 0.84

EXAMPLE 2: An exam conducted for 50 students resulted in the following

marks:

28 60 50 58 63 72 75 90 86 74
30 40 27 48 62 94 82 37 21 49
56 63 32 47 68 93 89 46 27 47
60 50 36 53 73 25 38 53 39 46
70 41 24 57 78 64 91 56 42 50

193
 i) Complete the table given below by categorizing the intervals as
follows 20-29, 30-39, etc.

Marks Tally No. of Cumulative Class f .x m (x  x)2 f  (x  x)2

(Class students Frequency midpoint
interval) Freq ( f ) x x
( xm  1 2 )
x1 x2 2
20 – 29
30 – 39
40 – 49
50 – 59
60 – 69
70 – 79
80 – 89
90 – 100
Total (  )

ii. Calculate the following:

a) Mean c) Modal interval
b) Median interval d) Standard deviation

Answers: It is a grouped data 

i.
Marks Tally No. of Cumula Class f .x m (x  x)2 f  (x  x)2
(Class students tive midpoint
interval) Freq ( f ) Freque x x
xm  1 2
x1 x2 ncy 2
20 – 29 IIII 5 5 24.5 122.5 1026.56 5132.8
30 – 39 IIII I 6 11 34.5 207 485.76 2914.56
40 – 49 IIII 9 20 44.5 400.5 144.96 1304.64
IIII
50 – 59 IIII 9 29 54.5 490.5 4.16 37.44
IIII
60 – 69 IIII II 7 36 64.5 451.5 63.36 443.52

70 – 79 IIII II 7 43 74.5 521.5 322.56 2257.92

80 – 89 III 3 46 84.5 253.5 781.76 2345.28

90 – 100 IIII 4 50 95 380 1479.17 5916.68

Total 50 2827 20352.84

( )

194
 ii.
a) Mean b) Modal Interval c) Median interval

x
 fx m 40 – 49 and 50 – 59
f
2827

50
 56.54

d) Standard deviation

  f (x  x) 2


20352.84
 20.18
f 50

EFFECTS OF ADDING/MULTIPLYING BY A CONSTANT

Note: Let x1, x2, x3………….xn be a set of values with mean and standard
deviation .

1. If a same number k is added to each: x1+k, x2+k, x3+k,…………., xn+k then

new mean = + k while the standard deviation remains the same, .

2. If each number is multiplied by the same number k: kx1, kx2,

kx3………….kxn then
new mean = k and new standard deviation = k .

Example
A set of scores has a mean of 6 and standard deviation of 2. Find the new mean
and standard deviation if

a) All of the scores are multiplied by 5

Mean = 6x5 s.d = 2x5
= 30 = 10

b) 20 is added to all of the scores

Mean = 6+20 s.d = 2
= 26

195
 c) 2 is subtracted from all the scores
Mean = 6−2 s.d = 2
=4

d) All of the scores are divided by 2

Mean = 6  2 s.d = 2  2
=3 =1

EXERCISE 49:

1. 2 sets of data are shown below: Set 1 = {1,3,5,7 } and Set 2 = {5,15,25,35 }.
The mean and SD of Set 1 are given as x and s respectively. Describe the
mean and SD of the data in set 2 in terms of x and s?

2. 2 sets of data are shown below:

Set A = {a,b,c,d } and Set B = {a+2,b+2,c+2,d+2 }.
The mean and SD of Set A are given as x and s respectively. Describe the
mean and SD of the data in set B in terms of x and s?

3. Complete the table shown below and find the Standard deviation.

x f fx (x  x)2 f (x  x)2
1 6
2 3
3 8
4 1
5 4
total

4. The frequency table below represents the marks scored by a class in a test.

Mark,x f fx x- x x  x
2

f xx 
2

1 1 1 -2 4 4
2 2 4 -1 1 2
3 4 12 0 0 0
4 2 8 1
5 1 5 2
Total 10 30

Complete the table and find the standard deviation of the distribution.

196
5. The table below shows the frequency distribution of the results when a child
calls out the number 1, 2,3 , 4 and 5 randomly, 20 times.

Number called out 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency 3 5 2 4 6

Find the:
i) Mean of the distribution
ii) SD of the distribution

INTERPRETING INFORMATION FROM GRAPHS AND TABLES

Exercise 50

1. The heights of 15 science students, to the nearest cm, are given in the
table below.

Height (cm) No. of students

161 1
162 4
163 5
164 2
165 3
Total 15

Calculate the
a) Mean b) Mode c) Range
d) Median e) lower quartile f) Inter – quartile
g) Standard deviation

2. The heights of athletes in a team are given by the following histogram.

140 150 160 170 180 190 x Height (cm)

197
Heights
Class
Freq
(f )
Cumulative
Frequency
Class
midpoint
f .x m x- x x  x
2

f xx 
2

interval) ( xm )
140 < 150

150 < 160

160 < 170

170 < 180

180 < 190

Total
( )

Copy and complete this table.

i. Find mean and standard deviation

ii. Find the modal interval

3. The pie chart below shows the sports interests shown by a group of 200
students.

Soccer
120
Netball

40 60
Cricket

Volleyball
Hockey

a) What percentage of students like Netball?

b) How many students like Cricket?
c) How many students like Soccer?

198
 4. A sample of leaves were collected from a flower garden and the lengths
of the leaves were measured. The graph given below shows the results.
Cumulative Frequency Graph

i. How many leaves were there in the sample?

ii. What is the median?
iii. What is the inter quartile range?
iv. How many leaves have length 20.5mm or less?
v. How many leaves have length between 25.5 and 35.5mm?
vi. How many leaves have lengths more than 15.5mm?
5. The line graph below shows the temperature recorded in January from
1st – 7th .

a) How much did the temperature rise from January 1st to the 4th?
b) Over the 7 days, what trend do you notice?
c) Which day had the greatest rise in temperature?
d) Find the mean temperature and standard deviation of the seven days.
e) What is the modal temperature recorded?

Lesson of Life: The end and aim of all education is the development of character
~ Francis W. Parker

199
 SUB – STRAND 8.1 Probability Experiments

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Introduction to probability
 Probability trees
 Probability with replacement
 Lattice Diagram
 Probability without replacement
 Venn diagrams
 Expected number

200
INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY

Note: Before we look at probability, the following definitions are useful:

 An activity where observations are recorded is called an experiment.
 Each time an experiment is performed, the performance is referred to as a trial.
 Outcomes are the result of an experiment. For example, tossing a coin gives
either a Head or a Tail and rolling a die gives one of the numbers from 1 to 6.
 Each outcome is called a sample point.
 Sample Space(S) – set of all possible outcomes.
Thus (S) = {Outcome1, Outcome 2, …….., Outcome n}
Example tossing a coin: S = {Head, Tail} or rolling a die: S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
 Event is the subset of a sample space, for example getting a Head in tossing a
coin.
 If an event cannot occur then its probability is 0. For instance the probability of
getting a seven when you roll a die = 0 since it’s impossible to get 7 [die has 6
sides only].
 If an event is certain to occur then its probability is 1.
 The closer the probability of an event is to 1, the more likely it will occur.
 The probability of any event can range from 0 to 1. i.e. .
 The sum of probabilities of all sample points in a sample space is equal to 1.
OR
 The theoretical Probability of an event A [The probability of event A is denoted
by P (A)].
Number of times event A occurs
P(A) 
Number of possible outcomes
 The experimental probability of an event A happening is:

Example 1: If you roll a die 20 times and 9 of the rolls result in a “two”. What
experimental probability is observed for the event “two”?

P (getting two) = 9 = 0.45

20

201
Example 2: What is the probability of getting an even number when throwing
a die?

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
P (Even Number: 2/4/6) = 3  1
6 2

EXERCISE 51:
[Multiple Choice Questions]
1. A pack of cards consists of 7 red cards, 3 blue cards and 5 green cards. The
pack is shuffled and a card is picked at random. The probability that a green
card is picked is
1
A. B. 5
3

5 2
C. D.
10 3

2. A number is picked from the set N = {1, 2, 3, 4 ………..20 }. The probability of

selecting an even number and a multiple of 6 is
6 17
A. B.
20 20

10 3
C. D.
20 20

[Questions requiring working]

3. The ‘pointer’ of the spinner is spun. The outcome is the number of the sector
on which the pointer stops.
1
a) List the sample space.
3
b) Are the outcomes on this spinner equally likely? Explain.
c) Find the probability of getting an even number 4
on the spinner.
2

4. What is the probability of getting an odd number when throwing a die?

5. A container contains 4 red, 2 green and 3 blue pins. What is the probability
that a pin chosen at random is
(a) green (b) not red (b) yellow

202
 6. The heights of 15 students, to the nearest cm, are given in the table below.

Height (cm) No. of students

151 1
152 4
153 5
154 2
155 3
Total 15

What is the probability of selecting students with heights:

a) Between 152 cm 154 cm
b) Less than 153 cm
c) At least 154cm

PROBABILITY TREES

Note: To find probability of two or more events, you may use tree diagrams to list
the Sample Space.
Outcome1
To calculate the probability for two
branches: You multiply along the
branches that give the required
Start
outcome.
Outcome2

At each stage probabilities must add vertically to give 1.

Example 1: In an experiment, 2 men were asked whether they like watching

soccer, to which their answers were either a Yes (Y) or No (N).
a) Draw a probability tree.
b) List the sample space for the experiment
c) Find the probability that at least one of them like watching soccer.
a) Tree Diagram b) S = {YY,YN,NY,NN}
Y
½
Y ½
½ N
½ ½ Y
N
½ N

203
P( Minimum of 1Y )  P(YY )  P(YN )  P( NY )
1 1 1 1 1 1
     
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 3
4 4 4 4

EXAMPLE 2: A die is rolled 3 times. Find the probability of getting exactly 2

five’s.
Outcomes
1
6 Five FFF
Five
1 5
6 6 Not five FFN
5 1
Five 6 6 Five FNF
Not five
1 5
6 6 Not five FNN
1
6 Five NFF
5 1 5
6 6 Five 6

Not five Not five NFN

5
6 Five NNF
1
Not five 6
5
6 Not five NNN

First time second time third time

P(exactly 2 fives) = FFN+FNF+NFF

 ( 1 . 1 . 5 )  ( 1 . 5 . 1 )  (5 . 1 . 1 )
= 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5
   
216 216 216 72

PROBABILITY WITH REPLACEMENT

Note: Sampling with replacement is where you put the object back after
the first trial

EXAMPLE 3: A box contains x red marbles, y yellow marbles & z blue marbles.
Two marbles are drawn from the bag at random, with first being replaced before
the 2nd is drawn.
What is the probability (in terms of x, y & z) that both marbles are red?

204
 marbles
S = { R, Y, B}
x y z so total is (x + y + z)

Tree Diagram : start

red yellow blue

red yellow blue red yellow blue red yellow blue

P(both red) = RR = =
=

EXERCISE 52:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. A coin is tossed three times. The probability of getting the same outcome in
the three tosses is

1 1
A. B.
4 8

3 7
C. D.
8 8

[Questions requiring working]

2. A married couple plans to have 3 children. What is the probability that all
three children will be of the same sex?

3. A box contains 2 green, 1 red and 2 yellow cubes of the same size. Two
cubes are drawn with replacement, that is the first cube drawn is replaced
before the second cube is drawn. What is the probability that:

a) Both cubes are red in color?

b) A yellow cube is drawn in the second draw?

4. Assuming that a woman is equally likely to give birth to a baby boy as to a

baby girl, construct a sample space showing the different possibilities of
bearing the next 3 children. Use B for boy and G for girl.

205
 5. A fair six – sided die has 3 faces painted red, 2 faces painted yellow and 1
face painted blue. It is tossed twice.

a) Calculate the probability that both tosses give the same color.
b) Calculate the probability that the colors are different.

6. A box contains three balls (one red, one blue, one white). A ball is picked, its
color is recorded, replaced then a second one is picked from the box.

a) List the Sample Space, S?

c) What is the probability that you pick at least one blue?
b) What is the probability that you pick the same color?

7. Two coins, [one penny, one nickel] are tossed simultaneously, and the
outcomes are recorded.

a) List the Sample Space, S?

b) What is the number of sample points in S, n(S)

LATTICE DIAGRAM

Note: Lattice diagrams are used to display the outcomes of two-stage events.
This is much easier than tree diagrams.

Event 2
Outcome 1 Outcome 2 ……….. Outcome n

Outcome 1
Event 1 Outcome 2
⋮
Outcome n

206
EXAMPLE 1: A spinner with numbers 1 to 4 is spun an unbiased coin is tossed.
Draw a lattice diagram and use it to give the following probabilities:

(a) P(head and a 4) (b) P(head or a 4)

Spinner Coin

Answers:

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
H H,1 H,2 H,3 H,4 H H,1 H,2 H,3 H,4
T T,1 T,2 T,3 T,4 T T,1 T,2 T,3 T,4

Total outcome = 8

P(head and a 4)  1 P(head or a 4)  5

8 8

EXAMPLE 2: A die is rolled and a coin is tossed simultaneously. Find the

probability of getting a head and an odd number.

Die

1 2 3 4 5 6
Coin H H,1 H,2 H,3 H,4 H,5 H,6
T T,1 T,2 T,3 T,4 T,5 T,6
Total outcome = 12
3
P(head and odd number )   0.25 or 1
12 4

207
EXERCISE 53:
[Multiple Choice Question]
1) Two dice are rolled and the sum is noted. The probability that this sum is
8 is closest to

A. 0.06 B. 0.08

C. 0.14 D. 0.17

[Questions requiring working]

2) Two identical dice are rolled simultaneously. Draw a lattice diagram and
find the following probabilities:

a) Both numbers shown on the dice are less than 4.

b) Total is at least 7.
c) Both numbers are same.

3) A dice and a coin are thrown together. What is the probability of getting
a:
a) 6 and a tail
b) prime number and a tail
c) even number and a head

4) A spinner is labeled with three colors: Red, Green and Blue. Vaciseva
spun the spinner and tossed a coin simultaneously.
red

𝟏𝟑𝟓°
90°

blue
green

a) Draw a tree diagram to list all the possible outcomes.

b) Calculate the probability of getting blue on the spinner and head on
the coin.
c) Calculate the probability of red or green on the spinner and tail on the
coin.

Lesson of Life: God used beautiful mathematics in creating the world - Paul Dirac

208
PROBABILITY WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

Note: Probability without replacement or dependent probability is where you

do not put the object back so that the number is less than for the first draw.
The probabilities for the 2 trials will not be the same, hence the tree diagram
will be more appropriate to use.

EXAMPLE 1: A box contains 2 green, 1 blue and 2 yellow balls, all of the same
shape and size. A ball is picked at random from the box. What is the probability
that the ball picked will be:

i) green?
ii) not yellow?

If the first ball is picked and without replacing a second one is picked from the
box, what is the probability that:

iii) the first ball picked is blue and the second is yellow?
iv) both balls are of the same color?

Answers:

S = {G, B, Y}
2 1 2  Total is 5
P(G) = , P(B) = , P(Y) =

Tree Diagram : start

G B Y picked
once

i) green ii) not yellow: do not include Y

P(G) = or 0.4 P(not Y) means P(B & G) =
= or 0.6
Another method:
1 – P(Y) = 1 – = or 0.6
Not replaced: the number decreases to 4 since one is completely removed.
Consider each scenario to get the probability.

209
Tree Diagram :

start

G B Y
first trial
If green is picked, then If blue is picked, then If yellow is picked,
then
G number decreases only B number decreases only Y number decreases
only

G B Y G B Y G B Y
second trial

Outcomes:
GG GB GY BG BB BY YG YG YY

iii) the first is blue second is yellow

1 2 1
P( BY )  P( B)  P(Y )    or 0.1
5 4 10

start

G B Y
picked once

G B Y G B Y G B Y
second pick

210
iv) Both same colors
start

G B Y
picked once

G B Y G B Y G B Y
second pick

P( same)  P(GG)  P( BB )  P(YY )

 P(G )  P(G )  P( B)  P( B)  P(Y )  P(Y )
2 1 1 0 2 1
     
5 4 5 4 5 4
1 1 1
 0  or 0.2
10 10 5

Example 2: A jar consists of 21 sweets. 12 are green and 9 are blue. Noa
picked two sweets at random.
a) Draw a tree diagram to represent the experiment.
b) Find the probability that
i) both sweets are blue.
ii) One sweet is blue and one sweet is green.

Answers
a) Although both sweets were taken together it is similar to picking one sweet
and then the second sweet without replacing the first sweet.

211
b)
i) P(both sweets are blue) ii) P(one sweet is blue and one is green)
P(B B) P(G, B) or P(B, G)
P(GB)  P( BG )
 P(G )  P( B)  P( B)  P(G )
P( BB )  P( B)  P( B) 12 9 9 12
9 8 6    
   or 0.1714 21 20 21 20
21 20 35 9 9 18
   or 0.5143
35 35 35

EXERCISE 54:

1. Two marbles are picked from a jar containing 3 red, 4 blue and 5 green
marbles. If a marble is picked without placing back, find the probability
that out of the 2 marbles that are picked there is at least one green.

2. Rita had a bag that contained 8 balls of the same size of which there were
3 red, 3 blue and 2 white balls. She picked a ball at random, noted its
colour and picked another one without replacing the first ball. What is
the probability that the balls picked were of the same colour?

3. A box contains 2 green, 2 blue and 3 yellow crayons, all of the same
shape and size. A crayon is picked at random from the box.
What is the probability that the crayon picked will be:
i) yellow?
ii) not green?

If the first crayon is picked and without replacing a

second one is picked from the box, what is the
probability that:

iii) the first crayon picked is yellow and the second is blue?
iv) both crayons are green?

4. A bag contains five red balls and three yellow balls. A ball is drawn at
random and its color is noted. Without replacing it, a second ball is drawn
and its color is also noted.

(i) Draw a tree diagram to show the possible outcomes.

(ii) Find the probability that the second ball drawn is red.
(iii) What is the probability that both balls drawn have the same
color?

212
 5. A class of 25 Year 12 students has 10 girls and 15 boys. Three students
were chosen at random to take part in a survey. Calculate the probability
that all the students chosen were girls.

6. Metuisela has 12 coins in his pocket. Four are copper and eight are silver.
He takes out two coins one after the other to lend it to his small brother
Aron.

(i) Draw a tree diagram to show the possible

outcomes.
(iii) Find the probability that both coins will be
Silver.

VENN DIAGRAMS

Note: A Venn diagram is constructed with a collection of simple closed curves

drawn in a plane as well as overlapping circles.
Properties of Venn diagram:
 The interior of the circle symbolically represents the elements of the set
(A) while the exterior represents elements that are not members of the set
(A’ or Ac). This is also referred to as Compliment of A.
P(A) + P(A’) = 1

 Empty Set is a set with no elements common. Shown by { } or ∅.

A∩ 𝑩 ∅ 𝒐𝒓 { } null set
 Two sets, A and B, is said to be disjoint if A∩ 𝑩 ∅
 "Union" of sets has the special symbol ∪ that means it is the set containing
all the elements in the first or in the second set.

 P 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 : “Intersection” of a set has special symbol ∩ and it must be in

both sets, A and B.

213
EXAMPLE 1: If set A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and set B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 10},
a) List A ∪ B.
b) List A ∩ B.

Answer:
a) A ∪ B: join the two sets b) A ∩ B: the elements
common is both
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10} A ∩ B = {3, 5, 7}

EXAMPLE 2: In a school, the probability that a student can play volleyball is

0.46 and the probability that a student can play basketball is 0.34. The
probability that the student can play both is 0.23.
Find the probability that a randomly selected student can play:

a) Volleyball only.
b) volleyball or basketball.
c) Neither volleyball nor basketball.

Consider a Venn diagram:

a) Volleyball only = 0.23

b) volleyball or basketball = Union so add the values of the two circles = 0.57
or Use the formula:
∩

= 0.46 + 0.34 – 0.23

= 0.57

214
 c) Neither volleyball nor basketball - outside the two overlapping circles
outside  1  (0.23  0.23  0.11)
 1  0.57  0.43

EXAMPLE 3: Two sets, A and B, is disjoint. If P(A) = 0.4 P(B) = 0.3,

a) what is the probability of A and B occurring?

b) what is the probability of A or B occurring?

a) The word refers to P(A∩B): b) The word or refers to P(A∪B):

∩ 0 - ∩
= 0.4 + 0.3 - 0
= 0.7

EXERCISE 55:

1. The probability of Tom passing Statistics is 0.74, while the probability that he
passes Calculus is 0.65.The probability that he fails both is 0.18.What is the
probability that he passes both.

2. P(C  D) = 0.7, P(C) = 0.3, P(D) = 0.5. Calculate P(C  D).

3. Given the probabilities P(A) = , P(B) = , P(A  B) = ; draw a Venn diagram

and use it to evaluate:

a) P(A  B)
b) P(A’)
c) P(B’)

4. In a class, the probability that a student has a handkerchief is 0.54 that a

student has a home – made lunch is 0.68. The probability that a student has
both a handkerchief a home – made lunch is 0.25. What is the probability
that a student selected at rom will have either a handkerchief or a home –
made lunch?

5. In a Suva market, the probability that a vendor has driven a car last year is
0.78, the probability that the vendor has driven a truck is 0.15 and the
probability that the vendor has driven both vehicles is 0.06.
Find the probability that a randomly selected vendor has
a) Driven a car only.
b) Driven 1 type of the vehicles but not the other.
c) Not driven any type of the vehicles last year.

215
6. The PEMAC teacher in a secondary school knows that the probability of a
Year 9 students entering the athletics sport is 0.47, the swimming sport is
0.23 and no sports is 0.51.What is the probability that a year 9 student enters
both sports?

7. In Savusavu town, the probability that a household has a TV set is 0.73 and
the probability that a household has a computer is 0.42. The probability that
a household has a TV and a computer is 0.18. Find the probability that a
randomly selected household has:
a) A TV set only
b) Neither a TV set nor a computer

Activity:
Place the following in the appropriate place in your Venn diagram.

Lesson of Life: Mathematics is the supreme judge; from its decisions there is no
appeal ~Tobias Dantzig

216
 EXPECTED NUMBER

Note: Recall that probability is the chance that an event will happen. We can use this
probability to predict the number of times an event will happen in the future. This in
known as Expected value. To find the Expected number, multiply the probability of the
outcome by the number of trials.
E=n p
where
E – Expected number
n – Number of trials
p – Probability of event

EXAMPLE 1: A biased coin, with probability of heads = 0.42, is tossed 300

times. What is the expected number of heads that will be obtained?
[Biased is where the outcomes are not equally likely]
E=n p
= 300 0.42 = 126

EXERCISE 56:

1. An uneven dice with eight equally likely outcomes is tossed. The

probability of getting “three” is 0.2.
a) Write this probability as a percentage.
b) If you toss this dice 30 times, how many times would you expect to
get “three”?

2. A math teacher said that the probability of a surprise test on any day this
year is 0.15.
a) If there are 180 school days in the year, how many surprise tests can
you expect to have?
b) Is it certain that you will have those many tests? Explain.

3. A box contains 2 red balls and a yellow ball. The probability of picking a red
ball is .
a) What is the probability of picking a yellow ball?
b) If you try to pick 12 times, how many times would you expect it to be
yellow?
c) How many times would you expect it to be red if you try 36 times?

4. Alisi is a shooter for her school’s netball team. In today’s game, she has made
12 goals out of 20 attempts.
a) What is the probability of the successful shot of the day?
b) How many of her next 30 shots, would you expect her to make goals?

217
SUB – STRAND 8.2
Normal Distribution

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Characteristics of a normal curve and

related terms
 Standardizing
 Finding probabilities using normal
distribution tables
 Application of normal distribution

218
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Note: Suppose we measure each student's weight in a large secondary

school and then summarize the findings with a graph that displays
different body weights on the horizontal axis (the x -axis) and the
frequency (% of students) of each weight on the vertical axis (the y - axis),
we would get a graph similar to the one shown below:

There are several noteworthy characteristics of this graph. It is bell-shaped

with a single peak in the center, and it is symmetrical. If the distribution is
perfectly symmetrical with a single peak in the center, then the mean
value, the mode, and the median will be all the same. Many variables have
similar characteristics, which are characteristic of so-called normal
distributions.
The Normal Distribution has the
following features:

mean = median = mode

symmetrical about the center
50% of values are less than the mean
while 50% are greater than the mean

 When the standard deviation is large, the curve is short and wide;
when the standard deviation is small, the curve is tall and narrow.

219
EXAMPLE 1: Which of the following normal probability distribution has the
smallest standard deviation?

a) b)

μb μb
Answer: ( b )

NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS TERMS

Note: The normal distribution is a continuous probability

distribution. This has several implications for probability.

 The total area under the normal curve is equal to one.

 A score is
 probable or likely to lie in this range : μ 1 < x < μ + 1

 very likely or very probably to lie in this range : μ 2 < x < μ + 2

 almost certain to lie in this range : μ 3 < x < μ + 3

220
EXAMPLE 2: Your Company packages sugar in one kg bags. When you weigh a
sample of bags you get these results:
1007g, 1032g, 1002g, 983g, 1004g, 1040g, 1021g, 999g, 1009g, x g

a) Find the mean weight of 9 bags of sugar.

b) Another weight x g is to be included such that the mean weight is 1010g.
Find the weight of the 10th bag.
c) Work out the standard deviation.
d) Assume that the weight of the sugar is normally distributed with a mean
of 1010g standard deviation of 16g. Draw the normal distribution curve.
e) Between what weights is the bag likely to be?
f) Between what weights is the bag almost certain to be?

Answers:

x1  x2  ......  xn 1007  1032  ......  1009 9097 7

a) x     1010 g
n 9 9 9

b) Another weight is added so n is now 10 .

Total
x
n
Total  x
1010 
10
1010  10  9097  x
x  10100  9097
 x  1003 g

c) Put calculator mode on SD. Press each number with M+ sign.

Press  100 M+ 1032 M+ 100 M+ 98 M+

 100 M+ 104 M+ 102 M+ 99 M+

 100 M+ 100 M+

Shift 2 2 =   15.86
d)

e) likely to be:
μ 1 < x < μ + 1
994g < x < 1026g

f) almost certainly:
μ 3 < x < μ + 3
962g < x < 1058g

221
STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Note: Each set of data that is normally distributed has a different mean and
standard deviation. It is therefore impossible to give probabilities for every
situation. Instead, we convert to standard normal distribution.

It is a normal distribution with mean of 0 standard deviation of 1.

 To convert a value to a Standard Score:

 first subtract the mean,
 then divide by the Standard Deviation Z=

 For negative z – score

use the positive equivalent as the normal curve is a symmetrical
graph.
 For clarity purpose, draw and shade the required region.

222
EXAMPLE 3: For the following scores, convert it to the z – score and draw the
required region.

a) mean μ = 250 b) mean μ = 63

Standard Deviation  = 25 Standard Deviation  = 5
x = 230 x = 55
P(x > 230) P(x < 55)

c) mean μ = 135 d) mean μ = 10.3

Standard Deviation  = 4 Standard Deviation  = 0.8
x = 140 x = 11.5
P(x > 140) P(x < 11.5)

e) mean μ = 62
Standard Deviation  = 15
x = 25, x = 77
P(25 < x < 77)

Answer:
x 230  250
a) Z   0.8
 25

x 55  63
b) Z    1.6
 5

223
 x 140  135
c) Z    1.25
 4

x 11.5  10.3

a) Z    1.5
 0.5

x 25  62 x 77  62
b) Z    2.467 , Z  1
 15  15

224
 FINDING PROBABILITIES

Note: The probability that a normal random variable X equals any particular value is
0.
 Less than a (option "Up to a ")
 Greater than a (option " a onwards")
Consider the probabilities of different regions:
 - The probability that x is greater than a on the left side is equal to the area under
the normal curve bounded by a plus 0.5 (as indicated by the non-shaded area in the
figure below).
P( x > a) = 0.5 + p


 - The probability that x is less than a on the left side is equal to the area under the
normal curve bounded by a subtracted from 0.5. (as indicated by the shaded area).

P( x < a) = 0.5 p

- The probability that x is greater than a on the right side is equal to the area under
the normal curve bounded by a subtracted from 0.5. (as indicated by the shaded
area).

P( x < a) = 0.5 p

- The probability that x is less than a on the left side is equal to the area under the normal
curve bounded by a plus 0.5. (as indicated by the non-shaded area).

P( x > a) = 0.5 + p

225
TABLES FOR THE STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Note: To find the probability of standard scores, z value is not enough. You
need to know how to use the table.
Steps
 Find the z – score with reference to question.
 Draw and shade the required region. Done previously
 Use table to find the probability in relation to z –score
 Add 0.5 or Subtract from 0.5 or subtract from 1 etc. depending on shaded
area.

226
EXAMPLE 4: For the previous scores, find the probability

a) P(x > 230) = P(z > - 0.8) b) P(x < 55)= P(z < - 1.6) c) P(x > 140) = P(z > 1.25)
= 0.2881 + 0.5 = 0.5 – 0.4452 = 0.5 – 0.3944
= 0.7881 or 78.81% = 0.0548 or 5.48% = 0.1056 or 10.56%

d) P(x < 11.5) = P(z < 1.5) e) P(25 < x < 77)= P(-2.467 < x < 1)
= 0.5 + 0.4332 = 0.4932 + 0.3413
= 0.9332 or 93.32% = 0.8345 or 83.45%

227
EXAMPLE 5

The amount of weight lost by people on a special diet is normally distributed

with a mean of 8 kg and standard deviation of 3.5 kg. If 1500 people were on this
diet, how many are expected to lose between 6.95 kg and 10.8 kg?

6.95  8 10.8  8
P(6.95  x  10.8)  P( Z )
3.5 3.5
 P(0.3  Z  0.8)

= 0.1179 + 0.2881
= 0.406

Expected number = 0.406  1500

= 609

EXERCISE 57:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. Every time people use liquid soap dispenser, the volume of soap produced is
normally distributed with a mean of 7 mL and standard deviation of 1.5 mL.
The probability that over 9mL of soap is dispensed is

A. 40.82% B. 9.13%

C. 9.18% D. 40.87%

[Questions requiring working]

2. IQ scores from a test are normally distributed with a mean of 100 standard
deviation of 16.5. If 100 students sit the IQ test, how many will score
between 67 and 133?

3. Use the tables for the standard normal distribution to find the probabilities
represented by shaded regions:
(a) (b)

0 1.35 -1.21 0 2.07

4. An average light bulb manufactured by the Acme Corporation lasts 300 days
with a standard deviation of 50 days. Assuming that bulb life is normally
distributed, what is the probability that an Acme light bulb will last less than
365 days?

228
5. Suppose scores on an IQ test are normally distributed. If the test has a mean
of 100 and a standard deviation of 10, what is the probability that a person
who takes the test will score between 90 and 110?

6. A soft-drink dispensing machine is regulated so that it discharges an average

of 200 mL per cup. The amount of soft drink is normally distributed with a
standard deviation of 15 mL .
a) What is the probability that a cup contains less than 191 mL of soft
drink?
b) What is the probability that a cup contains between 191 mL and 209 mL
of soft drink?
c) How many cups of soft drink will overflow if 230 mL cups are used for
the next 1000 discharges?

7. The final exam marks of a class of 500 students are normally distributed with
a mean of 62 marks and standard deviation of 15 marks.
A student is selected at random. What is the probability that the student has
scored a mark between 62 and 80?

8. The weights of brick chosen to pave a driveway are normally distributed with
a mean of 1.4 kg and a standard deviation of 80g.
a) Between which 2 weights will a brick chosen at random probably lie?
b) What is the probability that a brick chosen at random will weigh less than
1.50 kg?
c) The number of bricks required to pave the driveway is 1260. Estimate the
numbers that weigh between 1.45kg and 1.55kg.

9. A vegetable farmer in the Western Division supplies a large number of

capsicums also known as ‘bell pepper’ to a national supermarket chain. The
weight of the capsicums is normally distributed, with mean 185g and
standard deviation 30g.
a) What is the probability that a capsicum chosen at random weighs more
than 170g?
b) What is the probability that a capsicum chosen at random weighs
between 215g and 230g?
c) Estimate the number of capsicums in a consignment of 600 that could be
expected to weigh over 250g.

Lesson of Life: Life is a Math Equation. In order to gain the most, you have to
know how to convert the negatives into positives ~ Anonymous

229
 SUB – STRAND 9.1 Limits

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Definition of limits
 Limits from algebraic expressions

230
DEFINITION OF LIMITS

1 x2
Consider f ( x )  . Let’s find f (1)
1 x

Any number divided by zero is undefined.

Let’s see what happens when we take values close to 1 and substitute it in place
1  x2
of x in the expression
1 x
x 1 x 2

1 x
0.97 1.97
0.98 1.98
0.99 1.99
The values get closer and closer to 2 as x approaches 1.
1 undefined
1.01 2.01
1.02 2.02
1.03 2.03

It turns out that as x approaches 1, f (x) approaches 2.

In standard mathematical notation, we say the limit (in short lim) of f (x) as x
approaches 1 is 2. This relationship would be described as
1 x2
lim f ( x )  lim
x 1 x 1 1  x

2
which means “as x approaches 1, the value of f(x) approaches 2”.

To make it simple, the limit of a function is what the function "approaches"( y

value) when the input (the variable "x") approaches a specific value.

Thus the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L is written as lim f (x) = L

xa

231
LIMITS FROM ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Step 1: Directly substitute in the expression. If upon substitution you get

 then this is the limit.

 then the limit is 0.

 then the limit does not exist.

 then the limit may exist, go to step 2.

Step 2: Simplify by some algebraic method

EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate

a) lim x2  3 b) lim (2 x  1)( x  1)

x  3 x 1

Direct Direct substitute

substitute the value 1,
the value -3,

lim x2  4x  3
EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate Directly substitute the value 2,
x2 x2

In this case, there is no limit or

limit does not exist.

232
EXAMPLE 3:Evaluate
lim 2 x 16  4 x 2
a) b) lim
x2 4 x
2 x  2 x2
Directly substitute the value - 2,
Directly substitute the value 2,

So factorize , simplify then substitute -2

So factorize , simplify then
4 is common so
substitute 4
factorize the numerator

Use difference of squares:

EXERCISE 61: Evaluate the following limits:

a) lim lim c) lim x 2 1

x  10 x  10
5x b)
x  5 x  1 x 1

lim x5 3x 2  3 2 x 2  5x  3
d) e) lim f) lim
x  2 x2 x  1 x  1 x 3 x 3

3x  5 4x 2  2x 1
lim ( x 2  5x  3) lim lim
x 1 x3 x 3 x2 x2  2
g) h) i)

1  x  1
2
x3  7x 3x 2  x  10
j) lim k) lim l) lim
x0 5 x 0 x x2 x2  4

lim x2  4 lim 5x2  x

m) n) o)
x  2 x 2  x  6 x0 x

Lesson of Life: Mathematics is like music. When the band plays in tune, it feels
right; when the horns play at, it feels wrong. If you're doing mathematics the
right way, it just feels right. It makes sense ~ John Mosley
233
SUB – STRAND 9.2 Differentiation

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Definition of the Derivative Function

 The rule for finding derivatives
 Derivative of Fractional and Negative
Indices
 Higher derivatives
 Applications

234
DEFINITION OF THE DERIVATIVE FUNCTION

Note: The derivative is an important tool in calculus that represents

change in a function with respect to one of its variables. The process of
finding derivatives is often called differentiation.
 Given a function `f (x)’ or ‘y’, there are many ways to denote the
𝒅𝒇
derivative of `f` with respect to `x`. The most common ways are 𝒅𝒙 and
f '(x) or y ’.
𝒅𝒇
Keep in mind that is not a fraction and does not mean df ÷ dx.
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
For second order derivatives, the notation 𝒅𝒙𝟐 , f''(x) or y ’’ is often
used.
 Definition Consider a diagram given below:

f(x+h) (x2, y2)

f(x)
(x1,y1)

x x+h

The gradient of the line passing through the two points is:

Now as , the chord becomes tangent at point (x1,y1).

Thus the gradient of tangent at (x1,y1) = (gradient of chord)

=
= f '(x)
This is known as ‘Differentiation from the first principles’

Steps to be used in finding the derivative using the First Principles of

Differentiation:
 First find by substituting for every place of x in

 Compute and simplify.

 Find limit by substituting 0 in place of h. If you get you need to

simplify before substituting.

235
EXAMPLE 1: Differentiate f ( x)  3x  2 by using the First Principles
f ( x)  3 x  2
f ( x  h)  3( x  h)  2
f ( x  h)  3x  3h  2

 Compute
f (x  h)  f (x)
lim
h 0 h

3 x  3h  2  (3 x  2)
 lim
h 0 h
3 x  3h  2  3 x  2
 lim
h 0 h
3h
 lim
h 0 h

 lim 3
h 0

3
 f ' ( x)  3

EXAMPLE 2: Find the derivative of f(x) = 5x2 + 2x by using the First Principles.

f(x + h) = 5(x + h)2 + 2(x + h)

= 5(x2 + 2xh + h2) + 2x + 2h

= 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 + 2x + 2h

f(x + h) – f(x) = (5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 + 2x + 2h) – (5x2 + 2x)

= 10xh + 5h2 + 2h

f '(x) =

= 10x + 5(0)+2

= 10x +2

236
 THE RULE FOR FINDING DERIVATIVES

Note: To differentiate, , multiply the coefficient k by the power n and

then reduce the power by one.

or

Example. Prove that the derivative of a constant, k , is zero.

 recall

=0

Example 2: Differentiate the following

a) f(x) = 5 b) y = 4x + 6

Derivative Recall x = x1
of a y = 4x1 + 6
constant is Constant
zero,
f'(x) = 0 Recall x0 = 1

c) f(x) = 2x3 – 3 x + 1 d) g(x) = (3 – 2 x)2

f(x) = 2x3 – 3 x + 1 Expand and simplify

Constant g(x) = (3 – 2 x)2

237
DERIVATIVE OF FRACTIONAL AND NEGATIVE INDICES

Note: The law of indices is required to change in the form of base and
power before applying differentiation of power rule.

 Negative indices Rational indices

Example 3: Differentiate the following

5
f (a)  2 b) m  n  n
2
a) a

b)

1 5
c) y = v 2 d) s  3t 2  3t

238
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
We can continue to find the derivatives of a derivative. We find the
d2y
 second derivative( symbol y' ' or ) by taking the derivative of the first
dx 2
derivative.
 third derivative by taking the derivative of the second derivative... etc
y  x 2  2x  3
y'  2 x  2
y' '  2

EXERCISE 61:

dy
1. A function, y, is given as y   6 , where π is a constant. find
dx
2. Differentiate using the first principle:
a) f ( x)  x 2 b) f ( x)  5x c) y  3x  5

3. Find the derivative of the following using the power rule:

1 x3
a) f ( x)  2 x 2  x  20 b) u  3v  2v 2  c) f ( x)   4 x.
v 3

1
d) y  x  5 e) y = 12x5 + 3x4 + 7x3 f) h(x) = x2 − 9x + 6
3 5
3 x

5 2
g) y = 0.4x10 + 3x – 1 h) y = –x  x i) f ( x) 
x3 3x 9

5
4. Find f’’(x) if f ( x ) 
2
x
5. Expand and then find y' and y’’ for the following:
a) y  (2 x  3)(9  x) b) f ( x)  x 2 (9  x) c) y 
1
x
3x  2x 2 

d) y  ( x  1)(5  x 2 ) e) y  (x 2  2x)(x 2  2x) f) y  x 1 (x  x 2 )

Lesson of Life: Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to
change the world ~ Nelson Mandela

239
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION:

1. SLOPE AND INTERVALS OVER WHICH FUNCTIONS ARE

INCREASING OR DECREASING

Note: The derivative of a function gives the gradient or slope of a tangent to the
curve.
To find gradient at point x0, first differentiate the function and substitute the value
of x0.
Gradient is used to describe the increasing/decreasing function. Consider the table
given:

Curves Increasing function Decreasing function Constant function

Definition A function is A function is A Constant Function
"increasing" when "decreasing" when is a horizontal line.
the 𝒚 −value the 𝒚 −value The 𝒚 −value does
increases as the decreases as the not change as the
𝒙 −value increases. 𝒙 −value increases. x−value increases on
It is easy to see that The graph is going the x- axis.
y = f(x) tends to go down
up as it goes along.
General Shape
y2 y2
 increases  decreases y1 & y2
y1 y1 no
change
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2

 
Increases Increases Increases
Signs of Positive Negative Zero Gradient/slope
Gradients Gradient/slope Gradient/slope [stationary]
Theorem on f '(x) > 0 f '(x) < 0 f '(x) = 0
Derivatives:
Let f be a
differentiable
function on
the interval
(x1,x2)

240
2. STATIONARY POINTS

Note: A stationary point of a differentiable function is a point in the domain

of the function where the derivative is zero (equivalently, the slope of the
graph at that point is zero).

At this level the focus is only on the maximum/minimum turning point.f '(x) = 0
The maximum turning point is when the function at point x0 is changing its
direction from either increasing function to decreasing or positive gradient to
negative gradient.
Maximum

The minimum turning point is when the function at point x0 is changing its
direction from either decreasing function to increasing or negative gradient to
positive gradient.

Minimum

Local maximum

Local minimum

It is important to note that for a cubic function these maximum and minimum
points are local ones only, as there are other points on the graph that are
higher or lower than these turning points.

To find Stationary Points:

 Find f '(x).
 Put f '(x) = 0 and solve for x.
 Find the y−values by substituting the x−values you got from solving f
'(x) = 0 into y = f(x).
 For cubic polynomials, the turning point with a bigger y-value is the
maximum point. For parabola, look at the coefficient of x 2 [y = ±𝑎 𝑥 ] .
If it is positive, it will have a minimum point otherwise, it will be a
maximum point.

241
SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

Note: Suppose f (x) is a function that is twice differentiable at a

stationary point k.

1. If f '' (k) > 0 then has a minimum at k .

2. If f '' (k) < 0 , then has a maximum at k.

Example 1: The diagram given below shows the graph of the function y = f (x)

F
B

C J
E G I
A D
K

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10

Identify the letters that satisfies the following conditions:

a) f ' ( x)  0 Answers:
b) f ' ( x)  0 a) A, E, I
c) f ' ( x)  0 b) C, G, K
c) B, D, F,H, J

Example 3: A function f(x)is given by f ( x)  x3  3x.

a) Differentiate to find f’(x).

b) Determine the x value(s) of the turning points of f(x).
c) Give the coordinates of the turning point.
d) State the nature of the turning points.
e) Sketch the graph of f(x).
f) For what value(s) of x is f’(x)<0?

242
 Answers:
a) f’(x) b) x value(s) of the turning points:

Solve for x

c). coordinates  (x,y) d)Nature – Method 1 From Graphs

y
Substitute the values of x in the
function f(x) 2

-1 -1 1 x

-2

From the graph it can be seen that (−1, 2)

is a local maximum while (1, −2) is a
local minimum.

Method 2: Nature of roots using the Double Derivative Test

f ' ' ( x)  6 x
f ' ' (1)  6  1
 6  0  Local Maximum at (−1, 2)

f ' ' ( x)  6 x
f ' ' (1)  6  1
 6  0  Local Minimum at (1, −2)

e) It can be seen from the graph that x is decreasing from -1 to 1, thus -1 < x < 1

243
EXERCISE 62:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. Which graph shows a function that is increasing on the interval
?
y y
A. B.

x
2
x
2

C. y D. y

2 x

x
2

[Questions requiring working]

1 3
2. Determine the gradient of the curve f ( x)  x  2 x 2  3x  7 at x = 2.
3

3. Write down the coordinates of the point on the curve y  x  3x  1

2

where the gradient of the tangent to the curve is 5.

4. The diagram given below shows the graph of the function y  f (x)

0 x1 x2 x3 x4

dy
At which value of x is the largest?
dx
244
 5. Given f (x) = x2 – 5x – 1
a) Find f ‘(3)
b) Solve f ‘(x) = 3

6. A function is given as g ( x)  2 x  6 x 2  2 x 3 .
i) Find g ' ( x)
ii) Find the coordinates of the turning points of the graph of g(x).
iii) State the nature of the turning points in (ii) above.
iv) For what values of x is g (x) increasing ?

7. A curve has equation y = 1 + 6x – 3x2.

dy
a) Find
dx
b) For what values of x is y increasing?

1 3 x2
8. A graph of function is given as f ( x)  x   12 x  6 . Find the
3 2
coordinates of the turning points of the graph of f(x).

1 3
9. A function is given as f ( x)  x  2 x 2  3x  7
3
Find:
i) f ' ( x)
ii) the coordinates of the turning points of f(x).
iii) state the nature of the turning points in (ii) above.
iv) the value (s) of x for which f ' ( x)  0
v) the value (s) of x for which f ' (x)  0

1 2
10. The graph of a function y  x is shown below.
2

-3 0 x

What is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = -3?

Lesson of Life: Mathematics is the only place where truth and beauty mean the
same thing ~ Danica McKellar

245
SLOPE AND EQUATION OF TANGENT and NORMAL

Note: The derivative gives the gradient of a curve at any point which is also
same as the gradient of a tangent to a curve at that point.

Consider the diagram:

y
tangent normal: perpendicular to tangent

x0 x

f (x)

To determine the equation of a tangent to a curve y = f(x) at the point x=a :

 Find the derivative f ’(x) using the rules of differentiation.
 Substitute the x−coordinate of the given point (x = a) into the derivative
to calculate the gradient of the tangent, i.e. f ’(a).
 Substitute the gradient found above and the coordinates of point (a, f
(a)) into an appropriate form of the straight line equation
y − y1=m (x − x1).
 Make y the subject of the formula. Express in the form y = mx + c

To determine the equation of a normal to a curve:

The normal to a curve is the line perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at a
given point.
Follow the same steps as above except for gradient, use mtangent ×m normal = −1

EXAMPLE : A function is given as g ( x)  2 x  6 x 2  2 x 3

i) Find g ' ( x)
ii) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at x = 2.
iii) Find the equation of the normal at x = 1.

246
Answers:

i) g ' ( x)
g ( x)  2 x1  6 x 2  2 x 3
g ' ( x)  (1  2) x11  (2  6) x 21  (3  2) x 31
 2  12 x  6 x 2
 g ' ( x)  2  12 x  6 x 2

ii) equation of the tangent:

 derivative g ' ( x)  2  12 x  6 x 2
 Substitute the x-coordinate: m  g ' (2)  2  12(2)  6(2) 2  46
 straight line equation in the form y = mx + c
y−y1=m (x−x1)
y  36  46( x  2)
y  46 x  92  36
 y  46 x  128
x  2;
y  g (2)  2(2)  6(2) 2  2(2) 3  36
 (2,36)

iii. Equation of the normal

 derivative g ' ( x)  2  12 x  6 x 2
 Substitute the x-coordinate: m  g ' (1)  2  12(1)  6(1) 2  16
m tangent ×m normal = −1

m normal =

 straight line equation in the form y = mx + c

y−y1=m (x−x1)

x  1;
y  g (1)  2(1)  6(1) 2  2(1)3  6
 (1,6)

247
EXERCISE 63:

[Multiple Choice Question]

1. The slope of the tangent line to a curve at any point on the
curve is given by − . Which of the following gives the equation of
the curve given that the curve passes through the point (3, 20)?

A. B. −

C. − − D. −

[Questions requiring working]

2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x3 at the point (2, 8).

3. Write the equation for both the tangent line and normal line to the curve
y = 3x2 – x + 1 at the point where x =1.

4. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 – 1 at the point
(1,0).

5. Find the equation of the normal line to the curve y = 3x2 – x + 1 at the
point (−1,5).

6. A function is given as f(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 5 and it passes through the point

(2,5).

a) Find the gradient of

(i) the tangent at (2,5) (ii) the normal at (2,5)
b) Find the equation for both the tangent line and normal line.

7. For the function f ( x)  x 2 , Find:

(i) the gradient of the tangent at x=3

(ii) the equation of the tangent at x=3.

8. A function is given as y  x 2  x . Find:

(i) the gradient of the normal at x= −2
(ii) the equation of the normal at x=−2

248
 9. What is the equation of the tangent to the curve f ( x)  3x 2  9 x when
x= 4?

10. A function given by .

(i) Differentiate the function to obtain .

(ii) Show that the turning point occurs at .

(iii) Determine the coordinates of the turning point.

(iv) Determine whether the turning point is a maximum or a

minimum.
(v) Find the equation of the tangent at

Real life applications:

Tangent
 A car has skidded while rounding a corner, tangent to the double yellow
lines curve.

 Likewise, swinging a ball around in a circular motion then let go, it will fly
off in a tangent to the circle of motion.

Normal:
 The spokes of a bicycle wheel are normal to the rim. The spokes of a
wheel are placed normal to the circular shape of the wheel at each point
where the spoke connects with the center.

Source http://www.intmath.com/applications-differentiation/1-tangent-
normal.php

249
APPLIED MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM PROBLEMS

Note: The terms maxima and minima refers to extreme values of a function,
that is, the maximum and minimum values that the function attains. Applied
problems in which we have to find the maximum or minimum are sometimes
called optimization problems. Maximum means upper bound or largest possible
quantity whereas minimum is the bound or smallest possible quantity.

Steps to find the largest/smallest possible quantity:

 List the information: Read the question carefully and extract the relevant
information.
 Develop a function that describes the situation algebraically: These are
usually the quantities asked for in the problem. Draw appropriate
diagrams where applicable.
 Find the derivative of the function, equate to zero and solve for the
quantity.
 Determine whether it is a maximum or minimum and answer the
question that has been asked.

EXAMPLE 1: A garment factory produces T – shirts, the cost of which can be

worked out by the formula: C ( x)  x 3  20 x 2  800 and the income from the
export of T – shirts is given by S ( x)  660 x  2 x 2 . If x is the number of T – shirts
produced;
1. Write an equation for the profit expected in the sale of T – shirts
made by this factory
2. How many T – shirts need to be produced to maximize the profit?
Answers:
1. Profit = Income – Cost or Profit = Selling price – cost price
P( x)  S ( x)  C ( x)
 (660 x  2 x 2 )  ( x 3  20 x 2  800)
 660 x  2 x 2  x 3  20 x 2  800
 P( x)   x 3  18 x 2  660 x  800

2. Maximize: Differentiate, equate to zero and solve for the quantity

P' ( x)  0
P( x)   x 3  18 x 2  660 x  800
P' ( x)  3x 2  36 x  660
0  3( x 2  12 x  220)
0  ( x  22)( x  10)
x  22, x  10
Ignore the negative answer since the number of T-shirt cannot be negative.
 22 T-shirts

250
EXAMPLE 2: A box with an open top is to be made from a square piece of
cardboard with sides 9 cm by cutting equal squares out of the corners and
turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made in this
way.

V = (9−2x)2 x

V = 81x−36x2+4x3

= 81−72x+12x 2= 0

= 3(27−24x+4x2) = 0

= 27−24x+4x2 = 0

Factorize and solve or use the quadratic formula

(2 x -9)(2 x -3)=0

2 x -9 = 0 or 2 x -3 =0

x = 4.5 and 1.5

Find volume:

V(4.5) =[9−2(4.5)]2(4.5)

=0
V(1.5) =[9−2(1.5)]2(1.5)

V = 54 cm3

 maximum volume = 54 cm3

251
EXERCISE 64:

1. Find the volume of the largest box with an open top that can be made by
cutting equal squares out of the corners of a piece of cardboard of
dimensions 15 cm by 24 cm, and then turning up the sides.

2. The sum of two numbers is 20. Calculate the maximum value of their
product.

3. A rectangular farm is to be fenced using 100m of fence. One side of the farm
is bounded by a river and does not need fencing.
Riverbank

River

x  fence
y
a) Write and expression relating x, y and the total length of the fence.
b) Write an expression for the area enclosed in terms of x only.
dA
c) Differentiate to find .
dx
d) Find the dimensions (x and y) for the maximum possible area.
e) Find the maximum possible area.

4. A field is shown below. It is to be divided into three paddocks and fenced

using 1,200 m of fence. L

a) Write and expression for the length (L) in terms of x.

b) Write an expression for the total area in terms of x.
c) Differentiate.
d) Find the length and width of the field that will give a maximum area.
e) Find the maximum possible area.

252
5. The cost in dollars for a company when it produces an item of a certain
product is given by
 160,000 
C x   1.5 4 x  ,
 x 
where x is the number of machines used. Find the number of machines that
will make the cost a minimum.

6. Mr. and Mrs. Patel are in business, manufacturing and selling Hi Fi systems.
x2
The cost of manufacture function is C x   3000  , where x is the
3000
number of products made and C is in dollars. The retail function for their
x2
income from sales is given by Rx   200 x  .
10
How many Hi Fi systems should they make and sell to maximize their profit?

7. A farmer is about to build a rectangular paddock alongside a dense hedge. He

has only 240 m of fencing available, but he wants to enclose the largest
possible area. Find the value of x for which the area is the maximum and also
calculate the maximum area. (Note only 3 sides are to be fenced).
Hedge

x x

8. The rectangular box has a wire frame work with a height of h cm and a
square base of side x cm. The framework is constructed of 12 pieces of wire,
of total length 60 cm.

x cm
h cm
x cm
a) Show that the height of the box in terms of x is (15 – 2x) cm.
b) Find the volume of the box in terms of x.
c) Find V’(x).
d) Calculate the maximum volume such a box can have.

253
9. A rectangular field is bounded on one side by a straight drain, and the other
three sides by a fence whose total length is 160 m. Show that the area of the
field cannot exceed 3200 m2. ( Maximum area cannot exceed 3200 m2).

10. A manufacturer of metallic boxes has an order for boxes that are to have a
square base with no top. The volume of each box is to be 32 cubic meters.
a) If the length of the boxes is x metres, show that the height is given by the
32
expression, h = 2 .
x
128
b) Show that the surface area of the box can expressed as A = x2 + .
x
c) Find the dimensions of the box that will minimize the amount of material
needed for its construction.

11. The figure given below shows a 500 m running track around a sports field.
The middle portion is a rectangular in nature while the curved paths are
semicircular.
y
x
x

x
x

a) Write an expression in terms of x & y for the perimeter of the sports

field.
b) Write an expression for the area, A (x) of the sports field
dA
c) Find
dx
d) Calculate the radius of these semicircles so that the area of the
sports field is maximum .

Lesson of Life: One cannot understand... the universality of laws of nature, the
relationship of things, without an understanding of mathematics. There is no
other way to do it ~ Richard P. Feynman

254
SUB – STRAND 9.3 Integration

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

 Indefinite Integral
 Constant of integration
 Definite integral
 Applications

255
 INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

Note: Indefinite integral or antiderivative of a function ‘ f ‘ is a differentiable function F

whose derivative is equal to the original function f.
 It is an opposite process of differentiation. Also known as "anti-differentiation" or
more specifically called “integration". The symbol for integration is dx. dx is
written after the algebraic expression to show that x is the variable, and it reads as
‘integration with respect to x’. if another variable is written then you integrate
with respect to that variable.
 This can be stated symbolically as follows.
Differentiation

𝑑𝑦
Function [ y or f(x) ] y’ or 𝑑𝑥 or f’(x)
Integration
 The general formula:
dx = F(x) + C where C is a constant [that can take any number].
 Power rule : In differentiation, we subtract one from the power and
then multiply the coefficient by the power. Since Integration is opposite of
differentiation, so to integrate ‘add one to the power and divide by the new
power’.

dx = +C,n≠−

 Integrating Constant number, k: the letter ‘k’ is considered here so that you don’t
get confused with C. After integration, just add the variable.
dx = kx + C
Consider few rules below that is quite handy:

Common Functions/ Function Integral Example

Rules
Constant, k ∫k dx kx + C ∫5 dx = 5x + C
Variable ∫x dx x2/2 + C ∫t dt = t2/2 + C
Square ∫x2 dx x3/3 + C ∫b2 db = b3/3 + C
Multiplication by ∫cf(x) dx c ∫f(x) dx ∫8 x2 dx = 8 ∫ x2 dx = 8/3 x3+ C
constant
Sum Rule ∫(f + g) dx ∫f dx + ∫g dx ∫ 20 + x dx = ∫ 20 dx + ∫x dx
= 20x + x2/2 + C
Difference Rule ∫(f − g) dx ∫f dx - ∫g dx ∫ 20 − x dx = 20x − x2/2 + C

256
EXAMPLE 1: Calculate

x2
1.  3000 
3000
dx 2.  v 3  20v 2  800 dv

dx
dv

 

5
3.  a3
– a  a da da

EXERCISE 65:

1. Find the following integrals:

5 2
 x dx
 x dx 2
 1da
5
a) b) c)

d)  4 x 6 dx e)  3xdx f)  x5 dx

1 12 2 3x 1
 x  ( 5x   )dx
4
g) dx h) 3
dx i)
3
x 2 2 3

2. Compute [Hint: Expand first]

a)  x( x  1)dx b)  ( x  4) 2dx c)  ( x  4)(2  x)dx

257
 3. Integrate the following:

x 2  5x 4x5  2x 4  x3
a)  dx b)  dx c)  x 2 dx
x x

4. Find the following integrals:

 (x  2 x  3)dx  (3x  6 x  5)dx

2 2
a) b)

1
 (x   x )dx  (-x2 + 4x – 3) dx
3
c) x2 d)

1
 (x
3
 50  )dx
e) x

FINDING CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION

Note: Constant C [that can take any number] is added after the integration
because the derivative of a constant is zero. It is the "Constant of Integration".
But there could have been a constant of any value, hence C is a generic 'starting
point' that has been added to all anti-derivatives.

This constant, C, can be found by substituting from the additional information

given. Make sure you replace the value of C at the end.

EXAMPLE 2: A derived function is given as c' ( x)  60  20 x  3x 2 . Write down

an expression for c(x) , given that c(2)=0.
Integrate using power rule Solve for C using c(2)=0,
to get c(x) : thus x = 2, y = 0 :
dx = c(x)
Hence the equation is
dx Substitute c(x)=y=0

258
 Example 3: f ' ( x)  2 x  9 and f(1)=5. Find f(x).

f(x) can be found by integrating f’(x). i.e.: f(x) =  f ' ( x)

f ( x)   2 x  9dx
= x2  9x  c

Now if f (1) = 5 means when x=1, f(x) = 5

 5  12  9  1  c
 5  1 9  c
c = 13 Therefore, f ( x)  x 2  9 x  13

EXERCISE 66:

dy
1. Find an expression for y given  7x 2 and when x = 3, y = 10.
dx

2. Find f(x) if f’(x) = 2x – 3 and f(4) = 7.

3. Given that v' (t )  2t  3t 2 , find the expression for v(t) if v(0) = 30?

DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Note: So far we have been finding indefinite integrals.

The definite integral of f(x) between a (lower limit) and b (upper limit) can
be defined as follows:

= F(b) – F(a)

Steps:
 Integrate the function f(x). You may ignore the constant C since it will
get cancelled.
 Substituting two values (a and b) into the anti-derivative. Start with
upper limit (b)
 Find the difference

259
 2
Example 1: Evaluate  x(2 x  1) dx
1
Integrate the function f(x):

2x 21 x 11 2x 3 x 2
2

 x(2x  1) dx   2x  x dx     C
2

1
2 1 11 3 2

Substitute the two values (a and b):

b=2 a = -1
3
2b b 2
2a 3 a 2
 
3 3 2 2 3 32
2( 2) ( 2) 2(1) (1) 2
 
3 2 3 2
16 4 2 1
  
3 2 3 2
1 43 1
7 
3 6 6

Find the difference:

1 1 22 1
7     7.5
3 6 3 6
In just one step:
Integrate Substitute b minus Substitute a
 2(2)3 (2) 2   2(1) 3 (1) 2 
2
2
 2x3 x 2 

1
x ( 2 x  1) dx =  3

  
2  1  3
 
2   3

2 
  7.5

Example 2: The rate of rainfall per day, measured in cm, x days after the
beginning of the year, is given as R' ( x)  0.00002(6511  366 x  x 2 ) . Find R(x)
for the first 180 days of the year?

R' ( x)  0.00002(6511  366 x  x 2 )

180 180 180


0
R' ( x)dx  
0
0.00002(6511  366 x  x 2 )dx  0.00002  (6511  366 x  x 2 )dx
0
180
R( x)  0.00002  (6511  366 x  x )dx 2

0 180
 366 2 x 3 
 0.00002 6511x  x  
 2 3 0
 366 (180) 3   366 2 (0) 3 
 0.00002 6511(180)  (180) 2     6511(0)  (0)  
 2 3   2 3 
 103.14  0
 103.14cm
Thus 103.14 cm.

260
EXERCISE 67:

1. Calculate the following definite integrals:

b)  2 x  3x dx
4 0 2
a)  s ds p  2 p  3 dp
2 2
c)
2 3 3

2 4 3
3 1
d)  2 dx e)  (x  50  3
)dx f)  ( x  2) 2 dx
1
x 1 x 2

4  x3
5 1 2
1
g)  dx h)  ( x  1)( x  1)dx i) x dx
1
x2 2 1
2

2
 3x3  10 x 2  16
4
4
6
j)    dx k) 3 dx l) x 2
dx
1 
x 1 x 0

k
2. Solve for k when 3
0
x dx  54

3. The expression for the marginal cost ($) is given as c' ( x)  6000  200 x  3x 2
, where x is the number of units. What is the increase in cost c(x) when the
number of items is increased from 20 to 30 units?

4. A company determines that its production facility follows the learning curve
f ' ( x)  1000 x 2 , where f ‘(x) is the rate of labour hours required to
assemble the xth unit. What is the number of labour hours required f (x) to
produce between 25 and 50 units.

Lesson of Life: The object of education is to prepare the young to educate

themselves throughout their lives ~ Robert M. Hutchins

261
 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION :
1. EQUATION OF CURVES

Note: One use of integration is to calculate the equation of a curve when a

gradient function is known. If the coordinates of a point on a curve is given,
then the value of constant C can be worked out.
Since we are working with equations of curves in the form y = ….. , it is often
𝑑𝑦
more convenient to express the gradient function in the form 𝑑𝑥 ……
Differentiate

y
Integrate

dy
EXAMPLE 1: A curve has a gradient function given by:  x 2  2 x  1 . Find
dx
the equation of the curve if it passes through the point (1,6).

Integrate using power

rule to get y : Solve for C using (1,6),
thus substitute x = 1, y = 6 :
dx Hence the equation is

Example 2: A curve goes through the point (-2,3) and has a derived function
dy
given by  3x 2  8 x  1 . What is the equation of this curve?
dx
dy
 3x 2  8 x  1
dx
Integrate:
y   (3x 2  8x  1)dx
y  x3  4 x 2  x  c .
Now find c (when x= -2, y =3)  3  (2)3  4(2)2  2  c (solve for c)
c  29 Therefore, y  x3  4 x 2  x  29

262
EXERCISE 68:

dy
1.  3x 2 and ( y  4, x  1) . Find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx

2. The gradient of a tangent to a curve which passes through the point (2,4) is
given by 2x. Find the equation of the curve.

3. The expressions for the gradient of a tangent line to the graph of a certain
function is given by
dy
 2 x  3 . If the graph of the function y passes through the point (1,8),
dx
calculate the function y.

dy
4. A curve has a gradient function given by:  3x 2  1 . Find the equation of
dx
the curve if it passes through the point (1,2).

dy
5.  4 x 3  2 x  1 and y = 3 when x = 0. Find y as a function of x.
dx

6. Economists have borrowed the idea of the derivative from calculus. C(x) is
the cost of producing x units, while C’(x) is the marginal cost. If marginal cost
3 16000 
is given as C ' x    4 x   , calculate the cost of production if 50
2 x2 
units are being produced.[C(0)=0]

Lesson of Life: Mathematicians are like Frenchmen: whenever you say

something to them, they translate it into their own language, and at once it is
something entirely different ~ Johann Goethe

263
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND AREA

Note: The process of integration is equivalent to finding the area between

a curve and the x-axis.

1. Above the x - axis

Graphically the shaded Area under the curve bounded above by the x-
axis from a to b will have general formula:

Area = = F(b) – F(a)

2. Below the x - axis

If the graph is below the x- axis , the definite integral is negative of the
shaded area.
General formula:

Area = = 𝑭 𝒃 –𝑭 𝒂

3. Using areas to find definite integrals

To find the definite integrals using areas, the value will be negative
if the area is below the x – axis and positive if the area is above the
x-axis.

264
Example 1: The diagram below shows the graph of a function y = f (x). If the
area of labeled region is given as: A1 = 10 square units and A2 = 15 square units,
y

f (x)
A1
a 0 A2 b

a) find the total shaded area.

10+ 15= 25

b) find
b

 f ( x)dx.
a

Since the question is on definite integral, you need to take negative of the area
if it is below the x – axis
b

 f ( x)dx  A
a
1   A2  10  15  5

Example 2: The graph of the function f (x) is given below.

f(x)
3
2
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1

2
What is the value of  f ( x)dx ?
2
[Count the squares]
1

 f (x)dx  2unit
2
Definite integral below axis:
2
2

 f ( x)dx  4unit
2
Definite integral above the axis:
1
2
  f ( x)dx  2  4  2unit 2
2

265
Example 3: The diagram below shows the graph of f ( x)  x 3
y

-2 0 1 2 x

2
a) Evaluate  f ( x)dx
0
2 0
b) Given that  f ( x)dx  0 , what is the value of  f ( x)dx ?
2 2
c) Use your answer in part (a) or otherwise, to find the area of the shaded
region.

Answer:
 x 31   x 4   2 4   0 4 
2 2 2 2

 f ( x)dx   x .dx      4    4    4   4  0  4

3
a)
0 0  3  1  0   0    

b) Consider integrals above (positive) and below (negative)

2 0 2


2
f ( x)dx 
2
 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
0
0 0
0=  f ( x)dx  4
2
  f ( x)dx  4
2

c)
8

4 unit2

2
To find area of the shaded region:
2
Area  Arec tan gle   f ( x)dx  l  w  4
0
 2  8  4  12unit 2

266
Example 4: The graph of the function y  x is shown below.
y
y x

0 k x

Find k so that the area of the shaded region is 18 square units.

k k
 2 
3 1 1
k
2 32 
k k 2
x x 1
Area  18   x dx   x dx 
2     x 
1  1 3  3 0
0 0
2 0 2 0
2 3  2 3 
18   k 2    (0) 2 
3  3 
2 32
18  k  0
3 3
2
18  k 2
3 3
18  3  2k 2
54  k 3 2
2

Solve for k

54 3
k 2
2
3
27  k 2

3
271  k 2

1 2 3 2
27 3
k 2 3

2
27 3
 k1
k 9

267
EXERCISE 68:

1. The graph below represents the function g (x). Each block has area of I unit2,
1 3
that is  g ( x)  1unit 2 , evaluate  g (x) ?
0 0

0 1 2
-a

2. The work done W, in stretching a spring x1 units from its natural length to x2
x2
units from its natural length is given as W   F .dx where F is the force
x1

required to stretch the spring. The graph below shows how the force varies
with the distance the spring stretched.
Force F F(x)
30

20

10

10 15 x
x1 x2
Distance stretched from its natural length

Calculate the work done to stretch the spring 10 cm from its natural length to 15
cm from its natural length?

3. The diagram given below shows the region bounded by the graph of
y  2x , the x – axis & the vertical line x = k y

y  2x

x=k x

Given that the area of the region is 12 square units, determine the value of k.
268
4. The diagram below shows the graph of f ( x)  x  2 x  1 and the line g(x)
2

= 1 intersects at point (0,1) and (2,1). (Diagram not to scale)

f ( x)  x 2  2 x  1

g(x) = 1

0 1 2 x

i) write an expression that could be used to find the area of the shaded
region.
ii) Hence find the area of the shaded region

5. The diagram below shows the graph of the function g ( x)  x 2  2 x. (Diagram

not to scale)
y

g ( x)  x 2  2 x.

1 2 3 x

2
a) Evaluate  1
g( x )dx
b) Write an expression in terms of g(x) that will help find the area of the
shaded region.

c) Hence, find the area of the shaded region

6. The graph below represents the function f (x). Write the expression for the
area of the shaded region.
y

0 1 2 3 x

269
7. The diagram below shows the graph of the function g ( x)  4  x 2 . (Diagram
not to scale)
y

-2 0 2 4 x

g ( x)  4  x 2 .

4
a) Evaluate 
2
g( x )dx.
2 0
b) Given that 2 g(x)dx  10 2 3 , find 2 g(x)dx.
c) Hence, find the area of the shaded region.

8. The diagram below shows the graph of f ( x)  x( x  1)( x  1)

y
A
2
3 3

1
-1 - 0 1 x
3

 1 2 
The coordinates of point A are A   , 
 3 3 3
1
a) Evaluate  f ( x)dx
0
0
b) What is the value of  f ( x)dx
1
0
8
c) Given that  f ( x)dx  81 , find the area of the shaded region.
1
3

270
9. The diagram below shows the graph of the quadratic equation y  x 2  4 &
straight line
y=4 −8.
y
y  x 4
2

x
R1

R2

y=4 −8

2
a) Evaluate  ( x 2  4)dx.
0

b) Hence, determine the area of the region R1

c) Determine the area of the region R2
k
d) Determine a value of k > 0 such that  ( x 2  4)dx  0.
0

Lesson of Life: Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only

truth, but supreme beauty – a beauty cold and austere, like that
of sculpture ~ Bertrand Russell

271
More Mathematical quotes for encouragement

"The whole purpose of

education is to turn mirrors
into windows."
Sydney J. Harris

"Spoon feeding, in the long run

teaches us nothing but the
shape of the spoon."
E. M. Forster

"A mathematician is a blind man

in a dark room looking for a
black cat which isn't there."
Charles R. Darwin

HOW TO STUDY FOR A MATH EXAM

When studying for a math exam, you have two main goals:
 Learn the material so you can do well on the exam.
 Learn the material well enough so you will still know it next time!!!

TIP #1: Have all memorizing done a couple of days before the exam.
TIP #2: Use flash cards for memorization of formulas and rules!!!

1) Starting out:
Look over the Math notes. REWORK EXAMPLES!! Look over homework.

2) Make an exam for yourself (or better yet, for a study partner):
This should be done at least TWO (2) days before the exam - NOT the night
before or you'll freak yourself out!
NOTE: It is extremely important that you be able to do the problems without
knowing what section they came out of!! Be sure to mix the problems up when
you are practicing!

3) Restudy:
Go back over what you had trouble with on your practice exam. This is the stuff
that you didn't absorb well enough from just doing your homework.

4) The afternoon before exam day:

Read through your notes and think! Work some problems and review
memorizing.

272
5) The night before exam day:
Do something fun and relaxing ----------- But not too much fun! 

6) One hour before exam:

Glance over flash cards and don't talk to classmates -- They may say something
to confuse you or make you nervous. 
http://www.coolmath.com/studytip

THROUGHOUT THE ACADEMIC YEAR

 Classes
Attend every class. Listen and pay attention to the material.
Ask your teacher any questions that you might have before the day of the
exam. Highlight any questions you are unsure of and take them to your teacher
who will always be happy to help you with the problem.
 Studying
Read the textbook: Make sure you read all of the text and not just the
examples.
Do Homework problems: Most classes have assigned problems that the teacher
feels are most useful. A lot of exam problems are extremely similar to
homework problems.
Keep your assessment papers: File the check papers and worksheets in a plastic
wallet or binder. Use them when revising.
Try to find out various ways to tackle a certain problem: For example, with
systems of equations, you can solve them by substitution, elimination, or
graphing.
 Revising
Start studying 2 months before the exam: Do not wait till the last minute. As for
the day before the exam, do not be stressed and just relax. Clear your mind
when you sleep and you will definitely do well.
Join a study group: Different people see concepts in different ways. Something
that you have difficulty understanding may come easily to a study partner.
Have someone make up problems for you to work out: Don't try to create your
own study sheet since you're not challenging yourself enough.
Sleep for 7-9 hours to keep your mind fresh and perform calculations mentally.
 During the test
Relax. Start by doing the easiest problems first. That way, you can have more
time focusing on the harder problems.
Do not look at the time too often - that reduces your time doing the actual test.
For multiple choice questions: read each question carefully and choose the best
answer from the options given. If a question is taking a very long time, go on to
the next question and go back to the one you missed at the end of the time.

273
More Tips
 Solve problems. In this way, you have the tendency to understand and
realize the formulas and the given problems.
 Make sure to drink lots of water and have a small snack before you
study. This will stimulate your brain and will help you memorize and work
on your math concepts.
 Start studying while you still have time to go to a teacher for answers if
you need to.
 If math is something you find boring and not worth studying for, give
yourself incentives to finish problems.
 Keep calm and think positive, be confident that you can do it.
 Do not rely on your teacher to make you understand a concept or a
problem. Instead, do it all by yourself, start to finish. Some questions are
so tricky, they almost always have to be memorized, so mark them and
revise them again and again before an exam so that it is well set in your
mind.
 Try to enjoy math. Feel happy and satisfied when you manage to finish a
problem and then proceed to the next sum.

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MXj3LZuhl.99
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trigonometry-functions.html
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mean-mode-median.php
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differential-calculus-04.cnxmlplus
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