Climate Change Challengesand Solutions

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Climate Change:
Challenges and Solutions
Climate Change:
Challenges and Solutions
Proceedings of the
National Seminar
Organized by
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute

Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Editors
Ritu Kakkar
K.H. Vinaya Kumar
O.K. Remadevi
N. Hema
J. Cruz Antony
Funded by
Strategic Programmes, Large Initiatives &

Coordinated action Enabler (SPLICE) Division
Department of Science & Technology (DST)
Government of India
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© EMPRI 2018, Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions

We encourage the free use of the contents of this book with appropriate and full citation as given below:
Ritu Kakkar, Vinaya Kumar K.H., Remadevi O.K., Hema N. and Cruz Antony J. (Eds.) 2018.
Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 318 pp.
The views expressed in this book are of the individual contributors, editors or authors and do not represent
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ISBN: 978-93-87997-00-4
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Message
C limate change is a major challenge for developing countries like India that face
large scale climate variability and are exposed to enhanced risks from climate
change. The current development regime reiterates the focus on sustainable growth
and aims to exploit the co-benefits of addressing climate change along with promoting
economic growth. The future global climate model projection says that if the business
as usual scenario gets continued, a global temperature rise of 3–4°C is inevitable. COP
21 has set a new mandate to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at global level to ensure
that the increase in global average temperature does not exceed a maximum of
2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. A new paradigm has been created that
demands changed practices at the global, country and local levels. It is time to debate
on the challenges posed by climate change in India and understand how we can act and
contribute to the mounting momentum to meet the interlinked global challenges of
climate change and sustainable development. Science has an imperative role in the
improvement of the understanding of the problems specific to regions and providing
feasible technological solutions. The information with respect to climate change
vulnerabilities is in possession of many knowledge institutions and there is inadequate
coordination of all knowledge inputs for practical use. Reliable and detailed regional
information, including current and future assessments of climate variability and
change is essential in the design of effective strategies for adaptation to climate
change On this backdrop, a national seminar on Climate Change: Challenges and
Solutions was organized by Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute
(EMPRI), Bengaluru.
v
vi Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), functioning

under the Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment has completed more than
fifteen years of service to the state and has achieved many accolades in the field of
Environmental management and policy research. As per the MoEF&CC guidelines,
Karnataka State Government has designated EMPRI as the State Nodal agency for
Climate Change in Karnataka to anchor the State’s future Scientific and Technical
activities on climate change. The institute has been instrumental in formulating and
implementing many policies towards bringing in sustainable and climate resilient
growth in Karnataka. State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) prepared by
EMPRI and accepted by MoEF&CC is the guiding document for climate change
related action plans and programmes of the Govt. of Karnataka. During 2016, National
Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC), Department of
Science and Technology (DST) under the Strategic Programmes Large Initiatives and
Coordinated Action Enabler (SPLICE) project approved the strengthening of the state
climate change centre into a Strategic knowledge centre for climate change.
EMPRI in its endeavour to network with climate change knowledge institutions in
India, organized a national seminar on “Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions” at
its campus on 23rd January 2017. Prominent academicians, researchers and adminis-
trators participated in the seminar. The seminar facilitated debates on the challenges
posed by climate change in India and development of feasible technological solutions
for mitigation and adaptation to the diverse issues of climate change. EMPRI has
prepared the lectures and papers presented in the seminar in the form of a book
entitled, “Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions” with ISBN number for the use
of academicians, students, researchers and policy makers. Hope this will be used by
all as a reference for their works. I congratulate the team of editors from EMPRI for
bringing out the book in a befitting way.
(Vandita Sharma)
Message
The Department of Science Technology (DST), Government of India has been
entrusted with the responsibility of implementing two out of eight missions launched
under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The National Mission on
Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC) is one among them which aims
at building S&T capacities in the relevant areas of climate change; mapping of
knowledge and data resources; Networking of knowledge institutions, creation of
new dedicated centres, technology mapping, selection and prioritization, etc.
One of the deliverables of NMSKCC is to provide assistance to the State Governments
to establish and strengthen the climate change knowledge centres to build CC
knowledge base and take up certain basic tasks such as carrying out vulnerability and
risk assessments, conducting stakeholder trainings, organising public awareness
programmes and building institutional capacity in climate change. DST has recently
supported a Centre for Climate Change in Karnataka at EMPRI. The Centre success-
fully conducted its first National seminar on climate change during January, 2017.
The technical sessions had six themes namely, climatology and climate change,
climate change and impact assessment, climate change and biodiversity, adaptation
and mitigation measures, climate concerns and green technology, climate change law
and policy. I understand the Seminar was attended by a large number of researchers,
academicians, NGOs, policy makers, and administrators from across the State. The
deliberations at the seminar were very fruitful.
I am delighted to learn that a book entitled “Climate Change: Challenges and
Solutions” is being brought out which is a compilation of papers presented by experts
and researchers in the Seminar. I congratulate EMPRI team especially the Director
General for publication of the book which I am confident will be of great use to not
only researchers, academicians and students but also the policy makers.
I sincerely wish that DST’s supported CC Centre at EMPRI will continue to
contribute meaningfully towards meeting its objectives and not only come up to
DST’s expectation but attain excellence in the time to come.
(Akhilesh Gupta)
vii
Organizing Committee
Ms. Ritu Kakkar, IFS, Director General

Ms. Saswati Mishra, IFS, Director
Dr. K.H. Vinaya Kumar, IFS, Director
Dr. O.K. Remadevi, Head, Centre for Climate Change
Mr. C. Ramesha, Project Development Officer
Mr. Basavaraju, Head, Training Division
Mr. B.S. Hegde, Accounts Manager (Finance)
Dr. Papiya Roy, Research Scientist
Dr. M. Manjunatha, Research Scientist
Dr. N. Hema, Research Scientist
Dr. Boya Saritha, Research Associate
Mr. J. Cruz Antony, Research Associate
Ms. P. Chitra, Research Associate
Mr. Roshan Puranik, Research Associate
Mr. R. Abhilash, Sr. GIS Scientist
Ms. Roopadevi Koti, GIS Scientist
Mr. Kiranraddi Morab, GIS Scientist
Ms. Nayana Prakash, Research Associate
Ms. Reethu Singh, Research Associate
Ms. Vyshali Prakash, Junior Research Fellow
Mr. Balasubramanya Sharma, Research Assistant
Mr. S. Sooraj, Research Assistant
Mr. Chaturved Shet, Research Assistant
Ms. D. Komala, Programme Coordinator-NGC
Ms. Priyadarshini Patil, Programme Associate-NGC
Mr. B.N. Chaitanya, Training Associate
Mr. G. Ramesh, Training Assistant
Ms. Soujanya Nagaraj, Programme Officer-ENVIS
Dr. Pavithra P. Nayak, Information Officer-ENVIS
Ms. H.P. Siri, IT Assistant
Ms. Jennifer Vincent, System Administrator
Ms. Anusha Vimal, Project Assistant
Ms. Syeda Sarah, Project Assistant
ORGANISING SECRETARY
Dr. O.K. Remadevi, Head, Centre for Climate Change, EMPRI
viii
Preface
E nvironmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), registered

under the Societies act 1960 is an autonomous institute under the Department of
Forest, Ecology, and Environment, Government of Karnataka. EMPRI had its humble
beginning as the Environmental Training Institute (ETI) under Karnataka State
Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) in the year 1996 with the assistance from Govern-
ment of Denmark. Subsequently, it was renamed as the Environmental Management
and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), in the year 2002 with an enhanced mandate of
organizing not only need-based trainings but also conducting demand driven applied
and policy research in environmental management. It is designated as the State Centre
for Climate Change in Karnataka in 2015. During 2016, National Mission on Strategic
Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC), Department of Science and Technology
(DST) under the Strategic Programmes Large Initiatives and Coordinated Action
Enabler (SPLICE) project approved the strengthening of the Centre for Climate Change
into a Strategic knowledge Centre for Climate Change. The centre collaborat-
ing and networking with knowledge institutions is contributing to the cause of climate
resilient sustainable development in India, specifically Karnataka. In the context of
climate getting hotter and hottest, it is high time to debate on the challenges posed by
climate change in India, and develop feasible technological solutions for mitigation and
adaptation to the diverse issues of climate change.
To bring together all those who are concerned and contributing to the knowledge
creation and spreading information on climate change, EMPRI organized a one-day
national seminar on “Climate change: challenges and solutions” at its campus—“Hasiru
Bhavana” J.P. Nagar, Bangalore on 23rd January 2017. This seminar was organized
with the sponsorship of Department of Science and Technology. The conference was
structured into Inaugural, Technical and Valedictory sessions. The technical sessions
had six themes namely climatology and climate change, climate change and impact
assessment, climate change and biodiversity, adaptation and mitigation measures,
climate concerns and green technology, climate change law and policy. About 120
delegates participated in the seminar and 40 scientific papers were presented either as
oral or poster presentation. Researchers from different academic/research institutions
like Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council of Medical
Research (ICMR), Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE),
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI),
Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Centre (KSRSAC), Center for Study of
Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP), Institute for Social and Economic Change
(ISEC), Public Affairs Centre (PAC), Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring
ix
x Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions
Centre (KSNMDC) etc., participated in this conference to present their scientific

findings on the diverse aspects of impacts, adaptation and mitigation of climate
change. The brainstorming technical sessions were led by eminent Professors and
Scientists in the respective themes. The recommendations from the deliberations in
the technical sessions can be used for planning further strategies in combating climate
change.
This book on Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions is a compilation of selected
lectures and research papers presented in the seminar. It is organized into five sections
covering different themes. 1. Proceedings of the sessions 2. Lead/Invited Talks
3. Research papers 4. Selected Abstracts and 5 Photo gallery. Hope this will form an
interesting reading to those who are into research, policy-making and implementing
technologies for climate resilient development. It is also envisioned that this will ignite
the interest and enthusiasm in young researchers to carry the mission of finding
solutions to the challenges of Climate Change.
Editors
Acknowledgements
T he Director General, the Director of the Institute and the editors of the proceedings
wish to express their deep gratitude to the Department of Science & Technology
(DST), New Delhi for financial support to organize the national seminar on Climate
Change. Special thanks are also due to Shri. T.M. Vijay Bhaskar, IAS (Additional
Chief Secretary to Government, Department of Forest, Environment and Ecology,
Karnataka) who presided over the inaugural session of the seminar. We would like to
express our sincere gratitude to Prof. N.H. Ravindranath (Centre for Sustainable
Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru), who has delivered the keynote
address during the inaugural session. Our sincere gratitude is also extended to all the
dignitaries and the keynote speakers who had made the seminar a great success.
Finally, we thank all the organizing committee members; without their effort, the
smooth conduct of the seminar would not have been possible.
Editors
xi
Contents
Message from ACS, Department of Forest, Ecology & Environment, GoK .............................. v
Message from Advisor & Head, SPLICE, DST, GoI ................................................................. vii
Organizing Committee .............................................................................................................. viii
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... ix
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... xi
SECTION-1: Proceedings of the Seminar ..................................................................... 1
SECTION-2: Lead/Invited Talks

1. Addressing the Climate Crisis: Way Forward .................................................... 16
Govindasamy Bala
2. Biodiversity and Climate Change—A Way Forward ......................................... 20
S.B. Dandin
3. Architecture and Attitude—An Ecological Approach ........................................ 24
Sathya Prakash Varanashi
4. Negotiating for Climate Justice: Quo Vadis? ...................................................... 29
M.K. Ramesh
5. The Paris Agreement: A Common Future ........................................................... 37
Aastha Suman
6. Climate Change Communication: Case Study of Developing a .......................... 45
Community Primer in Kannada
Somashekhar B. Srikantiah
SECTION-3: Research Papers

7. The Possible Impacts of Climate Change on Insect Pests ................................... 61
A.K. Chakravarthy and K.S. Nitin
8. Utility of Geospatial Database and its Application ............................................. 79
for Climate Change Studies
B.P. Lakshmikantha
9. Role of GIS Models in Assessing Vulnerable Districts for ................................ 84
Vector-Borne Diseases under Different Climate Change Scenarios
R. Abhilash, Kiranraddi Morab, Roopadevi Koti,
G. Ashwini and P. Chitra
10. Variations in Rainfall Trends over Karnataka ..................................................... 94
C.N. Prabhu, G.S. Srinivasa Reddy, N.G. Keerthi, Emily Prabha,
S.S.M. Gavaskar and Prashanth Hiremath
11. Communicating Climate Change Impacts Using Cognitive Science: ................. 103
A Case of Peri-Urban Bangalore
Arvind Lakshmisha and Priyanka Agarwal
xiii
xiv Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions
12. Vehicular Emission Monitoring System (VEMS) .............................................. 115

Peter Manoj, Vijay Mishra, Puneet Sharma and Mehboob Jailani
13. Estimation of Methane Gas Emissions from Selected Municipal ....................... 122
Solid Waste Landfills of Urban Bangalore
Papiya Roy, M. Manjunatha, Ritu Kakkar, Saswati Mishra
and K.H. Vinaya Kumar
14. Climate Change Alters the Intensity and Population Dynamics of ..................... 130
Insect Pests: A Case Study with Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell)
Infesting Sandalwood and Pongam in Karnataka
R. Sundararaj and Rashmi R. Shanbhag
15. Butterflies as Indicators of Climate Change—A Baseline Study ........................ 135
in Bengaluru City
O.K. Remadevi, Roshan D. Puranik, S. Sooraj, K.H. Vinaya Kumar,
Saswati Mishra and Ritu Kakkar
16. Conserving Biodiversity Conserves Carbon ....................................................... 163
A.S. Devakumar, K. Srinath and Anil Khaple
17. A Quantitative Study on Adaptability of Indigenous Cattle of Wayanad, .......... 176
Kerala on Climate Change Using Heat Tolerance Test
Siddhartha Savale and M. Muhammed Asif
18. Increased Public Transport Usage: Perception Contra Realities ......................... 181
in Access and Usage Comparing Norway and India
Tanu Priya Uteng and Mridula Sahay
19. Energy Saving Devices and their Beneficial Effects on Reduction .................... 200
of Carbon Emissions
K. Ravi, Sara Kunnath and T.V. Mohandas
20. Paris Agreement on Climate Change: A Critical Analysis ................................. 209
of the Indian Legal Framework
Vidya Ann Jacob
21. Awareness on Impact of Climate Change in Agriculture, .................................. 218
a Study of Chidambaram Agricultural Area by Using
Educational Global Climate Model Software and
Weather Research and Forecasting Model
Atun Roychoudhury and V. Arutchelvan
22. Impact of Climate Change on Incidence of Dengue and .................................... 235
Chikungunya in Karnataka
P. Chitra, O.K. Remadevi, Ritu Kakkar, Saswati Mishra
and K.H. Vinaya Kumar
23. Simulation of Carbon Dynamics of Tectona grandis Forest in .......................... 247
Western Ghats of Kerala, India, Using Century Model
M. Manjunatha, M. Niveditha, A.V. Santhoshkumar,
T.K. Kunhamu, Sandeep and Sunil
Contents xv
24. Studies on the Impact of a Malathion Insecticide on Certain .............................. 256

Biochemical Constituents of a Fish, Labeo rohita
K. Anusiya Devi, M. Lekeshmanaswamy and C.A. Vasuki
SECTION-4: Selected Abstracts

25. Climate Change and Impact Assessment ............................................................ 261
Jagmohan Sharma
26. Effects of Water-Stress on Growth and Physicochemical Changes .................... 262
in Onion (Allium cepa L.)
Pritee Singh and Jai Gopal
27. Assessment of Impact of Climate Change on Vector-Borne .................................. 263
Diseases in India
Neera Kapoor
28. A Comparative Study on the Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) .................. 264
of Plants at Various Sites as an Indicator of Air Pollution
Merin Johny and Jisha Jacob
29. Environmental Pollution and Monitoring in East Antarctica .............................. 265
Pawan Kumar Bharti
30. Vulnerability of Food Security to Climate Variability ........................................ 266
Bhargavi Nagendra
31. Ecological Research on Soil Carbon Storage in Karnataka ................................ 267
Sumanta Bagchi, H.C. Manjunatha and Karthik Murthy
32. A Baseline Study on the Impacts of Climate Change on Nesting ....................... 268
Sea Turtles of Honnavar Forest Division
Gayathri Venkataramanan, M. Muralidharan,
Kartik Shanker and Naveen Namboothri
33. Does Floristic Structure and Composition Change with Climate Change? ........ 270
A Case Study from the Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
of Central Western Ghats
B.N. Sathish, Syam Viswanath, C.G. Kushalappa,
M.N. Ramesh and M.L. Karthik
34. Comprehensive Documentation Climate-Termites, ITK Indian Context ........... 271
G.K. Mahapatro and Debajyoti Chatterjee
35. Urbanisation and Its Effects on Lizards: A Study from a ................................... 272
Climate Change Perspective
Maria Thaker and Madhura Amdekar
36. Overview of Mitigation and Adaptation Policies in India’s INDCs ................... 273
S.S. Krishnan
37. Enteric Methane Emission from Indian Livestock: Quantification 274
and Mitigation
P.K. Malik, A.P. Kolte, K.T. Poornachandra and R. Bhatta
xvi Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions
38. Plants bioactive Compounds in Counteracting Oxidative Stress ........................ 275

in Poultry Birds
Adarshvijay, K.T. Poornachandra, H.B. Veeresh,
A. Geethika and Minu R. Varghese
39. Probiotics for Combating Production and Health Stress in Animals .................. 276
N. Aderao Ganesh, Adarshvijay, A. Geethika and A.M. Khan
40. Soil-Plant-Animal Health in Changing Climate Situation .................................. 277
H.B. Veeresh, K.T. Poornachandra, R. Dhinesh Kumar,
Adarshvijay and Ajay Singh
41. Enhancing Livestock Fertility under Climate Change Scenario ......................... 278
Sukanta Mondal, A. Mor, I.J. Reddy, S. Nandi, P.S.P. Gupta
and A. Mishra
42. Agroforestry as a Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation ........................... 279
Strategy for Karnataka
Indu K. Murthy, M.H. Swaminath, H.B. Darshan,
G.T. Hegde and Shridhar Patgar
43. Beat the Heat-Healthy Hospitals, Healthy Planet How ....................................... 280
Hospitals can Contribute to a Reduction in Global Warming
C.N. Shalini
44. Larval Source Management—Best Way to Counter Climate Change ................ 281
Effects on Mosquito-Borne Diseases
S.K. Ghosh, S.N. Tiwari, U. Sreehari and V.P. Ojha
45. Feeding Value of Hydroponics Green Fodder .................................................... 282
Ajay Singh and Adarshvijay
46. Application of Green Technology in Agricultural Sector, .................................. 283
a Paradigm over Combating the Global Threat-Climate Change
B.N. Chaitanya and R. Asokan
47. Solar-Powered Eco-Rickshaws and Gadgets ...................................................... 284
for Environment-Friendly Lifestyle
Georgekutty Karianappally
48. E-bikes for Reducing Air Pollution in Cities ...................................................... 285
Mahesha Siddegowda, Chiranth Shivakumar and H.A. Harish Kumar
49. Impacts of Climate Change on Vulnerable Communities: .................................. 286
A Case Study of Karnataka
M. Balasubramanian, M. Deekshith, M. Manjunatha and O.K. Remadevi
50. People Participation in Climate Change: Challenges .......................................... 287
and Scope with Respect to India
H. Sree Krishna Bharadwaj
51. A Low Carbon Scenario for India and Its Implications for India’s ..................... 288
Climate Pledge and the Global Goal of Limiting Warming to Safe Levels
Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi
Contents xvii
52. Behavioural Insights for Scaling Up Renewable Energy Technologies in India..... 289
Ulka Kelkar
53. Green Algae (Anabaena flos-aquae) Toxicity Study for .................................... 290
Industrial Wastewater Pollution in the Freshwater Systems
Jaswant Ray, Amit Kumar, Pawan K. Bharti and B.K. Aggarwal
54. Checklist of Butterflies Occurring in Green Spaces of Bangalore City .............. 291
Roshan D. Puranik, S. Sooraj, Deepak Naik, Chaturved Shet,
O.K. Remadevi, Ritu Kakkar, Saswati Mishra and K.H. Vinaya Kumar
55. Phytobiotics—For Organic Designer Meat Production ...................................... 292
N. Aderao Ganesh, M. Vispute Mayur, Aadil Majeed Khan
and Adarshvijay
56. Impact of Climate Change on Livestock Production .......................................... 293
and Adaptation Strategies
R. Dhinesh Kumar, H.B. Veeresh, K.T. Poornachandra,
57. Physical Processing of Crop Residue: An Approach for Adaptation .................. 294
58. Effect of Protection of Intact Proteins for Ameliorating ..................................... 295
Negative Balance in Ruminants
Adarshvijay, N. Aderao Ganesh, A. Geethika and A.M. Khan
59. Effect of Climate Changes to the Food and Beverage Sector ............................. 296
Rabin Chandra Paramanik, B.K. Chikkaswamy,
Achinto Paramanik and Hossein Ramzan Nezhad
60. Azolla (Azolla pinnata)—An Alternate Protein Source ...................................... 297
in Duck Rearing Industry
Adarshvijay, K.T. Poornachandra, H.B. Veeresh, N. Aderao Ganesh,
A.M. Khan, A. Geethika and Minu R. Varghese
61. Study on Ecological Value of Mulberry Development ....................................... 298
B.K. Chikkaswamy and Rabin Chandra Paramanik
62. Impact of Plant-Derived Essential Oils for Livestock ........................................ 299
Health and Production
N. Aderao Ganesh, Adarshvijay, A. Geethika and A.M. Khan
63. Water Security Plan for Bengaluru City: Climate Change Adaptation ............... 300
B.S. Chandrakala, P. Jeya Prakash, V. Sreenivas,
K.H. Vinaya Kumar, Saswati Mishra and Ritu Kakkar
Author Index ......................................................................................................... 301
SECTION-5: Photo Gallery ................................................................................... 303

Proceedings of the Seminar
S ECTION 1 1
Proceedings of the Seminar
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI) is an

autonomous Institution established under Forest, Ecology and Environment
Department, Government of Karnataka, and registered under Karnataka Societies
Registration Act, 1960. EMPRI as the state centre for Climate Change in Karnataka
anchors the State’s future Scientific and Technical activities on climate change.
Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate Change (KSAPCC) prepared by EMPRI was
approved by MOEF & CC in 2015. The institute has been instrumental in formulating
and implementing many policies towards bringing in sustainable and climate resilient
growth in Karnataka. During 2016, National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for
Climate Change (NMSKCC), Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the
Strategic Programmes Large Initiatives and Coordinated Action Enabler (SPLICE)
project approved the strengthening of the Center for Climate Change in EMPRI into a
Strategic knowledge centre for climate change.
EMPRI organized a one-day National Seminar on “Climate change: Challenges and
Solutions” at its premises—“Hasiru Bhavana” J.P. Nagar, Bangalore on 23rd January
2017. This seminar was organized with the sponsorship of Department of Science and
Technology (DST), Government of India. The objective of this seminar was to create
a platform for the exchange of scientific knowledge among the research scientists
working in various prestigious institutions from various parts of the country with the
intention of networking of knowledge to develop feasible technological solutions for
mitigation and adaptation to the diverse issues of climate change. Following were the
sub-themes of the seminar:
Climatology and Climate Change
Climate Change and Impact Assessment
Climate Change and Biodiversity
Adaptation and Mitigation Measures of any Sector
Climate Concerns and Green Technology
Climate Change Law and Policies.
There were forty registered delegates in the seminar. There were a total of thirty-six
presentations given in six technical sessions and one poster session of the seminar.
There were six representatives from press and media and few invited guests from
different state government departments.
1
2 Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions
INAUGURAL SESSION
The session started with an invocation song by Dr. Boya Saritha and Ms. Vyshali
Prakash followed by the lighting of the lamp by the dignitaries on the dais. Shri T.M.
Vijay Bhaskar, IAS (Additional Chief Secretary to Government, Department of Forest,
Environment and Ecology, Karnataka presided over the function. The chief guests for
the occasion were Shri M.N. Sahai, IFS, Ex-Director General, EMPRI, Prof. N.H.
Ravindranath (Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science,
Shri Sanjai Mohan, IFS, APCCF (Research), Dr. T.V. Mohandas, IFS (Director,
MGIRED), Dr. Jagmohan Sharma, IFS, Director, Water Resources Department,
Shri Punati Sridhar, IFS, APCCF, KFD, Dr. K.N. Murthy, IFS, APCCF (Research and
Utilization, KFD, Prof. G. Bala, Divecha Center for Climate Change, IISc. Smt. Ritu
Kakkar, IFS (Director General, EMPRI) addressed the gathering of Chief Guests,
scientists and faculty members from various academic and research institutes, reporters
from media and press and extended a warm welcome to all participants forthe first
national seminar organised by EMPRI. Prof. N.H. Ravindranath delivered a keynote
address and pointed out that lack of data on climate change in India has undermined
the efforts being taken to combat the problem. Further, he told that it is high time that
various concerned institutions in India start collecting scientific evidence on climate
change. Right now, India does not have sufficient data on the subject. As a result, we
are not in a position to empower certain sectors, such as farming and energy, to
effectively tackle climate change. Pointing to the need to build data models on climate
change at the regional, state and district level, he added, India has to submit a report
on greenhouse gas emissions to the United Nations twice every year. But whenever
we sit down to do this, we find that there is not much information. We have very few
experts working on climate change modelling. Prof. Ravindranath said that the average
rise in temperature in 2016 was a clear indication of the gravity of climate change.
Shri T.M. Vijay Bhaskar, IAS delivered a presidential address. He proposed levying
climate change cess on four-wheelers. In doing so, we will also further bolster public
transport services such as BMTC. The other dignitaries present in the inaugural session
were Prof. Krishnan S.S. (CSTEP, Bangalore), Prof. M.K. Ramesh (National Law
School of India University), Prof. S.B. Dandin (Bioversity International), Dr. Shalini
C.N. (MSRMC), Dr. A.K. Chakravathy (IIHR), Dr. Sathya Prakash Varanashi (Sathya
Consultants) and N. Mohan Karnat, IFS (IWST).
Shri T.M. Vijay Bhaskar, IAS and other dignitaries on the dais released the research
reports of the projects on climate change completed by EMPRI and also conducted in
collaboration with other knowledge institutions.
Butterflies as Indicators of Climate Change—A Baseline Study in Bangalore City
(Dr. O.K. Remadevi, Centre for Climate Change, EMPRI).
Proceedings of the Seminar 3
Urbanization and its effects on lizards: A study from a climate change perspective
(Dr. Maria Thaker and Madhura Amdekar, Centre for Ecological Sciences, IISc,
Bengaluru).
Establishing a baseline for monitoring sea turtle nesting sites on the Karnataka
coast through coastline mapping (Ms. Gayathri Venkataramanan, Mr. Muralidharan,
Naveen Namboodiri and Karthik Shanker, Dakshin Foundation, Bengaluru)
Agro-Forestry as a Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategy for
Karnataka (Ms. Indu K. Murthy, Dr. M.H. Swaminath, Aranya Climate Change
Services Pvt. Ltd., Bengaluru).
Assessing double injustice of climate change and urbanization on water security
in peri-urban areas around Bangalore (Aravind Lakshmisha, J. Jangal and Priyanka
Agarwal, Public Affairs Centre, Bengaluru).
Shri M.N. Sahai, IFS, Dr. Jagmohan Sharma, IFS, Dr. K.N. Murthy, IFS addressed the
gathering and highlighted the importance of conducting a national seminar on a very
relevant environmental issue. The vote of thanks was delivered by Smt. Saswati
Mishra, IFS (Director, EMPRI) who thanked all the EMPRI staff, chief guests, other
dignitaries and all the participants of the national seminar.
Technical Session I: Climate Change and Climatology

After the inaugural session, Technical Session Ion Climate Change and Climatology
was conducted in Conference Hall. Prof. Govindaswamy Bala from Centre for
Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore presented
the lead talk entitled, “Addressing the Climate Crisis: Way Forward”. He informed
the audience about the threefold increment in global energy consumption leading to
an overall increase of CO2 level in earth’s atmosphere. He also informed that global
average temperature in 2015 was a record high compared to last few decades. He
briefly explained about the future emission scenario under different Representative
Concentration Pathways (RCPs). He also apprised the participants about the COP21
at Paris and major features of the meetings. Then he discussed the possible mitigation
measures available to control the atmospheric concentration of CO 2. One of the
possible solutions to the current crisis is an emerging technology-geo engineering. He
informed that the technology is very effective at pilot scale but economically it is very
exorbitant.
The lead talk was followed by technical paper presentations by different institutes.
Prof. Bala and Director General, EMPRI were the chairman and Dr. Papiya Roy was
the rapporteur for the session. Dr. C.N. Prabhu, Karnataka State Natural Disaster
Monitoring Centre presented his technical paper on, “Variation in rainfall trends over
Karnataka”. The objectives of the paper were to understand the temporal and spatial
variation of climate over Karnataka and impacts of climate change on rainfall and
temperature pattern. Preliminary analysis of the collected data revealed that variation in
annual rainfall would be more than the projections indicated in Karnataka State Action
Plan on Climate Change.
Dr. Lakshmikanth, Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Centre was the second
presenter for the technical session. He presented on “Utility of Geospatial Database and
its Application for Climate Change Studies”. He informed about the various geospatial
datasets across the different sectors developed by the centre. The major suggestion was
given to him to make the datasets available in public domain.
Abhilash R., Roopadevi Koti and Kiranraddi Morab from EMPRI presented on “the
Role of GIS models in assessing vulnerable districts for vector-borne diseases under
different climate change scenarios”. The analysis has been carried out to assess the link
between temperature and humidity with the number of vector-borne disease case
occurrence in various districts of Karnataka state. The outcome of this study predicts
the possible districts of Karnataka state which may be prone to vector-borne diseases
under different climate change scenarios based on the baseline studies carried out from
2011–2015. Incorporation of IPCC climate scenarios, along with the integration of
socioeconomic data, the location of hospitals, influencing weather parameters and any
other impelling factors is recommended for the next phase of the project.
At the end of the technical session, Chairman suggested to all researchers to work hard
in developing robust climate models for various sectors as a potential solution to
combat climate change.
Technical Session II: Climate Change and Impact Assessment

Technical session II was on the topic, ‘Climate change and impact assessment’. The
session began with the presentation entitled, ‘Climate Change and Impact Assessment’
by the lead speaker, Dr. Jagmohan Sharma, IFS. He briefly highlighted the climate
projection models and sectoral impact models used to understand the likely future
climate and the type and magnitude of its impact on the natural (rivers, forests, etc.)
and semi-natural (agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, etc.) systems, develop-
mental infrastructure and the society as a whole. He also discussed on reliable impact
assessments and consistency in the climate change impact data vital for decision-
making by governments. The institutional capability for climate change impact assess-
ment in different sectors is limited in India. Collaborative working can help in develop-
ing reliable assessments at national and sub-national levels. There were series of
questions posed which led to fruitful discussions.
Followed by the lead talk, there were three oral presentations made by different
presenters from various institutes across the country. There was good interaction
between the presenters and the participants and the recommendations given in the
session were recorded.
Mr. Arvind Lakshmi Sha, Senior Programme Officer, Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore
presented on ‘Communicating Climate Change Impacts using Cognitive Science’. He
explained the importance of the study in the ongoing context of imminent urbanisation.
There is increasing stress on the water resources due to growing population and rising
per capita requirement. The current form of unplanned extraction and consumption of
resources by urban areas from its periphery coupled with changing climate has
impacted availability, quantity and quality of water resources. Jurisdictional ambiguity,
lack of cooperation and the absence of coordination among the various governmental
bodies often results in uncertain actions among stakeholders. He highlighted the uses
of Fuzzy Cognitive Maps (FCM), which provides a rigorous scientific approach that
quantifies subjective knowledge of varied groups. It is a practical and potentially
powerful tool used for anticipatory action research by incorporating multiple stressors
for planning. 240 FCMs were drawn with the stakeholders to capture their behaviours
of how water security in their areas is impacted. Neural networks calculations were
undertaken to simulate policy options under six scenarios, resulting in identifying
options for implementation by local and state governments, discussed at a policy
dialogue platform.
Dr. Papiya Roy, Research Scientist, Centre for Climate Change, Environmental
Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI) Bangalore presented on
‘Estimation of GHG emissions from selected municipal solid waste landfills and
processing units of urban Bangalore’. The alarming rate of waste generation is leading
to unscientific dumping of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in the cities like Bangalore.
The disposal of MSW results in the production of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) from the
dump yards because of aerobic decomposition of MSW. Generation of landfill gas
mostly contains CH4 (about 50–60%) and CO2 (about 30–40%). CH4 is a potential
GHG and the global warming potential of the gas is 25 times greater than the CO2.
Dispersion of CH4 gas from the landfill to the nearby areas poses a potential threat to
the natural environment including human population. In order to properly manage the
changing conditions, knowledge and estimation of the available resources is extremely
important.
Peter Manoj, Senior Facility Technologist-Industry Affiliate, Centre for Nano Science
and Engineering (CeNSE), System Engineering Facility, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore presented on the development of Vehicular Emission Monitoring System
(VEMS). One of the major impacting sources is the vehicular emission. Majority of
the vehicles ply on the city roads without emission check certificate; Commissioner
of Police, Bangalore City inaugurated ‘joint drive’ to control Air Pollution in March
2012. He highlighted the need to build a Vehicular Emission Monitoring System
(VEMS) that is directly connecting to a tailpipe, which consists of several sub-systems
for cooling and filtering the corrosive gas, dilution chamber and important accessories
like pumps, valves and sensors respectively. The outcomes would create a significant
importance to the user vehicle manufacturer government agencies/joint drive forces can
regulate and can take proactive measures to control more emission areas, promotion
of public transport.
Technical Session III: Climate Change and Biodiversity

Prof. S.B. Dandin acted as the chairperson and judge for this session. Dr. A.K.
Chakravarthy presented the work on, The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on
Insect Pests and Biodiversity in Cultivated Ecosystems: An Appraisal. He has given
insight on insects emerging as pests under high temperatures which were posing
threat to various crops. Some of the major pests are paddy beetle, elongated scale
insect leafhopper complex and mealy bugs. This paper projected that biodiversity and
climate change are closely linked with each other and impacts one another.
Dr. O.K. Remadevi, Head, Centre for Climate Change, EMPRI, presented the paper on
Butterflies as bio-indicators of climate change—A baseline study in Bangalore city.
The research study focused on the seasonal distribution of butterflies and its bio-
diversity in selected green spaces of Bengaluru city. During the study period, 108
species of butterflies were recorded. She informed that this study forms a baseline data
for any future studies on butterflies as bioindicators of climate change.
Dr. R. Sundararaj presented his paper on Climate Change alters the intensity and
population dynamics of insect pests: A case study with Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell)
infesting sandalwood and Pongam in Karnataka. He studied population dynamics of
F.virgata on S.album and P.pinnata in Bangalore, Karnataka. Infestation rate was
found to exhibit significantly positive correlation with monthly mean maximum
temperature while morning relative humidity and evening relative humidity exhibited
significantly negative correlation with the population.
Dr. Debajyothi Chatterjee presented on Comprehensive Documentation. Climate,
Termites, ITK, Indian Context. He explained that a map has been constructed based on
different ITKs reported relevant to termites vis-a-vis climate change/interference. He
informed that occurrence of termite mounds and their height helps the farmers in
forest areas to select land for cultivating tuber and seed crops and in many states like
Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan, the appearance of termite serves an indicator of
rainfall and good climate.
Mr. Vinayak V. Pai presented on the topic, does floristic structure and composition
changes with climate change? A case study from the tropical wet evergreen forests of
Central Western Ghats. The study explored the changes in floristic structure and
composition in the evergreen forests by using the long-term data from permanent
preservation plots and indicated that richness of species decreased in permanent
preservation plot in Makutta (1937–2008) and Malemane (1939–1954). The study

focused to take conservative steps to minimize such unprecedented changes in the
fragile ecosystems for the future. Prof. S.B. Dandin summarised the session and
recommended to conduct long-term research on Biodiversity to consider the impacts of
climate change on biodiversity.
Technical Session IV: Adaptation and Mitigation in any Sector

Technical session IV was on the topic, ‘Adaptation and Mitigation in any sector’. The
session began with the presentation entitled, ‘Overview of Mitigation and Adaptation
Policies in India’s INDCs’ by the lead speaker Dr. S.S. Krishnan, Advisor, Energy
Efficiency and Sustainable Energy Policy Program, Center for Study of Science,
Technology and Policy (CSTEP), Bangalore. The talk briefly highlighted on aspects of
climate change implications for India, the vulnerability assessment, climate agree-
ments, overview of India’s INDC policies, its goals and initiatives, mitigation and
adaptation strategies and finally, the transition to green economy in Karnataka. He
discussed the projected impacts due to climate change on agriculture, forest and bio-
diversity.
Dr. Pradeep Kumar Malik, ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physio-
logy, Bangalore presented on, ‘Enteric Methane Emission from Indian Livestock:
Quantification and mitigation’. The institute has developed an inventory for estimating
the state wise enteric methane emission from Indian livestock and also identified the
hotspots where urgent interventions were required for minimizing the emission at
regional and national levels. The present study estimates revealed comparatively less
enteric than that predicted by other agencies using coefficients based methodologies.
Many ameliorative approaches have been developed and evaluated both in vitro and
in vivo for methane reduction efficiency. Results from the studies conducted in a
series revealed 20–25% reduction in enteric methane emission after the incorporation
of plant secondary metabolites containing phyto-sources in animal’s diet at the
appropriate level.
A presentation on, ‘A Quantitative Study on Adaptability of Desi Cattle Varieties of
Wayanad, Kerala on Climate Change Using Heat Tolerance Test’ was made by
Dr. Siddhartha Savale, Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension,
Pookode, Kerala. The study was conducted on seven Wayanad dwarf (Desi) cattle for
a period of seven days. The parameters assessed were rectal temperature, respiration
rate and pulse rate which were recorded twice daily at 8 a.m. and 3 p.m. Dairy Search
Index (DSI) was applied to measure the heat tolerance. The results indicated that as per
DSI standard the animals have minimal stress during hot climatic conditions. The
presentation was concluded by stating that these cattle can be adapted to cope up with
the adverse climatic conditions in order to maintain sustainability in livestock produc-
tion system.
Dr. Mondal, National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology presented on the
topic entitled, ‘Enhancing livestock fertility under climate change scenario’. The
unfavourable effects of heat stress could be mitigated by enhancing thermotolerance of
oocytes and embryos, developing animals with improved thermotolerance using genetic
approaches, physical modification of environment, nutritional modifications to account
for changing nutrient requirements and changes in livestock practices such as diversi-
fication, intensification and/or integration of pasture management, livestock and crop
production.
Dr. Shalini C.N., Department of Community Medicine, M.S. Ramaiah Medical
College, Bangalore presented on the topic, ‘Beat the heat-healthy hospitals, healthy
planet’. The issues discussed were on the impact of climate change on health,
vulnerable populations, the carbon footprint of hospitals and ways in which hospitals
can contribute to reducing the impact of climate change. Concepts of energy efficiency,
green buildings, alternative energy generation and biomedical waste management were
other issues dealt.
Dr. S.K. Ghosh, National Institute of Malaria Research presented on the topic entitled,’
Larval source management—the best way to counter climate change effects on
mosquito-borne diseases’. The present work on larval source management strategy in
Karnataka demonstrated the effectiveness of fish-based malaria control. It was essential
to release fish in all the potential breeding habitats so that it could play a supportive
role in the elimination programme. All such breeding habitats could be enumerated by
applying digital systems. Involvement of other departments is needed to fulfil this goal.
Technical Session V: Climate Concerns and Green Technology

The first lead talk was delivered by Prof. Sathya Prakash Varanasi on the topic,
Architecture and Attitude—An Ecological Approach. The paper highlighted that since
the 70s environmental concerns have increased and one major sector to act upon is the
construction industry which accounts for the generation of more than one-third of
greenhouse gas emissions. Efforts are being made to reduce the carbon footprint in the
construction sector by incorporating alternative design, materials, construction techni-
ques and practices that are more eco-friendly.
Ms. Sara Kunnath presented on the topic, ‘Energy saving devices and their beneficial
effects on reduction of carbon emissions’. The paper focused on the utilization of
renewable energy, as it is the future non-exhaustible energy. Climate change poses one
of the major concerns of humanity as the carbon dioxide levels have drastically
increased in the past few years. To combat the energy crisis sustainable technology is
necessary which uses biofuels, solar power and wind energy.
Mr. B.N. Chaitanya presented on the topic, ‘Application of Green Technology in
Agricultural Sector, a Paradigm over Combating the Global Threat-Climate Change’.
This paper revealed the deleterious effect that pesticides have on human health and the
environment as well as to the ozone layer. Hence, there is a necessity of implementing
Green technology viz. RNAi for sustainable agriculture that aids in minimizing the
use of hazardous chemical pesticides thus combating climate change.
Ms. Tanu Priya Uteng dealt on the topic, ‘Transport planning in the city-creating
knowledge for planning cities in the Global South and postcolonial cities’. The paper
aimed to illustrate that motorized transport is one of the major sources of pollution in
urban areas and the issue has not been studied in detail with respect to climate change.
As a result, this study highlights the various methods for data collection and analyses
focusing on the travel behaviour in developing countries including Bangalore by
drawing examples from two projects from the city of Oslo, Norway.
Technical Session VI: Climate Change Law and Policy

Lead talk on “Negotiating for Climate Justice-Quo Vadis?” was given by Prof. M.K.
Ramesh from National Law school of Indian University, Bangalore. He reminded that
the Paris Agreement and the recently concluded Marrakech CoPs has raised a host of
issues of concern over the emerging content, contours and consequences of the new
Climate deal. He also reminded few issues that would merit considerations like the
rights, entitlements, role, responsibilities, obligations and liabilities of different players
and its utility and value for small island countries and most vulnerable communities
of people. He concluded his talk by suggesting few possible lines of arguments that
India should advance, in the remaining period of negotiations and against such a
backdrop of international developments and application of our national skills of
negotiations, a review of internal measures is to be carried out, to ascertain to what
extent all the efforts would approximate to ensuring, “CLIMATE JUSTICE”.
Climate Change: Law and Policy was presented by Ms. Aastha Suman, Advocate. She
attempted to explore ways and means to strengthen the present Paris Agreement while
underlining the significant role that India can play in giving our children a better future.
She explained that there are many expectations attached to the Paris Agreement on
climate change finalized during the 21st meeting of the conference of parties in
December 2015. She said that being a successor to the Kyoto Protocol, it remains the
only hope for us to prevent our planet from heating beyond redemption. She also
expressed that in its present form, the agreement has been labelled by environmentalists
as a ‘political compromise’ between the developed and the developing countries rather
than being an environmentally sound document.
Climate Change Impacts on Vulnerable Communities: A Case Study of Karnataka was
presented by M. Deekshith from Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore.
He gave a brief introduction to climate change and explained how climate change has
always been a challenge for human livelihood and explained how Scheduled Case,
Scheduled Tribes and Women are the highly vulnerable section to be affected by
climate change in India as well as Karnataka. The study has used Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change 2014 framework for assessing vulnerability to
climate change for 122 households in Karnataka. This study found that climate change
has been highly affected in both study villages in terms of food production, water
supply, health and income during the study period. Moreover, this study has also found
that lack of climate change adaption mechanism is another significant problem at
household level in two study villages in Karnataka. The implication of the study is to
improve equitable and efficient resources to all affected household.
People Participation in Climate Changes India: Challenges and scope with respect to
India ‘was given by Krishna Bharadwaj from National Law School of India
University, Bengaluru. The paper explores and analyses the role of human values with
respect to the correlation between the right to clean environment and duty to protect
the environment along the lines of culture. He reminded that environmental protection
is seen as a fundamental duty of every citizen of this country under Article 51-A (g) of
our constitution which reads as follows: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to
protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife
and to have compassion for living creatures.” He also spoke on the relationship
between traditional values and climate change with a western view and Asian view. He
explained about egalitarian and communitarian approaches for protecting our environ-
ment.
The paper on ‘GHG emission scenarios for India and its implications for India’s
climate pledge and the global goal of limiting warming to safe levels’ was delivered
by Dr. Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi, Senior Researcher from Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore. He explained how global surface temperatures have already risen by 1°C
compared to the pre-industrial times. He introduced a new energy security and
climate policy tool for India called India Energy Security Scenarios-2047 (IESS-2047),
a tool developed by the Planning Commission and later refined by its successor NITI
Aayog. He explained how this tool would help in assessing the implications of the
“efforts” in terms of GHG emissions, energy security, land requirements and budgetary
implications. He also said it is an attempt to explore an alternate energy and low
carbon scenario for India up to 2047 in comparison to business as usual projections.
‘Legislative Framework of Climate Change in India and the Paris Agreement’ was
presented by Vidya Ann Jacob from National Law School of India University,
Bangalore. She said that Climate change has become a great threat and is much debated
upon globally. Human activities and industrial development have brought about
massive disruptions in the climatic conditions. She suggested that there is a need to
attend to this growing threat at the global level on climate change by adopting green
technologies. She explained about various legislative frameworks governing climate
change in India and the challenges faced with respect to implementing the various
policies relating to climate change. She concluded by saying that India needs to adopt
legislation which would exhaustively deal with all aspects related to climate change;
government and the stakeholders need to work together to achieve the standards set
internationally and lastly to adopt mechanisms to incentivize individuals and organi-
zations who adopt cleaner and greener technologies.
Technical Session VII: Poster Session

The poster session was conducted in the in the main hall of EMPRI. The session was
held between 2.00 to 4.00 p.m. The judges for this session were Prof. Sathya Prakash
Varanasi, Sathya Consultants, Bengaluru, Prof. M.K. Ramesh, National Law School of
India University, Bengaluru and Dr. K.H. Vinayakumar, Director, EMPRI. The poster
presented by Atun Roychoudhury was on the topic ‘Awareness on the impact of
climate change in agriculture, a study of Chidambaram agricultural area by using
educational global climate model software’. The recommendation of the project is
studies like this will be very useful for the farmers. They can plan their crop cultivation
according to the changes in climate change. Ms. Chitra P. presented the poster on
‘Impact of climate change on the incidence of vector-borne diseases in Karnataka,
India’. The major recommendation came out from the discussion was that the study
should include the rainfall parameters also. Dr. Manjunatha M. presented on the topic,
simulation of carbon dynamics of Tectona grandis forest in Western Ghats of Kerala,
India, using century model. ‘Checklist of butterflies occurring in green spaces of
Bangalore city’ was presented by Mr. Chaturved Shet. The recommendation for this
study is that the butterflies can be considered as indicators of climate change.
Rabin Chandra Paramanik exhibited his poster on, ‘Effect of the climate changes to
the food, beverage sector’. Ms. Chandrakala presented on the topic ‘Water security plan
for Bengaluru city: Climate change adaptation’. The recommendations for the project is
that water security plan should be implemented to protect the water bodies.
EXHIBITION
An exhibition was arranged on the innovative technologies useful for climate change
adaptation and mitigation. Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Rural Energy Development,
Bangalore organized a stall to display solar energy gadgets, smokeless chulah etc.,
Mr. Chiranth from Green Wheel Ride, Mysore exhibited the e-bike developed by
their company. A poster on solar auto rickshaw developed by Lifeway Solar, Cochin,
Kerala was displayed. A stall on ENVIS centre of EMPRI with charts on various
activities was organized. The various publications such as EMRPI-ENVIS newsletters-
Parisara, research reports, State of Environment Report (SoER), Karnataka State Action
Plan on Climate Change (KSAPCC), handouts/brochure/comics on climate change
were displayed and distributed. Twenty-five posters on various aspects/issues of
climate change and the adaptation/mitigation programs/projects being undertaken by

different state government departments (agriculture, sericulture, horticulture, water
resources, energy, transport, industries, etc.) were also displayed.
VALEDICTORY FUNCTION
The valedictory function marked the closing of the national seminar. The session was
chaired by Smt. Ritu Kakkar, IFS, Director General, EMPRI. The guests on the dais
were Dr. S.S. Krishnan, Dr. M.K. Ramesh, Dr. Sathya Prakash Varanashi, Dr. K.H.
Vinaya Kumar, IFS. Dr. O.K. Remadevi, Organising Secretary welcomed the gathering
and gave a brief of the recommendations emanated from the deliberations from
different technical sessions of the seminar. The technical experts gave their sugges-
tions/comments on the recommendations. The best oral and poster presentations were
awarded prizes. The details are given below:
The Best Presentation award under each theme was given to the following presenters:
Technical session 1 Climatology and Climate Change – Dr. C.N. Prabhu, Karnataka
State National Disaster Monitoring Centre, Bangalore
Technical session 2 Climate Change and Impact Assessment – Dr. Papiya Roy,
Centre for Climate Change, EMPRI, Bangalore
Technical session 3 Climate Change and Biodiversity – Dr. R. Sunderaraj,
Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore
Technical session 4 Adaptation and Mitigation of any Sector – Dr. Pradeep Kumar
Malik, National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology,
Bangalore
Technical session 5 Climate Concerns and Green Technology – Ms. Tanu Priya Uteng,
Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway
Technical session 6 Climate Change Law and Policy – Ms. Aastha Suman, Advocate,
Bangalore
Technical session 7 Poster Session – Dr. Manjunath M., Centre for Climate Change,
EMPRI, Bangalore
Smt. Ritu Kakkar, IFS, DG, EMPRI gave the closing remarks. Dr. O.K. Remadevi
proposed the vote of thanks to all the speakers, paper presenters, delegates of the
seminar, the organizing committee members, exhibitors and caterers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Technical Session 1: Climate Change and Climatology
 For limiting CO2 emissions in the future on both regional and global scales the
guidance of “Kaya Identity” can be considered to avert the undesirable impacts of
climate change.
 Awareness should be created among the farming community to utilize the weather-
related information and plan to minimise their agricultural losses.
 Application of geospatial database would be more efficient to understand climate-
related changes in sensitive zones.
Technical Session 2: Climate Change and Impact Assessment

 Encouragement to develop reliable assessments on impact data of climate change
by using complex computer-based models such as CMIP5, ISI-MIP and Ag-MIP
will be useful for decision-making by governments at national and sub-national
levels.
 Research on drought tolerant genotypes should be extended to different vegetable
crops for crop sustainability.
 The stakeholders can make use of knowledge of cognitive science for effective
water management in peri-urban areas.
 More efforts should be made to estimate GHG emission in landfill sites and come
out with alternatives for effective waste management in reducing GHG emissions.
Technical Session 3: Climate Change and Biodiversity

 Research studies on impacts of temperature rise on insect pests should be en-
couraged to understand the effects of climate change on biodiversity in cultivated
ecosystems.
 Steps should be taken to increase the nesting of sea turtles in beaches so as to
manage and conserve sea turtles from the emerging threats due to climate change.
 Ecosystems with the highest biodiversity should be conserved to achieve climate
resilience and carbon sequestration.
 Studies to promote permanent preservation plots in forests would enlighten the
changes in the structure and composition of flora due to climate change.
 Indigenous traditional knowledge on termites should be scientifically validated to
assess the climate interference.
 The survival rate of reptiles such as lizards can be taken into consideration while
predicting the climate change due to the conversion of urban areas into heat islands.
Technical Session 4: Adaptation and Mitigation in any Sector

 There is an urgent need for critical assessment and implementation of adaptation
and mitigation policies in India for sustainable economic development.
 Livestock diet should be incorporated with phyto-sources to reduce enteric methane
emission.
 In sustenance of soil-plant-animal health, restoration of climatic situations by

promotion/adaptation of water conservation strategies in agriculture and managing
livestock for sustainable land management.
 To combat vector-borne diseases such as malaria, the introduction of larvivorous
fish in breeding habitats will help in effective management of larval source.
 Production of quality seedlings is a pre-requisite for expansion of agro forestry and
awareness on climate change impacts should be created for taking up effective
measures in adaptation and mitigation method.
 Mitigation of heat stress for livestock sustainability can be done by increasing the
thermo-tolerance capacity of animals through genetic approaches and nutritional
modifications.
 Building ‘Green’ hospitals by effective conservation measures in energy, fuel,
water, food and waste management can help reducing carbon footprint in hospitals
and become climate friendly hospitals.
 Heat tolerance indices and heat tolerant tests such as Dairy Search Index (DSI)
should be widely used to evaluate animals for their potential to tolerate heat stress
and maintain a normal body temperature even in hot climatic conditions.
Technical Session 5: Climate Concerns and Green Technology

 Eco-friendly architecture should be promoted in urban areas with alternate
construction techniques and design options to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 Implementation of Green Technology by gene silencing may reduce usage of
chemical pesticides which prone to ozone depletion.
 Awareness should be created among people to use green transportation making
use of renewable energy.
Technical Session 6: Climate Change Law and Policy

 In India, efforts should be made in applying national skills of negotiations to ensure
climate justice.
 There is a need to prepare and strengthen environmentally sound document such
as Paris agreement on climate change.
 Studies on impacts of climate change affecting vulnerable communities with
respect to food, health and other social activities should be imposed.
 People should adopt the culture of protecting the environment as their primary
duty.
 Development of policy tools on climate-related issues and their implications would
be given priority.
 Framing formulations for implementing government policies in reducing emissions
would be helpful to address climate change issues.
Technical Session 7: Poster Session

 Study of Climate variables such as temperature and carbon dioxide by using
Educational global climate model software would help farmers for proper planning
in agriculture.
 Vulnerability to vector-borne diseases in any particular area/districts can be attri-
buted by correlating the climatic parameters with the disease incidence.
 An ecological model such as ‘Century’ can be used for measuring carbon stocks in
the forest ecosystem.
 Green algae can be used as an indicator for industrial wastewater pollution in
freshwater system.
 Butterflies, being sensitive to environmental changes, can be used as bioindicators
to climate change in urban areas.
 Efforts on adaptation strategies for livestock production should be made to reduce
the livestock emissions and also to improve the efficiency of production processes
that will enable to earn carbon credits.
 Heat stress in animals can be reduced by physical processing of the roughage which
increases the dry matter intake and improves the nutrient utilisation and the
awareness of this should be created among farmers.
 Livestock GHG emissions especially methane can be reduced when plant-derived
essential oils are used as additives in the feed of ruminants.
 The need of water security plan as an adaptation to climate change is required in
urban areas to manage the groundwater scarcity.
Addressing the Climate Crisis: Way Forward
S ECTION 216
Lead/Invited Talks
Addressing the Climate Crisis:

Way Forward
Govindasamy Bala
Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka
E-mail: [email protected]
C limate change is one of the many environmental challenges that humanity is

facing in this century. The global energy consumption rate has approximately
tripled in the last 50 years. This rapid increase in the consumption rate is accompanied
by steep increases in CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and an accelerated increase in
CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. The CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and the
consequent increase in atmospheric CO2 are linked to accelerating the increase in
global mean surface temperatures in recent years.
In 2016, the world witnessed an all-time record high global average surface tempera-
ture for the third year in a row since 2014. The global mean surface temperature is
now 1.1C above pre-industrial levels. The trends in global temperatures and other
manifestations of climate change such as retreat in glacier extents, sea level rise and
accelerated decline of Arctic sea ice are being continuously reported in the climate
science literature. The concentration of atmospheric CO2, the main driver for the
current climate change, has recorded a steep increase since the pre-industrial period and
it is now well past 400 ppm, about 120 ppm above the pre-industrial levels. This level
of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere was probably not seen in the last 20 million years.
In addition to global warming, there is clear evidence in the literature for ocean
acidification from this rising CO2.
All of above evidently points to the increasing influence humans have on the destiny
of our planet and also raises the question of whether we are on a sustainable path. An
extrapolation of our past actions suggests that we can expect an additional warming
of 1–5°C by 2100. The major uncertainty and unknown now are whether impacts of
climate change on society would be benign or catastrophic.
16
Addressing the Climate Crisis: Way Forward 17
The likely impacts of climate change in the 21st century and beyond on important
sectors such as water resources, agriculture, forestry, fishery, etc. have been assessed
extensively by several national and international reports. Several scary scenarios such
as dieback of Amazon forests, failure of crops, intense cyclones, breaking of Greenland
and Antarctic ice sheets and release of CO2 and CH4 from permafrost soils in high
latitudes are projected to occur in the future.
What are the factors that drive the global carbon dioxide emissions? A simple identity
called “Kaya Identity” gives guidance on limiting CO2 emissions in the future on both
regional and global scales.
CO2 emission = Population × (GDP/person) × Energy Intensity × Carbon Intensity
According to this identity, the CO2 emission is given by the product of population,
GDP per person, energy intensity and carbon intensity. Energy intensity is defined as
the amount of energy used to produce a unit GDP and carbon intensity is the amount of
CO2 emitted for unit production of energy. The global population increased by a billion
in just 12 years from 2000 to 2012 while it took almost 120 years (1800–1920) in the
pre-industrial era for the same increase. In the face of increasing GDP which is needed
for lifting billions out of poverty, this identity clearly indicates moderating the growth
rate of global population and decreasing the energy and carbon intensity are keys to
CO2 emission reduction and climate change mitigation. Declining energy and carbon
intensity would mean progress in clean energy production and an increase in efficiency
in energy production, respectively.
Technological innovations are needed urgently to ramp up the production of energy
from renewable resources and to increase the energy efficiency. Huge investment in
science and technology in carbon-free energy is the need of the hour as is evident
from the fact that science and technology have done wonders in the last 2 centuries.
Science and technology are the main reasons that the planet is able to support 7.4
billion today—that too, on an average comfortably when compared to the past. To give
an example, the invention of the Haber-Bosch process, an industrial process for produc-
ing ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, and the subsequent use of fertilizer in
agriculture and crop yield boost has prevented mass hunger and starvation deaths. The
modern healthcare system, another achievement of science and technology, is
responsible for a longer lifespan. The benefits of science and technology in energy
system are all too visible in our homes and transportation.
The gains from science and technology in the 20th century have emboldened some to
advocate artificial large-scale engineering solutions to undo one of the major
environmental crisis: global warming. The portfolio of such proposed solutions is
collectively known as geoengineering. They are broadly classified into two main
categories – solar radiation management (SRM, Figure 1) and carbon dioxide removal
(CDR, Figure 2) techniques. Some of the proposed SRM methods would place
Fig. 1: Schematic Representation of SRM (Solar Radiation Management)

Geoengineering Methods
Fig. 2: Schematic Representation of CDR (Carbon Dioxide Removal) Geoengineering Methods

Addressing the Climate Crisis: Way Forward 19
reflecting mirrors in space, increase the reflectivity of the planet by artificially injecting
aerosols into the stratosphere, or brighten the marine clouds by seeding them with sea
salt aerosols. The basic idea is to reduce the absorbed solar radiation by an appropriate
amount to cancel fully or party the temperature increase caused by anthropogenic
greenhouse gases. The second class of techniques propose to artificially remove CO 2
from the atmosphere using large-scale afforestation, ocean iron fertilization, accelerated
weathering of silicate rocks, industrial chemistry to directly capture CO 2, etc. While
CDR methods address the root cause of climate change, SRM geoengineering
solutions are more like “using one form of pollution to mask the effects of another” or a
“patchwork” on the Earth system. Most of us would prefer to prevent climate change
than cure a “sick” planet.
Since CDR methods are slow and costly, most of the geoengineering discussion now
is centred on SRM methods that deflect incoming solar radiation to space. Prominent
among them is the proposal to inject aerosol particles such as sulphates or calcium
carbonate into the stratosphere and deflect about 1–2% of the incoming solar radiation.
Several climate modelling studies have shown that geoengineering can markedly
diminish regional and seasonal climate change from anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Though SRM is cheap and can rapidly cool down the climate system, it has some
undesirable side effects such as weakening the global water cycle. It does not address
“ocean acidification” which could be detrimental to marine life. SRM also commits us
to maintain it (e.g. artificial aerosol layer in the stratosphere) for decades to centuries—
until atmospheric CO2 levels fall to sufficiently lower values. If SRM fails or is halted,
Earth could be subjected to extremely rapid warming with the rate of warming many
times that of the current warming. Thus, human and natural systems could be subjected
to severe stress following an abrupt termination of SRM.
It is important to note that the geoengineering solutions are still some distance away
from being applied, and scientific opinion is divided over the need to deploy such
methods. Geoengineering is a controversial idea and many are opposed to it as it
involves not only science but also ethical and moral issues. Unlike conventional
approaches to deal with climate change, geoengineering solutions do nothing to reduce
concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the main reason for global warming.
Many climate scientists are not in favour of implementing geoengineering but it is
important to continue scientific research into it as all options should be on the table for
solving the climate crisis. However, our first and foremost focus should be on carbon
dioxide emission reductions. Several recent studies show that land management
practices such as afforestation/reforestation, reduced deforestation and degradation and
biochar are the best cost-effective climate change mitigation strategies with very little
detrimental impacts on the environment.
Biodiversity and Climate Change—A Way Forward 20
Biodiversity and Climate Change—

A Way Forward
S.B. Dandin
Former Vice-Chancellor UHS, Bagalkot, Karnataka
(Presently) Liaison Officer, Project Office Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Bioversity International, Rome
B iodiversity is the main source of raw material to meet all the four Fs namely food,
fodder, Fuel and Fiber to sustain the life on the planet earth. Biodiversity is the
sum total of genetic diversity at intraspecies, species and ecosystems. Based on the
need and purpose this has been classified into different types such as agrobiodiversity,
forest biodiversity, marine biodiversity, etc. However agrobiodiversity which com-
prises of crops and forages, livestock’s agroforestry, forestry and other natural
resources is considered very important for human welfare. Due to continuous anthro-
pogenic activities to meet the diversified demand of fast growing population in the
region on one hand and the threat posed by the climate change effects on the other
have affected the ecosystems and habitat to the greater extent resulting in loss of
biodiversity of both fauna and flora. As estimated by some of the early workers, one-
third of the biodiversity has already been lost due to unpredictable disasters/natural
calamities as a result of climate change effects. World geographical regions are divided
into different agro-ecological zones with set climatic and edaphic conditions and
specific component of biodiversity has been evolved, acclimatized and shaped in these
specific regions which are in other words termed as evolution. Hence today’s genetic
diversity of both fauna and flora is a result of constant interaction between genotype
and environment (p = g × e). Vavilov (1928) a Russian scientist was the first to under-
take large-scale phytogeographical survey and identified the centres of origin of crop
plants. However, in course of time due to selection pressure exerted by human beings,
the important crop varieties and the animal breeds were evolved and developed.
Further, due to large-scale cultivation of few species namely rice, wheat, maize, potato
and tomato of crop plants and domestication of five big livestock breeds namely cattle,
sheep, goat, poultry and pork, the existence of other land races/wild crops and farmers
varieties/breeds is very much threatened.
Climate change effects such as increase in temperature, altered/prolonged cycle of
winter and summer, unseasonal rains, etc., have affected the physiology of growth,
reproduction cycle pest and disease outbreak. As a combined effect of these, there is a
disturbance in ecosystems and their services and in turn production and productivity
20
of crops and livestock. Unseasonal rains affect both sowing season and subsequent
growth and flowering patterns of the many of the crop plants including horticulture
crops. Heavy cyclonic wind storms, hail storms and heavy rain during harvesting
period will affect the total yield and create an imbalance in the supply chain. The
altered climatic situations alter the reproductive pattern of pest and diseases and many
times resulting in an outbreak of disease and pests which cause huge damage to the
quality and productivity of the crops. To ensure the food and nutrition security,
safeguarding the biodiversity including the agro-biodiversity is imperative. Following
are the few steps to be taken up jointly by all the concerned in this direction.
Exploration and Documentation of Genetic Variability

in the Diversity Rich Centres
Exploration and documentation of existing genetic variability along with their wild
relatives is the first step to understand the nature and extent of genetic variability. The
GPS tool can be utilized to mark the exact location of the species and their wild
relatives besides, documenting ecological and habitat details. As reported earlier,
North-Eastern states, Western Himalaya, Desert areas of Rajasthan, Central India
including Koraput Region, Western Ghats, etc., shall be explored by SAUs/Regional
Research Stations. The information already available with Regional Stations of
NBPGR/NBAGR/NBAIR shall be used for this purpose.
Documentation of Traditional Knowledge

Local tribes and farming communities are cultivating/maintaining these indigenous
varieties and animal breeds since time immemorable. Several local food products of
indigenous origin are very popular and being prepared and consumed till today. Hence,
there is a need to document the recipes of local preparations. Some of the indigenous
species/breeds also recognized as a rich source of nutraceutical and local medicines.
For better exploitation and harnessing this biodiversity wealth of the country along with
documentation of traditional knowledge associated with these species is imperative.
Characterization, DUS Guidelines and GI Tags

Though large numbers of indigenous species are known to exists, botanical/zoological
description and other related details are available only for few. For better economic
utilization of these species, there is an urgent need for detailed description, characteri-
zation and cataloguing all indigenous species which will help for mainstreaming of
some of the potential species. Farmers are the custodians of the genetic variability of
these indigenous species and there are several landraces identified and perpetuated by
some of these farmers as a hobby. To recognize the efforts of such farmers in the
conservation of landraces and local breeds is the prerequisite for the development
of Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) guidelines. Protection of Plant
Varieties and Farmers Rights Authority (PPV & FRA) is extending both technical and
financial support to develop DUS guidelines. The local SAUs/Research Institute shall
avail this opportunity and develop DUS guidelines. This effort would go a long way in
recognizing farmers efforts of conservation. Further, local research organizations
including Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) shall also recognize farmers efforts and
recommend them for “Gene Savior Awards”. There are quite a few examples of
Geographical Indicators (GIs) of crop varieties and animal breeds registered in
different parts of the country.
Food, Nutritional Composition and Economic Benefit Analysis

Crops and animal breeds are being consumed every day in different forms and form an
integral menu of daily food plate. Though, most of these species harbour vitamins,
minerals, dietary fibre, etc., the food value data is available for very few popular crop
plants and breeds while several of the indigenous species do not have food value
information and remain underutilized without gaining popularity. To make the
consumer understand and appreciate the nutritional value and dietary importance of
species, there is a need for large-scale investigation and develop food value data as per
the FAO standards. This effort would eventually result in the realization of high econo-
mic value to the growers/producers besides, enhancing the local demand from
consumers. Further, some of the traditional crop species are also used for the medicinal
purpose to cure few chronical diseases. However, the actual medicinal compound, the
mode of action, biomedical evidence, bioavailability etc., need to be worked out.
Seeds System and Community Seed Banks

Because of the modernization of agriculture, only a few crops are cultivated in larger
area and breeds are reared in large herds resulting in the fast disappearance of tradi-
tional species and landraces. Along with them traditional seed system also vanished
making farmers totally dependent on external agencies for seed supply. When the seed
of required crop/varieties/race is not available as and when required, farmers tend to
use the crops/varieties available easily in the market. Hence, the seed becomes the most
important prerequisite for conservation, cultivation and consumption of indigenous
species. In this context, the concept of Panchayat Seed Banks developed by MSSRF
and Community Seed Banks (CSB) model of Bioversity International will come handy.
In these methods, the seeds of the local crops grown by the farmers will be collected
and preserved to be made available for the next cropping season. In the diversity-rich
areas of crops and breeds, community seed/semen banks concept needs to be populari-
zed for long-term conservation and perpetuation of the indigenous wealth of crops.
Conservation for Posterity

In view of the large-scale habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity at a faster rate,
conservation and augmentation of traditional crop varieties, landraces and their wild
relatives of both crop and animal species assume priority. Integrated conservation
approaches/methods including in-situ/on-farm conservation, ex-situ conservation in
gene banks and diversity parks, Zoological gardens, protected biospheres, plant and
animal national parks/reserves assumes importance. Besides invitro/cryo-preservation
of tissue, pollen, embryo and semen etc., has become dare necessity. In India NBPGR/
NBAGR/NBIAR FGR, ZSI, BSI, etc., with their Regional Stations are actively in-
volved in conservation and regeneration of these rare, endangered and threatened
species. Depending on the reproductive cycle and behaviour, suitable technologies
have been developed. Since this is a herculean task, there is a need to support some of
the crop/animal based Research Institute and Universities. Further Farmers and herd
owners are mainly responsible for the identification, maintenance and perpetuation of
the crop and animal biodiversity since time immemorial. Hence, the involvement of
these custodian farmers and herd owners for on-farm conservation of landraces/breeds
along with associated traditional knowledge has been accepted as cheapest and
effective in-situ/on-farm conservation method. This will also help in networking the
germplasm resources and their exchange. However, the on-farm conservation of
biodiversity by various stakeholders is widespread and not documented in an orderly
way. Hence there is a need for networking all such on-farm conservation activities by
custodians for scientific and systematic documentation and proper use. Further con-
servation of wild biodiversity could be effectively done by conserving and maintaining
ecosystems through biosphere reserves, national diversity parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
protected forests etc.
Way Forward
Biodiversity is of considerable importance for nutrition, livelihood and economic
benefits with built-in high commercial value. However due to climate change and
uncertain climatic effects the existing biodiversity is facing grave danger. The loss of
biodiversity ultimately affects the very human existence on the planet. Because of this
reason large-scale discussions and debates are going on all over the world at different
levels to adopt climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. There is an urgent
need to consolidate the available information of climate change on different crop and
animal species in different agro-ecological and geographical regions of the world.
There are some success stories of cultivation of climate resilient crop species and
animal breeds which needs to be understood for replication elsewhere. This will help in
developing similar approaches in adopting biodiversity conservation for posterity.
Since the global warming effects are universal and affecting both crops and animals
without any distinction there is a need to draw a network programme involving all
stakeholders of different regions to work out suitable strategies for safeguarding the
biodiversity which is common heritage of mankind. The guidelines developed under
the strategic action plan of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) shall be
considered.
Architecture and Attitude—An Ecological Approach 24
Architecture and Attitude—

An Ecological Approach
Sathya Prakash Varanashi
Sathya Consultants, Bengaluru, Karnataka
A new awareness dawned on our generation more than a half-century ago when
the publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson stirred up a controversy in the
chemical industry. Shortly thereafter, terms like Spaceship Earth, Global Village and
such others were coined to represent the changing times. These were followed by
influential books like Limits to Growth, Small is Beautiful, Steady-State Economics
and by 1977 we even had a book titled, The Sustainable Society. Parallel to various
texts by thought leaders of those days, conferences too were held, with the first major
one being 1972 UN Conference at Stockholm and the recent ones being the annual
Conference of Parties (COP) where all world leaders converge to discuss climate
change. This early history of environmental movement proves that ecological concerns
are not new, and also proves paradoxically, that even after half a century, we have not
been effective enough in tackling the global climate crisis. Compared to the early
decades when researchers and intellectuals predicted the problems more on instinct,
apprehensions and scanty data, today we have hard data on every aspect of environ-
mental degradation we are causing. More data pour in every day, making even the
choice of study very difficult, leave alone taking a studied decision. It is time to act
upon. One major sector to act upon is architecture, where we need to reduce the carbon
footprint of the construction industry, which supposedly causes close to one-third of
Global greenhouse gas emissions. To that end, we can build with eco-design options,
alternate materials, green construction techniques and sustainable practices. This is
easier said than done, for shifting to the alternatives demands a major shift in our
attitudes.
This paper presents such an alternate attitude towards design, learnt from the theory
and practice of eco-friendly architecture and personal experiences. In architecture, we
get to learn more from contexts than from texts. As such, personal experiences rooted
in projects designed and built become a better source of understanding, especially
with reference to eco-friendly designs. To ensure that these experiences are replicable,
they have been compiled as short principles, not in any specific order. There is no
claim of originality in realizing or stating them as if no one else has ever said them.
24
Possibly, many subject experts have already spoken about and written about these
principles, which one would like to acknowledge.
Trying a departure from the normally expected scholarly essay with technical points
quoting from multiple sources, this text simply collates the insights gained by our
firm Sathya Consultants across the last 24 years of consultancy practice. Naturally,
intuition has played a larger role than calculation, knowledge has found greater
application than information and common sense has taught more than critical theories.
This is not to undermine the importance of information, calculations and theories, but
an attempt to stay very basic and simple such that everyone would understand issues
of being eco-friendly. Ideally, this text should be accompanied by hundreds of photos
to illustrate the point being made, but it is hoped that the reader can also appreciate
the text without photos. Hope this position will be acceptable to erudite scholars and
sustainability experts. The imperative to explore more principles and find out why
many of these common sense solutions get ignored in the mainstream architecture
continues in our critical practice.
Eco-Sensitive Ideas do not get Accepted only on Eco Criteria

People passionate about sustainable architecture are increasing in numbers today, but
contrastingly, so too are consultants frustrated by the negligible implementation of such
design ideas. To understand this paradox, we need to realize that an idea, however great
it is ecological, will not get built unless it is visually attractive, socially acceptable,
affordable for the owners, doable by the team and promoted by the regulations. So,
the challenge lies in fusing multiple criteria into the ecological platform.
Difficulty of Execution should not deter us from an Alternate Design

Majority of visitors to a house with mud, clay, bamboo, stone, skylight and such others
praise it but hesitate to get one done for themselves. Even if potential owners consider
them seriously, many architects and builders discourage such earth-friendly archi-
tecture citing difficulties in implementation, cost reduction resulting in lower profits
and instil fear of cracks and leakages, all of which are also a part of mainstream
buildings too. So, there are many myths perpetuated by the market. Unless we prove
that the alternatives are just the same as the rest, no eco ideas will get executed.
Contextual Designs can also be Contemporary Expressions

Indian architecture today is dominated by modern designs largely rooted in western
trends, many of which are not appropriate for our climate or culture. It is the name
contemporary which seems to sell, designed by both architects and non-architects. Of
course, there are architects who know how to design the contemporary in a
commendable way, but they are far and few. We should and we can evolve our own
contemporary design approaches, suited to our contexts. Being rooted in a locality, it

will be unique in its own way, hence will be accepted worldwide as a contemporary
trend.
Image of the Building is Less Important than its Impact on the Environment
Every designer and project promoter would like their creation being appreciated, hence
attempt to make it different, innovative and unique. Sadly in the process, the external
appearances dominate the design thinking, with no concern for resources. We need to
create new images for the spectator, but more importantly, care about meaningful
impacts on nature.
Let the Buildings Breathe

Imperviousness is not a common phenomenon in nature, with all fruits, vegetables,
trees, materials and animals living by breathing through nostrils, skin, bark or surface.
The moment we apply cement mortar, chemical paints, aluminium cladding and such
others to create boxes of artificial indoors, we are blocking the breathing. Besides
increased resources to seal the space, they demand more energy for servicing them,
the life of building reduces and increases life-cycle costs due to greater maintenance.
Traditional architecture built with mud, wood, lime, tiles, stone and thatch breathed and
lasted long.
Culturally Appropriate Plan and Climatically Appropriate Construction

Architecture is an expression of both the aspirations and construction, as such needs
to balance between the two. Let the design be suited to the lifestyle, material to fit
aesthetic choices, construction be eco-friendly and the overall appeal is one of the
design attractions. Such an approach may lead to a sustainable future.
Rethink and Replicate Vernacular Ideas

The greatest sourcebook for sustainable designs lies in the local, contextual, rural and
vernacular traditions. Unfortunately, this sector gets the least importance in pro-
fessional courses, has minimal media coverage with very few consultants and construc-
tion teams interested in learning vernacular values. Modernity has led to many
ecological problems, as such modernity alone cannot solve them, whereas tradition can
provide some ideas to mitigate problems, both of local resources and global warming.
Minimize Manufactured Materials

If we can classify building materials as natural, processed and manufactured ones, it is
the last category of manufactured materials that should be minimized. They typically
have very high embodied energy, hence are detrimental to energy sources and natural
resources, besides producing a high quantity of waste during production. Until a few
decades ago, most construction happened with natural materials and few processed
ones like a burnt brick. It is time to return to them, further improvising them where
possible.
Repairable Construction, Replaceable Materials and Replicable Designs

The famous RRR (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) as a solution towards eco-friendly living
has had reasonable publicity with some success too. However, the construction sector
has generally ignored this dictum, building big, introducing new materials and rarely
repeating an idea, however, appropriate it is. Architecture being an expression of
owner aspirations as well, it may be difficult to force RRR’s, but we can attempt
repairable construction, replaceable materials and replicable designs, which can go a
long way in reducing greenhouse gas emissions due to the construction sector.
Lower the Embodied Energy, Greater the Sustainability

Many sets of criteria have been introduced to assess and measure green buildings
with varied types of certifications. Surely, they have led to many buildings consuming
lesser resources, yet cannot assure that such green buildings can save nature. Given
this, one overarching criterion could be to assess the sum total energy a construction
project consumes, right from the raw material supply to disposal of debris when it
gets demolished someday. This figure called as embodied energy is a key to sustainable
future.
Designing by Intuition is as Important as Designing by Calculations

The professions of architecture and construction have been transforming rapidly
today, with greater dependence upon standards, systems, soft wares and procedures.
Scientific advances have led to millions of data and calculations attempting to tell us
precisely how to design. While their popularity is visible, the way they guarantee
sustainable future could be questionable. We, of course, need calculations, as a
checklist to design, as a means of testing our hypotheses and to validate our actions.
However, total dependency on them may or may not result in an ecologically sensitive
architecture. Hence, common sense can solve what creativity often cannot. Local
wisdom can keep our actions appropriate. Personal intuitions can complement the
professional standards.
Performance of the Building is More Important than the Perceived Design

The architecture of the early history evolved from pragmatic approaches, functional
needs and practical designs. There would have been considerations of concepts, visual
appearances and such others to a much lesser degree. Today, the building industry is
more obsessed with how the design would be perceived by people, professionals and
the media. The architecture of attraction is the rule of the day, with performance
relegated to the back burners. Innovative designs with novelty are not less important,
but perfection and performance are equally important if we are to shape a better future.
Learn from the Aesthetics of Nature

Humans have surpassed nature on many fronts. We have made products not found in
nature, defied gravity in space travel, permanently altered physical characteristics of
materials and built very beautiful monumental marvels in architecture. However, the
beauty created by humans is yet to surpass the aesthetics of nature. Nature as an
architect has created forms of such elegance, minimalism, endurance, appropriateness,
contextual fit, continuity and such others, all of which will qualify to be sustainable.
We need to learn from nature.
Every Design Decision should be Validated for its Ecological Sensitivity

In our modern urban living, we all use set of criteria to take individual and collective
decisions. Today, monetary considerations like cost and savings tend to be dominant,
both among the rich and the poor. For Mahatma Gandhi, the litmus test was about
truthfulness, which he would apply to most decisions he would take. If we have to
create a sustainable future, we all need a way of validation. We should check if every
one of our ideas and actions are eco-friendly or not. If not, it is certain that we are
harming nature.
Eco-Design is not Deciding how to Build, but Deciding how to Live

Ask anyone what are the decisions to be taken while getting a house done we will get
answers to the number of rooms, budget, functional needs, materials, construction type
and such others. Most of these could be eco-friendly, hence appreciable. In reality,
construction contributes to only a small percentage of the resources the house
consumes. If we look at the carbon footprint at large, it is directly proportional to the
life cycle of the house and the lifestyle of the house owners. As such, ecological design
is not only deciding how to build but deciding how to live.
Negotiating for Climate Justice: Quo Vadis? 29
Negotiating for Climate Justice:

Quo Vadis?
M.K. Ramesh
National Law School of India University, Bengaluru, Karnataka
T his paper grew from the Keynote Address delivered in the Workshop organized
and conducted by EMPRI, a few months before the Paris Agreement, 2015. The
context and the trajectories of development leading to the Paris Accord constitute the
content of this write-up. This also highlights the nature of thrust and the extent of
emphasis that need be given to in the Paris and future negotiations on Climate Change
as to realise “Climate Justice”, that constitutes the core value, content kernel and goal
of Climate arrangements. Concerned about the deviations, boobby-traps and red
herrings put up by the developed world to dilute the intent and content of UNFCCC, a
post-script as a strategy for developing countries, especially India, is proposed, in the
section on “Post-Paris Strategy of Action for Developing Countries”, for check-mating
such moves and for the realization of Climate Justice.
Earth Overshoot Day

Every year on Fifth of June, “Environment Day” is celebrated with much pomp and
glitter. Very few know that there’s another day, termed as ‘Earth overshoot day’. It is
the day that is marked to indicate and remind the humanity, how much the present
generation has used up the meagre resources of the earth, much more than it should
have. It is a grim reminder of the ecological debt, of the over consuming humans of
what they owe to Mother Nature. This is the day on which the whole humanity is
made to introspect over the destruction that is brought to finite resources of Mother
Earth in its inestimable avarice, for economic development.
The Global Foot Print Network, an International Non-Governmental organization,
measures the consumption patterns of different nations of the world as to how much
they consume every year. It has been estimated that every year the global community
consumes the earth’s budget for that particular year, long before the twelve months
period. The more alarming information of concern is that year after year, the exhaustion
of the year’s budget is occurring at a faster pace than that of the previous year. Like,
for instance, the quota for the year 1970 got exhausted on December 23 rd, in 1985 on
29
November 6th, in 2005 on September 3rd and in 2016 on August 8th itself. As a
consequence of which, there is an overdraw of available reserves, to satiate the
unquenchable thirst and the gluttonous hunger, during the remainder of the year.
The phenomenon of Climate Change, which is the result of the cumulative concen-
tration of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), symbolizes the adverse impact of this “Earth’s
overshoot”. The factors responsible for this phenomenon are attributable to the
“historic emissions” of the industrialized nations, as established and corroborated by
scientific evidence.
Ecological Debt and Climate Justice

The debate over climate change issue began with the expression of a common global
concern over climate change. The drastic change in the climatic conditions was
triggered by the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. The accumulation of
GHGs occurred primarily due to the industrial revolution (referred to as “historic
emissions”), ushered in by the developed countries. Having the essential characteristic
feature of getting locked up in the atmosphere for a pretty long time, the GHGs
started impacting the global temperature, in an adverse way, over time, upsetting the
natural rhythms of life, life forms and the entire environment. Thus, having been
responsible for this phenomenon, the group of developed and industrialized nations,
owe an obligation to the rest of the world and the environment (termed, “ecological
debt”), to help build resilience to adapt, mitigate and improve the climatic conditions
in the entire world to get stabilized to that of the year 1990, as agreed upon among the
nations. It is the bounden obligation of the economically advanced ones that are
responsible for having put the global climate under stress, to ensure “climate justice”.
Clearing this “ecological debt” thus, it was realized, was the means of ensuring climate
justice. This deal was struck through a global treaty of almost universal appeal entitled,
“United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” (UNFCCC), in the Earth
Summit on Environment and Development at Rio de Janiero IN 1992, to effectively
address the “common concern” of humanity and secure “our common future”.
UNFCCC Frame
UNFCCC is a legal benchmark, for a variety of reasons. It has, arguably, the largest
number of subscriptions of Nation-States to an international arrangement. It has
captured the imagination and support of every conceivable economic, social and
political grouping of communities of people, besides all the Permanent Members of
United Nations, as its votaries. Even the U.S., which has “walked in” and walked
out” of the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the Paris Agreement of 2015, has ratified the
Framework Convention, without any Reservations, continues to remain bound to it.
As further reiterated under the Paris Agreement, any new arrangement concerning
Climate Change, that would come in to effect from January 2020, will have to be
within the letter and spirit of the 1992 Framework Convention. As such, UNFCCC has
the unique status of a new international legal order from which no derogation is
tolerated. It is the touchstone, for authentication of any arrangement on the subject
and the pole-star to guide and steer all future deliberations for action.
The Framework law is held together by two basic and non-negotiable principles
namely:
1. The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
2. The principle of equity.
The immutable Guiding Principles establish the rule that while Climate Change
remains a global concern (and so, the responsibility of everyone, without any
exception, not to contribute any further to aggravate the situation), those who are
primarily responsible should take a greater burden of setting things right. The
responsibility includes the imminent need to switch over to GHG neutral (popularly
described as “carbon neutral” or cleaner mechanisms) technology to mitigate the
climate crisis. More importantly, they have the additional responsibility of building the
capacity of the developing countries, in resilience to and mitigation of adverse impact
of climate change, besides contribute to help them adopt new technologies (clean
development mechanism) so that the climatic conditions would stabilize to pre- 1990
condition. This they should be able to achieve by making available technical and
financial assistance by dedicating and ear-marking a small percentage of their annual
GDP, spread over a period of two decades time. The Principle of CBDR is to operate at
two levels. Between the Developed Annexure I Countries and the Developing
Countries, the differentiation is that while the former has not only the obligation to
reduce its “carbon footprints” (by adoption of carbon-neutral technology) but the
obligation of hand-holding the developing ones and build their capacity in that regard,
as well, the latter has only the obligation of adoption of Clean Development
Mechanism, with the help of the former. The responsibility gets differentiated within
the Annexure I Group, on the basis of the extent of historic contributions made to the
concentration of the GHGs by each one of them. Thus, the U.S., for having contributed
to about a third of the GHGs, had to undertake the responsibilities of reduction of
generation of it and extend assistance to the developing ones, in the same measure.
The Principle of Equity commands the victims of Climate Change namely, the group
of island nations (among nations) and the poorersections of people (among the
communities of people), the world over be helped to get over the trauma and acquire
capacities of adaptation and resilience to climate change. All this, under the Framework
Convention, was required to be accomplished in two decades time.
Kyoto Protocol and its Demise

It took the member countries five years, to work out a formula for implementation, in
the form of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. It laid down the formulae of Joint
Implementation, Emission Trading and Clean Development Mechanism. The first

two of these concerned the Annex-I countries and the third was for the Developing
Countries to adopt with the assistance of the Annex-I countries, designed to build their
resilience and capacity in adapting to and mitigating climate change. The U.S. walked
out of the obligation. The U.S. walked everyone into the framework convention for
Climate change, but walked out of it, when it mattered, making the rest of the world to
take on its burden. The United States of America who was contributing to one-third of
the global carbon emissions, walked out for a simple reason that they were ready to
talk about principles but not ready to take on the responsibility. The argument put forth
by it wasthat a number of leaders among the developing countries, like India and
China, also needed to take on the responsibility like the Annex-I countries because their
contribution to climate change was on the ascent. Since this was not happening, it
decided to abandon its Climate Obligation. For long, the arrangement could not take
off. When it did in 2008, it was a little too late and its impact too little to be of
significance. It is true that in the short span of about five years that climate change
arrangement worked, India was, without doubt, a beneficiary. It came up with
proposals and projects to bring in GHG neutral measure initiatives for which
international funding and also technical assistance was made available to carry out
projects. Among the nations of the world, India and China were the greatest
beneficiaries of this particular exercise. In terms of starting, implementing, executing,
getting benefits for most of the projects, India stood number one. But none of these
even touched the surface as the nature and extent of assistance and the time period
within which it was made available, were grossly inadequate and to scale up the
above-mentioned activities, India needed more resources and technical assistance. By
the end of the year 2012, the Kyoto Protocol expired. Besides the other factors, the
short span of time that was made available for the Kyoto Protocol to work,did neither
facilitate nor enable any country to achieve anything of consequence to realize the
objectives of the Climate Treaty.
Developments Leading to the Paris Agreement

While the Kyoto arrangement was on, a few parallel developments took place to
breathe the much needed fresh air into the Climate Negotiations. The return of U.S.,
to the Negotiating Table, catalyzed the process. Between the years 2009–2015,
Global Negotiations revived to strike a new deal to meet the increasing challenge of
Climate Change. Negotiations started half a decade back and at the end of this year
(2005), between 30th November to 5th December in Paris, global nations are supposed
to conclude a “Global Climate Package” which will be a combination of an
international legal agreement with legal force and a set of principles and future
projections as to how to deal with climate change, within the ambit of UNFCCC.
At the threshold of the new arrangement, it is appropriate to recall, the consensus
arrived at under the Framework Convention, as to development demands of the
developing countries. It was agreed that equity demanded, the developing countries not
to be denied the right to economically develop, notwithstanding the Climate Change
compulsions. Resilience measures and measures for adaptation, in them, need have to
come through contributions from the developed countries, as part of clearing the
ecological debt of the latter. But, when the whole world was in agreement with this
principle of equity, the biggest contributor to the problem, the United States of
America, chose to walk out of this arrangement. This was one of the reasons why even
by 2012, the world still could not achieve much success in Climate Change manage-
ment.
With the return of United States to the Negotiation Table, a breakthrough for a new
deal started taking shape. The U.S. and the European Union allied to centre-stage their
positions, as the determining factors for a new climate deal. The two points of view
that influenced in shaping and determining the future negotiations are as follows:
1. The first viewpoint is that of the European Union. It has taken the position in
veryclear and unmistakable terms that the world needs to act now, and clear
goals need to be set up for every country, without any exception, for either
developed or developing countries. If a few nations needed any particular help or
assistance, then it need be provided, through an assessment and determination as
to how much assistance be made available internationally and by working out the
details by consensus through further negotiations. By this, they have a protocol
worked out (i.e. Kyoto 2 Protocol) with a little modification from the 1 st Kyoto
Protocol, in which some of the leading developing countries like India and China
need to accept the same kind of responsibility as the developed world. This
means India can expect nothing out of the protocol. In terms of the outcomes
from these negotiations, European Union is going to have its way and India gets
nothing. Instead, it will be required to undertake certain responsibilities.
2. The second position and posturing are that of the United States of America. Its
formula is that each State can voluntarily fix their limits without any compulsion,
by developing a domestic Climate Action Plan. Through this, each country needs
to show and demonstrate to the world how much they can reduce, build capacity,
adapt, mitigate and stabilize the Climate Change impacts and give projections
which are voluntary as there will be no compulsions till 2030. They can work out
their own mechanism and goals, but results need to be shown. By this country
like India can also show to the rest of the nations what they can do to mitigate the
adverse impact of Climate Change. Through this internal management with a
cumulative effort internationally, it can be shown that efforts are being undertaken
to bring down the adverse impact of Climate Change. The clever projection of
this position, put forth by the US would mean, in practical terms, two things: that,
(a) the US, for the time being, is not ready to take any more obligation, which
means ecological debt is forgotten and equity would have no place in the whole
scheme of things. Instead, (b) in this entire exercise, there is space for every
nation to adapt to Climate Change Programme through their own voluntary
measures without any compulsion. These individual plans and programmes, with
clear targets, can then be consolidated to be presented as the collective will of the
community of nations by the end of 2015. It also proposed, through collective
efforts, a Climate Action Fund be set up, to be available for use in developing the
capacity of underdeveloped nations. A case was made for engaging everyone,
including Private Enterprise to partner and help nations achieve the goals. As can
be seen, this design too would offer no hope for India or for Climate Justice.
The Strategy Adopted by India for Paris Summit

There are about seventy developing countries which are referred to as LMDC’s (Like
Minded Developing Countries) and India is the leader of that. As a leader, India has
come up with a set of clear-cut suggestions as to what should steer the climate change
negotiations in the Paris Climate Change Summit, strictly in line with UNFCCC.
There should not be any violation of that, as all the nations are bound to the broad
principles of the framework convention and, across the board, the protocol binds all
the nations without any exception. By retaining the two principles i.e. Principle of
common but differentiated responsibilities and Principle of equity, a strategic action
plan can be shaped around these basic principles. The overall emphasis ought to be that
the developed countries have an ecological debt to pay India and other developing
countries, not as charity but as a right that they richly deserve, to ensure climate justice.
Post-Paris Strategy of Action for the Developing Countries: Concerned over the
deviations, boobby-traps and red herrings, put up by the developed world to dilute the
intent and content of UNFCCC, during and after the Paris Agreement, a post-script,
as a broad strategy for developing countries, especially India, is hereby proposed in the
efforts in firming up of a legal arrangement to come into effect from January 2020, to
seek and secure Climate Justice.
While India went to Paris making a strong bid for equity in the new Climate Deal,
concerted efforts were made by many of the developed countries to sabotage the same.
The “Paris Agreement, 2015”, that resulted was more of proposals and programmes of
action, to be further negotiated upon, with a number of options open for further
negotiations, within the ambit of UNFCCC and finalized at the threshold of 2020.
Whether the new accord being fashioned from Nov.’ 15 till dawn of 2020, would
ensure the centrality of the Principle of Equity or end up as a Climate Deal sans
Justice? The answer obviously to this question depends to a large extent on the position
the leaders of the developing nations, especially India take in achieving the primary
objectives of the UNFCCC. A few reflections are attempted in this paper to suggest
the approach that needs to be taken by countries like India in working out the nuts and
bolt in of the Paris Agreement.
As has been agreed by all parties the principle of ‘Common But Differentiated
Responsibilities’ and “Equity”, that form the foundation of the UNFCCC, remain the
driving force and core content on the new arrangement. This is, as encapsulated in the
Indian position that the “Climate Agreement is for Climate Justice”. Every conscious
effort should be made in the coming days in sticking to these lines, giving no room
for any manoeuvring by the developed nations to render the spirit of the negotiation,
nugatory.
Equity in the context of negotiations involves the following:
(a) Restoration of status quo ante to the climate affected nations and communities.
This means compensating, restoring and rehabilitating them from all hardships and
difficulties caused primarily by the Green House Gases for which Annexure-I
nations were primarily responsible.
(b) Bridging the gap of development desired, during the period.
(c) Putting them onto the bandwagon of environmentally responsible development
by making available finances and technology required for the purpose.
The Principle of CBDR in the present context means the following:
(a) Clearing the ecological debt by those, who owned it, but have not been able to
come out of it, for a variety of reasons till now, within a timeframe.
(b) Being accountable for the delay in clearing the debt, without any further excuse,
by making additional contributions as a measure of reparation, expiation and
penal sanction.
(c) Making contribution for mitigation of adverse impacts, developing resilience by
way of insurance cover, to insulate against further damage and facilitate adapta-
tion to change, in favour of the developing countries.
(d) Contributing towards building capacity in the most vulnerable communities both
in mitigation and adaptation.
These two aspects should have to constitute the core value of the content of the new
arrangement and it is the bounden duty of the developing countries to pursue them,
without compromise, till it is accomplished.
These do require making enormous concessions to the rigid regulation of Intellectual
Property Rights when it comes to transferring of cleaner technology, by creation,
maintenance and management of a corpus fund, drawn from the contributions of
Annexure-I countries. There has to be an open and transparent process of verification
of working of this arrangement through a steering and monitoring body, guided by a
set of guidelines. The steering body should invariably be chaired by a representative
of the developing world and composed of members from different groups, the
majority of whom should be drawn from the developing and less developed countries.
The monitoring body should, however, be composed of those possessing the expertise
in the respective areas of Climate Change Adaptation, Mitigation and Resilience. But,
even within this, the Chairmanship should remain with the representatives of the
developing countries. A case has to be clearly made, for getting the lion’s share of the
benefits of the new deal to be made available for the most vulnerable ones. Without
this, there would be no climate justice.
In specific terms, nations which have a large number of poor, underprivileged and
vulnerable communities populating them should derive the maximum benefit. India
with over a quarter of the global poor, living within it, requires and deserves a large
chunk of the initial contribution to achieve the goal. Having been able to demonstrate
what it can achieve, without an initial assistance, like stitching the grand 123 nation
alliance covering solar and research energy initiative, such a measure of more
assistance to India would not only lift the teeming millions of the unfortunate victims
of Climate Change, in this country but, at the same time, through this measure, would
lend a helping hand of assistance to capacity building activities, where ever required.
In addition, small island nations and archipelagos require immediate attention and an
action plan for implementation without any delay and within a given frame of the next
five years of implementation of the new agreement, ought to be forged. Impact of
Climate Change being acutely experienced in these regions, with both actual and
notional “sinking feeling” already being experienced by this group, there exists no
time to waste in empty deliberations. It calls for immediate action, without excuse.
There has to be a clear message sent to a recalcitrant nation like the United States that
there cannot be any more opportunity for any nation to walk in and walk out of initial
agreements as and when they desire. There has to be a clear imposition of a penal
sanction, operable with immediate effect on such nations for past deviance with a
clear warning that the future instances of non-conformity, with a solemn commitment
made earlier, would result in enhanced penal sanctions, the quantum of which would be
many times over the observance of commitments made. There is to be a no compro-
mise over these and it is not impossible for the world community to enforce the
sanctions. This has been achieved in the earlier instance, quite effectively. For example,
on the Human Rights front, when the practice of apartheid led to the clear and effective
imposition of global sanctions on social, economic, cultural and on sports, fronts
successfully, to make the guilty come round. Short of this would be nothing but the
perpetuation of climate injustice, as is prevailing now.
The Paris Agreement: A Common Future 37
The Paris Agreement: A Common Future

Aastha Suman
Advocate, Bengaluru, Karnataka
T here are many expectations attached to the Paris Agreement on climate change,
finalized during the 21st meeting of the conference of parties in December 2015
(hereinafter the “Agreement”) and being a successor to the Kyoto Protocol, it remains
the only hope for us to prevent our planet from heating beyond redemption. However,
in its present form, the Agreement has been labelled by environmentalists as a ‘political
compromise’ between the developed and the developing countries1 rather than being an
environmentally sound document. The recent developments where the Trump
administration in the United States of America has denounced its validity and the
Chinese administration’s objections to the Agreement have only proved that even this
political compromise may not stand the test of time.
The Agreement is based on each country declaring its voluntary self-set targets (called
“intended nationally determined contributions” (INDC)).2 The INDCs by way of a
“ratchet mechanism” are to be reviewed every 5 (five) years and it is hoped that they
shall be made more ambitious progressively.3 However, the Agreement puts no binding
obligations on a country to either meet its INDCs or to make them more ambitious
over time. Also, there are no punitive sanctions put on a country if it decides to
abandon its INDCs. Most developing countries rely on financing and technology
transfer to the developed countries to meet their INDCs but the Agreement once
again fails to put any binding obligations on the developed countries in this relation.
The competing concepts of “common but differentiated responsibility”4, “climate
justice” and “right to development”5 all find a place in the Agreement but they remain
meaningless as long as the implementation of the Agreement is dependent on voluntary
INDCs and on the generosity of developed countries sharing their technology and
providing finance. However, the concept of ‘peaking year’ and the formulation of the
1 Robert Falkner, The Paris Agreement and the new logic of international climate politics, International
Affairs 92(5), September 2016, pp. 6, 7.
2 Article 3 of the Agreement.
3 Article 4(9) of the Agreement.
4 See the Preamble, Article 2 and Article 4 of the Agreement.
5 See the Preamble of the Agreement.
37
long-term goal recognizing that developing countries will peak their emissions later
than the developed ones does offer some respite.
The difficulty in reaching a common agreement, strong enough to bring about strong
curbs in the emission levels can be attributed to the differing stands taken by
countries of the world. The United States of America believes that China and India
have very high overall emissions and should take up as much responsibility for
climate change as other developed countries. While China and India counter this line of
argument, by stating that it was the industrialization of the developed countries which
has resulted in the global warming. Between these two sides, the real losers seem to
be the small island nations and the poor nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America.
In this paper, the author has presented a legal analysis of the Agreement. Initially, it has
been argued that replacing Agreement with a stronger and legally binding multilateral
treaty may be more in the long-term interest of humanity. However, keeping in view
the political deadlock surrounding the issue, the author has in parallel argued that
India and other like-minded countries may in the meantime make the most of the
Agreement and lobby actively for technology transfer and finance.
The Paris Agreement: A Legal Analysis

Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Agreement is not a protocol under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), though it does apply to only
the parties of UNFCCC, which choose to ratify the Agreement.6 Technically, the
Agreement is a multilateral environmental treaty governed by international law,
however, to avoid the treaty needing clearance from the United States Senate it has
been read as an “international agreement other than a treaty” and is adopted pursuant
to the UNFCCC. It is implemented based on the existing United States Clean Air Act
and other American legislation and is interpreted as not imposing any new substantive
obligations, thus requiring no senate clearance.7
Being governed by the international law alone, the Agreement is limited by its very
nature. International Law is at best a weak law,8 which is dependent more on political
compromises and alliances than on strict black letter of the conventions, customs and
judicial decisions. Last year we witnessed that a powerful country like China could
ignore the directions of the Permanent Court of Arbitration in regard to the South
China Sea dispute and nine-dash line.9 There have also been instances of United States
6 Supra.
7 Daniel Bodansky, Legal Options for US acceptance of a new climate change agreement available at
https://www.c2es.org/.../legal-options-us-acceptance-new-climate-change-agreement.pdf, last visited at April
3, 2017.
8 Jack L. Goldsmith and Eric A. Posner, The limits of International Law, Oxford University Press, p. 225.
9 Permanent Court of Arbitration, South China Sea Arbitration Award of 12 July 2016.
of America ignoring the directions of the International Court of Justice. For instance,
in regard to the military and paramilitary activities against Nicaragua case.10
This implies that any multilateral agreement between nations concerning global
warming and climate change shall also face similar hurdles in lieu of the international
law being a weak law and no better mechanism can be put in place without the
political will. For instance, history has borne witness to the failure of the successive
international environmental conventions from the Kyoto Protocol, which saw
countries like the United States of America refusing to take on any obligations and
countries like Russia, New Zealand, and Japan did not take on any commitments at all
in the second commitment period.
Keeping in view this limitation, the author has analyzed the language and the
formulation of the Agreement in the following sections.
Language and Drafting

The author has observed that the Agreement has been drafted in a broad language
which puts no specific obligations put on any of the parties. The concept of INDC has
been devised to stave off responsibilities and international scrutiny rather than to
bring about a lasting change. For instance, the current INDCs of 158 countries have the
potential to limit warming to 2.7°C by 2100, if all governments meet their pledges. 11
It is thus apparent from the outset that the Agreement would fall well short of the
goal to limit global mean temperature rise to below 2°C, not to mention 1.5°C.
Another flaw in the language of the Agreement is unclear responsibilities being spelt
out for the developing and the developed countries. For instance, with respect to the
developed countries, the responsibility mentioned is that “they should continue taking
the lead by undertaking economy-wide absolute emission reduction targets”, while
the developing countries are called upon to “continue enhancing their mitigation
efforts, and are encouraged to move over time towards economy-wide emission
reduction or limitation targets in the light of different national circumstances.”12 It may
be noted that no specific language on the extent of involvement has been mentioned
in the Agreement. Also, though the preamble of the Agreement includes a reference
to human rights, gender equality and a just transition, references to the same in the
operative agreement are missing.
10The case concerning the military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America) (merits), judgment of 27 June 1986.
11INDC Synthesis report available at http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/indc-synthesis-report-
press-release/http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/indc-synthesis-report-press-release/ last visited

at April 1, 2017.
12Article 4(4) of the Agreement.
However, on the positive side the Agreement does lay down an outward commitment
level to well below 2 degrees temperature goal, and to pursue efforts to limit increase
to 1.5 degrees.13 The very acknowledgement of 1.5 is a hard-fought victory for the
small island nations, but the rest of the deal provides little confidence it will be
achieved. Also, the inclusion of a long-term goal of net zero greenhouse gas emissions
during the second half of this century14 is encouraging, but the reference to a
“balance” between emissions and removals/sinks of greenhouse gases raises concerns
about the potential implications for land use and food security. Despite its rather
weak formulation, a reference to the need to address “displacement related to climate
change” has been captured and could provide a basis for further work and potentially
a “coordination facility” in a future conference of party decisions. This will specifically
help the small island nations and countries like Bangladesh which have the threat of
submergence under the rising sea levels. All in all, a delicate balance between
environmental needs and the development agenda of the various countries are a
continuing theme of this Agreement.
It should be also noted that the Agreement contains several elements aimed at avoiding
potential adverse social and environmental effects of forestry impacts. These are
covered in the preamble of the Agreement, where Parties “recogniz[e] the fundamental
priority of food security” and “not[e] the importance of ensuring the integrity of all
ecosystems [...] and the protection of biodiversity”. The parties further agreed that
they “should, when taking action to address climate change, respect, promote and
consider their respective obligations on human rights”. Despite the fact that these
elements have been weakened due to their placement in the preamble and their
wording, they nevertheless underscore the relevance of already established safeguards
and will hopefully guide any future land-use activities under the Agreement.
Funding Issues
There appear to be no definite funding obligations on specifically developed countries
and the language merely says that “developed countries shall support developing
country which will allow for higher ambition in their actions.”15 The Agreement does
not strengthen commitment by developed countries but repeats their obligation to
provide financial resources for continuation of existing UNFCCC obligations. It
encourages others to contribute on a voluntary basis. 16
There is a silver lining though, as the Agreement does clearly recognize the need for
mobilizing investments to trigger the transition toward low-carbon and climate-resilient
13Article 2(1)(a) of Agreement.

16Article 9 of the Agreement.
development17 has been acknowledged as a purpose of the Agreement. Pursuant to the

decision at the conference of parties in Paris, the developed countries are required to
extend finance of up to $ 100 billion to developing nations by 2025 to mitigate and
adapt to climate change, after which a new goal will be set for post-2025 finance
mobilization, with $ 100 billion as a floor.18 However, due to lack of clarity in the
Agreement, this remains a vague goal that no country can be held accountable to
make the requisite contribution.
Weak Sanctions
Most importantly, the Agreement has no provisions on sanctions placed on countries
for not adhering to obligations. Theoretically, countries can choose weak targets as part
of their INDCs and may midway refuse to fulfil even those. In these circumstances, the
Agreement becomes useless.
However, the Agreement does provide for periodic reviews, where peer pressure shall
be used as a tactic to force compliance by deviant countries. Sanctions in international
law have always been weak and developed countries have often chosen to avoid their
obligation. In such a scenario, the mechanism of ‘naming and shaming’ during
periodic reviews may be the only viable option. The naming and shaming create a
reputational risk through the establishment of mandatory transparency and review
provisions, but this means little too powerful and rich countries. Separately, despite a
weak formulation, the Paris decision introduces some accounting criteria to enhance
the reporting of climate finance, which has enhanced accountability to a large extent.
Adaptation
Another triumph of this Agreement is that it stresses on adaptation activities. It states
that all adaptation action should follow a country-driven, gender-responsive, partici-
patory and fully transparent approach, taking into consideration vulnerable groups,
communities and ecosystems.19 More importantly, action on adaptation is to be
reviewed and accelerated every five years in parallel to the contribution cycles for
mitigation.20
However, while the need for substantial adaptation finance has been recognized in the
Agreement, it does not include a collective, quantified goal for adaptation finance.
The Agreement has not established an adaptation climate finance target for either pre
17Article 2(1)(c) of the Agreement.
18Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-first session, held in Paris from 30 November to 13
December 2015 available at https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10a01.pdf last visited at
August 1, 2017.
or post-2020 (either quantitative or qualitatively). Even if governments came back to

the negotiating table in the next five years to increase their emission cuts, the
developing countries would still face huge adaptation costs per year by 2050. Overall
economic damage to developing country economies under a 2°C scenario is especially
thought to be devastating.
Also though the Agreement features an article on loss and damage as insisted by the
developing countries,21 the decision text contains a clause that excludes the concept to
be used as a basis for compensation and liability claims. The legal implications of the
clause in the Paris conference of parties decision on the exclusion of liability or
compensation in connection with loss and damage remains a concern and need to be
further explored. It is important to note that the exclusion clause only refers to what
the Article provides for, not a general exclusion on loss and damage liabilities.
Giving Teeth to the Paris Agreement

As argued in the last section, the Agreement has failed to create a strong arrangement
backed by sanctions to achieve the goals of limiting greenhouse gases and its impact
on the earth. An explicit commitment to increasing overall effort is missing, and the
lack of any meaningful trigger to raise ambition in the 2020–25 as well as in the 2020–
2030 period is of particular concern. In this section, the author attempts to find
solutions for strengthening the Agreement while remaining within the four corners of
the Agreement.
Firstly, it may be noted that even though the mechanism for increasing the ambition
of the Agreement is very weak, with peer pressure this can be changed. The Agreement
itself envisages a ‘facilitative dialogue’ in 2018 to ‘take stock’; and a ‘stock-take’ in
2023 (and every five years thereafter) to ‘inform’ governments ‘updating and
enhancing’ their efforts. The countries which do not achieve their targets will face
naming and shaming at the conference of parties, where a review of INDCs shall take
place.22 Beyond the current round of INDCs, there’s a welcome commitment to 5 year
cycles of target setting with each target representing a progression on the last year.
Secondly, it is required to build upon the Warsaw Mechanism for Loss and Damage
(WMLD) as the Agreement itself states that the said mechanism may be enhanced
and strengthened in the future and continued, following a review in 2016.23 The
decision at the conference of parties further requests the executive committee of the
WMLD to establish a task force to develop recommendations for dealing with climate
change-related displacement. These recommendations need to be taken seriously and

22Jorge Vinuales, The Paris Agreement: Initial Examination available at https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-paris-
climate-agreement-an-initial-examination-part-iii-of-iii/ last visited on July 30, 2017.
it should be made sure that the task force is constituted in time and given powers to
evaluate correctly the displacement related costs.
Thirdly, one must build on decisions like installation of a clearinghouse for risk
transfer, as had been proposed by developed countries. This reflects initiatives outside
the UNFCCC, such as the G7 Climate Risk Insurance Initiative, which is to cover
300 million people in developing countries with climate risk insurance.24
Fourthly, fact that the Agreement features a separate article on REDD+, which refers
to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing count-
ries is very encouraging. It clearly recognizes the role of conservation, sustainable
management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing
countries. This is very positive. This must be seen especially in light of Article 4 of
the Agreement, which introduces the concept of greenhouse gas emissions neutrality.
In this context, REDD+ activities might be used to assist countries in achieving their
climate change mitigation contributions. More specifically, with results-based pay-
ments being explicitly mentioned in both the agreement text and the conference of
party decision, there is a risk that readiness activities, which are a precondition for
undertaking results-based activities, might be disregarded.
Fifthly, it is essential that all countries must put their INDCs through a Paris credibility
test to see whether they have put enough on the table to meet the ambition of keeping
warming to 1.5°C. Specifically, change in political power in the United States of
America, should not be allowed to hijack the efforts of the Agreement. This can be
achieved by counter efforts of G-7 countries. Furthermore, carbon pricing, a growing
area of interest for many governments must become a reality in a way that delivers real
emissions cuts.
Also, the Agreement should be extended to new sectors like shipping and aviation. The
respective governing bodies International Maritime Organisation and International
Civil Aviation Organisation now must come forward with immediate proposals for
emissions reductions that withstand the Paris 1.5°C.
Sixthly, the concepts of polluter pay principle, the precautionary principle and the
public trust doctrine is required to be further developed. Recently, Uttarakhand High
Court has developed the concept of declaring certain rivers of India as living rivers,
with powers to sue any party for polluting it. Such innovations in the field of
environmental law are most welcome.
Seventhly, the international community should build on the momentum delivered by
efforts from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund to work towards a
24G7 Climate Risk Initiative, available at http://newsroom.unfccc.int/lpaa/resilience/g7-climate-risk-insurance-

initiative-stepping-up-protection-for-the-most-vulnerable/ last visited at July 23, 2017.
common approach on fair carbon pricing, whether these are taxes or markets, and
ensure that a share of the revenues benefits the most impacted people. Climate change,
and in particular its risk element, also needs to be integrated in a more systematic way
in investment decisions, companies reporting, rating agencies work and other macro-
economic forecast and models.
Eighthly, there is need to see even more leadership in the private sector. Corporate
social responsibility initiatives should mandatorily invest a certain amount for mitiga-
tion and adaptation activities. The private sector should adopt science-based emissions
reductions targets, and make individual pledges to help achieve the goals of the
Agreement. The trade associations or business associations should hold discussions
on climate change and use peer pressure tactics to discipline the industry. Equally
important is for companies to face up to the reality of the scale of challenges of
adaptation and resilience, especially in the sectors of energy, consumer goods sector,
finance and insurance.
Furthermore, the citizens must hold governments and the private sector accountable.
The civil society will have to multiply further in its mobilization and diversity, as
politicians are lagging behind the real curve. They should use the Paris provisions as
the benchmark to challenge domestic lack of action, possibly in local court, and
continue effective campaigning, both at the grassroots level and push big and powerful
players.
Conclusion
The powerful governments have failed to put our common interest above that of
narrowly defined and short-term interests of individual economies, as is evident from
the above discussion. While the Agreement may easily be criticized for setting
ambitious objectives but failing to actually deliver, any assessment of the Agreement
needs to be based on an understanding of what international processes can actually
deliver. It is understood that diplomacy does not happen in a vacuum, and what could
not be achieved internationally, can be achieved by efforts at the grass root level.
Lessons must be derived from the failures of Kyoto Protocol and the success of
Montreal Protocol on ozone depletion.
Our generation will be questioned by our children and grandchildren to come for lack
of foresight and courage to deal with an imminent threat to the very existence of life
on earth. We as citizens need to take hold of our own destiny, and not repeat the
mistakes our ancestors made. Sustainable development achieved by economic, social
and environmental sustainability is the only way forward.
Climate Change Communication in Vernacular Language is a Challenging Proposition… 45
Climate Change Communication:

Case Study of Developing
a Community Primer in Kannada
Somashekhar B. Srikantiah
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT),
Yelahanka, Bengaluru, Karnataka
C limate Change is often considered an unobtrusive issue that most people are
unable to grasp since it is a phenomenon which is described on large temporal
and spatial scales. Environmental Educators and Science Communicators recognize
this unobtrusiveness to be due to many factors inherent in the complexity of the subject,
its description, and various impacts being visualized. Consequently, these factors pose
difficulty in communicating climate change concerns to different audiences. The
Scientific community has long acknowledged the importance of communication in
respect of climate change, while most of the climate change information for the general
public is made available through the media. However, the mass media have a tendency
to focus on the risks and disastrous consequences of climate change rather than on the
curious and noteworthy elements of climate science. Therefore the prevailing under-
standing of climate change among the common citizenry is often incomplete and with
many wrong notions.
The unique and novel initiative for climate change communication, taken up by our
team in the form of developing a Community Primer on climate change in Kannada,
offers a case study of developing a user-friendly learning tool on climate change for the
use of the frontline forestry staff. This primer has presented the complex subject of
climate science in a vernacular language with necessary elaboration but without losing
the essence of the subject. The core contents were drawn from authentic published
sources, and the primer serves as a user-friendly tool to strengthen the working
capacities of the target audience, in respect of climate change and forest conservation.
The Primer presents the different aspects of climate change and its consequences on
environment, society and biodiversity elements, as well as mitigation mechanisms, in
a simple language and easy-to-comprehend style. The prototype has undergone field
testing and received interesting positive feedback about its significance in meeting the
learning needs of the target audience. This Primer has demonstrated that the complex
45
environmental subjects like Climate Change can be effectively communicated to meet

the learning needs of the no-formal learning groups like field forestry staff.
Climate Change is an Un-Obtrusive Subject

Climate change in the recent decades has become a subject of priority world over,
attracting the attention of governments, triggering a spurt of research in the academia,
and inciting the interest among the common citizenry. Despite its significance and the
urgency with which it is to be addressed in the context of environmental conservation,
climate change is often considered an “unobtrusive” issue that most people are unable
to grasp first-hand (Rogers and Dearing, 1988). At least three reasons are assigned to
this “un-obtrusive” nature, by the scientific fraternity.
Firstly, as is known climate change is a phenomenon which is described on large
temporal and spatial scales. Scientific fraternity admits that “climate” is the average
weather conditions over a period of 30 years in a region. Such long time period and
large area become the elements far beyond the understanding of the common citizenry.
It is mostly invisible and what is visible, though confusingly, are the changes in
weather patterns which may or may not be linked to climate change trends (Rogers and
Dearing, 1988).
Secondly, the available descriptions of climate, its changes and other related issues are
largely scientific in nature, with several technical terms which are quite unheard of, in
the everyday parlance of common citizenry. Added to it, many fundamental principles
of climate science having their roots in physical sciences, geological sciences and
atmospheric sciences, each with their own measures, models, and heuristics, make the
subject complex. Although there exists a widely shared consensus about the basic
features of anthropogenic causes of climate change it is also true that the scientists
cannot predict with accuracy how climate change will manifest itself in different
regions and what are the most effective measures to mitigate climate change under
such contexts.
Thirdly, the consequences of climate change which pose major risks to the human
societies too appear more as ‘virtual’ rather than the real ones, depending on where in
the world one lives and on how much one can ‘afford’ to think about these issues.
This is particularly so with the consequences which lie in the future and are likely to
affect some select regions severe than others. Since Climate Change is largely a
supranational endeavour, addressed at international meetings (such as Conferences of
the Parties (COPs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change –
UNFCCC), it fails to become a priority issue for the common citizenry. All of this only
makes the subject of climate change to be one of profound complexity and difficult
perceive.
Climate Change Communication: Case Study of Developing a Community Primer… 47
Challenges of Climate Change Communication

Most governments agree that climate change is now inevitable, anthropogenic in origin,
and it is time to get practical over climate change. However, since climate change and
its manifold implications are not easily perceivable to many target audience group,
communicating climate change, therefore becomes a difficult proposition, assert the
science communicators (Nerlich et al., 2010). It is said that climate change communi-
cation, itself becomes a complex initiative- due to the complexity of climate change
science on one hand, and on the other the complexity involved in communicating it.
Climate change communication becomes a subject of special consideration, as it draws
its principles and essence from different disciplines such as social and cognitive psy-
chology (which studies human attitudes to risk, strategies that can be used to trigger
behavior change, mental barriers and predispositions), communication science (which
provides contexts and approaches to communication) and social studies of science
(which investigate the interactions between scientists, the media, policymakers and
stakeholders).
Communicating Climate Change to ‘Public’ is Quite a Challenge

Although the subject of climate change implies an element of urgency for communi-
cation, as a part of the adaptation and mitigation strategy, it is surprising to note that,
climate change issues in the mass media are represented in highly varied manner.
Another interesting premise associated with climate change communication is that,
although climate change is a global phenomenon, response to its issues by the common
citizenry would be shaped by the varied social systems and norms in the regional
societies. Thus, almost all research on the communication of climate change has
focused on the Western social contexts and norms, with little consideration of how the
issue is being framed in other countries (Billett, 2009). Communication efforts across
the world have slowly changed their focus from persuading people that climate change
is happening to persuade people to adopt practical measures to deal with it, note the
science communicators.
The role of the mass media in ‘framing’ and re-forming climate change issues, whether
scientific or political, has been well established (Billett, 2009). Although the mass
media is regarded as the ‘gatekeepers of information on climate change’ (Carvalho and
Burgess, 2005), many environmental communicators have pointed out that, the ongoing
communication initiatives tend to focus more on the catastrophic nature of climate
change and its consequences (Somashekhar, 2015) rather than on the ‘exciting’
elements of the different natural phenomena of climate science. Such communication
sounds to a reader, it is argued, more as an ‘alarm’ dabbed with awe and fear, and
therefore fails to make the expected impact about climate science, and alienates the
audience from developing an appreciation for this new science. Likewise, the Western
mass media have highlighted the ‘climate scepticism’ (Billett, 2009), rather than the
social responsibility of the citizenry. For instance, in the USA, Boykoff and Boykoff
(2004) found that up to 50% of articles and stories on climate change in the mass
media doubted either its existence or anthropogenic origin.
Climate Change Communication in India

The situation in India in this regard is not quite different. The available source of
information on climate change to most people in India is the mass media. It is to be
noted that much of the climate change news and stories in the mass media relies on the
scientific reports and press releases issued by different scientific institutions and
government agencies for the want of authentic information, and therefore tend to
remain more as technical pieces of information which are not-easy-to-comprehend.
Adding to the complexity, the contexts and examples used in such technical reports
mostly correspond to the western hemisphere and therefore fail to make the Indian
readers relate themselves with the focal issues of climate change in India. Added to
the problem is the non-availability of authentic information in the local language.
This is due to the fact that, the available examples and contexts relevant to climate
change in India are very few. One of the focal topics in the context of climate change in
India is Himalayan glaciers. However, since the understanding about a glacier is also
beyond the comprehension of a common man, the impact of climate change on
Himalayan glaciers remains a distant example. The threat of flooding in the Himalayan
foothills due to the melting of glaciers, as indicated in the Fourth Assessment Report
from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) and potential
monsoonal changes and sea level rise around the low-lying coastal areas, however, are
the other focal issues of climate change in India.
Yet, contrary to the North American and European press which focused on the
scepticism about the anthropogenic nature of climate change and its consequences, the
Indian press has entirely endorsed climate change as a scientific reality (Billet, 2009).
The English-language press in India considers climate change as a priority socio-
environmental issue, rather than reducing it to a distant scientific process. By paying
close attention to the environmental rather than scientific aspects of climate change, the
press has focused their discussions closely on the impacts and risks posed by global
warming it is argued (Billett, 2009).
Impact of Climate Change on Forest Resources in India

Climate Change research in the recent years from all around the world has, for the first
time, shed light on the impact and consequences of climate change on biodiversity and
forest resources. Parmesan and Yohe (2003), Root et al. (2005), and Parmesan and
Hanley (2015) offer interesting overviews of climate change drivers and its impact
which is manifested as a change in species distribution, range shifts, altered population
structure, disturbed phenology cycles and such ecological processes. Many studies have
also predicted the species vulnerability and suggested mitigation models (Parmesan,
2007).
However, a rapid review of such studies indicates thatmajority of them focus on
landscapes and species of the temperate world, while a corresponding understanding
from a tropical region, especially of India, is quite cursory. Such limited number of
studies from the tropics attempt to shed light on the impact of climate change and
futuristic predictions in respect of a) Agricultural crops (Rathore et al., 2001; Vedwan
and Rhoades, 2001; Kumar et al., 2004; Mall et al., 2006; and Srivastava, 2013),
b) Forests and forest types (Ravindranath and Sukumar, 1996, 1998; Sukumar et al.,
1995; Ravindranath et al., 2006, Xu et al., 2009; Negi et al., 2012, Shrestha et al.,
2012; Chandrashekhara, 2015). While these studies discuss certain critical issues
related to climate change predictions for the tropical region, they correspond to the
overall forestry sector of the country and the Himalayas but do not cover any specific
biological taxa. Contrary to the surge of research data related to the phenology and
range shift of different forestry species and biodiversity from the temperate world,
similar datasets from India are almost absent.
Likewise, the availability of user-friendly information and communication material
on Climate Change in the vernacular language, which is accessible to field forestry
staff, the picture is not so encouraging. Environmental communicators have pointed at
the inherent difficulty associated with Climate Change Communication (Roser-Renouf
and Maibach, 2010 and Dillon, 2011). Apart from the context based news coverage in
the mainstream media, availability of reliable and comprehensive literature on Climate
Change, especially in local languages like Kannada, is almost absent (Somashekhar,
2015).
All of this only shows that the focus of climate change research on its impact on forest
resources in India is still in its infancy as compared to the temperate world. Con-
sequently, a thorough understanding of climate change among the forestry staff and
other stakeholder groups in India has still not emerged. This situation thus offers an
excellent opportunity to environmental communicators and writers to fill the void, by
way of developing need-based literature and learning the material on climate change
issues, in Kannada and other regional languages.
This paper reports a case study of developing a Primer in Kannada on climate change
and forest resources, for the use of frontline field forestry staff of Karnataka.
Need for Developing Proper Understanding of Climate Change

The general tendency among the common citizenry is to relate weather vagaries to
climate change, along with a string of questions which evoke an element of bewilder-
ment: “Is it Global warming or Global climate change?”… “Are these two separate
phenomena or one leading to the other?”… “Do they imply some catastrophe? What
will be our fate”… “Is it true that the land mass and much of the coastline will get
submerged by the rising sea?”… “Is it true that the forests will vanish and animals
go extinct due to Climate Change?”... “How would our environment be in future?”—
Such and similar questions continue to ponder but fail to get convincing answers, for
the want of proper information.
Prevalence of such incomplete perceptions but increased interest among the common
citizenry and other stakeholder groups establishes the urgent need to help them develop
a proper understanding of Climate Change. Developing such an understanding becomes
essential and urgent especially in the forestry sector, on the premise that:
1. Climate Change exerts significant influence on forests.
2. Scientific understanding of Climate Change would enable the frontline forestry
staff to develop relevant working knowledge and skills.
3. Such understanding would, in turn, equip them to address the emerging needs of
developing climate change mitigation mechanisms for overall forest conservation.
Furthermore, since climate change is considered to adversely impact forest resources,
with consequent changes in the livelihoods, a comprehensive awareness about its
impact, among the forestry staff becomes essential for strengthening and widening their
working capacities in respect of climate change and forestry conservation.
Developing a Primer on Climate Change in Kannada

Knowledge products in the form of Community Primers developed in vernacular
language and user-friendly form, which makes available authentic and comprehensive
information on local environmental issues, have been shown to serve as effective
learning tools to enhance the understanding of field forestry staff and non-formal
learning groups in Karnataka, in respect of such focal environmental issues
(Somashekhar, 2012).
In order to address the knowledge gap about climate change, among the field forestry
staff of Karnataka, a proposal to develop a Primer in Kannada on climate change and
forest resources, in a form and language that is user friendly, was made to EMPRI, and
accordingly, considering the need, a small grant was sanctioned by EMPRI to TDU,
Bengaluru.
Primer is Essentially a form of Literature for Easy Comprehension

A ‘Community Primer’ may be described as a “Comprehensive theme-specific
Monograph” that introduces a focal scientific theme to a lay person, in a simple
language without diluting its core substance; it offers a simplified digest of the
focal subject, by compiling all the relevant information and making a synthesis of it,
so as to enable the reader to get a grasp of the subject hitherto unknown, and develop
a proper understanding of the same. The Information is presented in a form and
language familiar to the reader, i.e., in ‘easy-to-comprehend’ style, with familiar
examples and analogies. “Illustrated Primer” has been considered as a reliable
learning material cum self-study tool in non-formal Conservation education inter-
ventions. Relevant information would be provided in an appealing style to meet the
learners’ context. The learning contents would be made available based on the
learning needs, both perceived and actual. The focal subject matter would be appro-
priately illustrated with visuals, graphics with sufficient examples and relevant
anecdotes.
This primer aims to bring together authentic information on global climate change from
various published sources and is expected to serve as an effective tool to communicate
global climate change a subject which is otherwise abstract and unobtrusive. This
information of the higher level of intellect in Kannada made available in an easy-to-
read style is expected to enhance the working capacities of the frontline forestry staff
and community groups in Karnataka in respect of forest resources in the context of
climate change.
This Primer is the first of its kind user friendly document in Kannada, on Climate
Change that provides comprehensive overview of Climate Change and related issues,
especially the Climate Change drivers, global warming, greenhouse gases, science
behind climate science, manifestation of climate change and its consequences, impact
on forestry resources, biodiversity and landscapes, response of forest plants and
wildlife to climate change, and Climate change mitigation mechanisms.
Objectives
Objectives of this small grant project for developing a Primer on Climate change were
the following:
 To develop a Community Primer on Climate Change in Kannada, based on the
available information drawn from published sources, for the use of Field Forestry
staff, to provide necessary orientation and create interest in them about climate
change and its impact on forest resources.
 To introduce to ‘basic understanding and concepts’ of Climate Change so as to

enable the field forestry staff to relate climate change issues with forest conserva-
tion.
 To provide specific information, guidelines, field strategies so as to equip the field
forestry staff to address the emerging needs of Climate Change mitigation
strategies.
Methodology of Developing the Primer

Based on our earlier experience of developing community primers on different focal
environmental and conservational issues of the Western Ghats (Somashekhar, 2011),
and reframing the methodology as followed in these endeavours with necessary
modifications to suit the requirements, we developed a working strategy for developing
the Primer. The team followed the sequential stages as below, in order to reach the
end product:
 Identifying the perceived learning needs of the target audience.
 Identifying the corresponding core contents to fulfil these needs.
 Necessary literature search and compilation of relevant information about the
core contents from published sources.
 Processing of raw data/information and its conversion to make a synthesis (story
template).
 Developing the contents in Kannada and presenting it under relevant chapters
along the story template to ensure proper flow of the subject.
 Necessary editing, rewriting of the draft.
 Page designing with illustrations/visuals to prepare the Prototype.
 Field testing of the prototype with the intended target audience.
Prevailing Understanding about Climate Change among

the Field Forestry Staff
In order to actually understand the learning needs of the target audience, a need
assessment exercise was conducted keeping the forester trainees from the Forest
Training School, Ilawala, Mysore, as the study group. A simple questionnaire that
attempts to assess the understanding of the trainees about different aspects of climate
change, was developed and administered to 15 trainees randomly chosen from a batch
of 60 forester trainees undergoing the induction training at the Forest Training school.
The survey brought to light many interesting findings as below:
 As expected, the terms, ‘Weather’, ‘Climate’ and ‘Atmosphere’ were interchange-
ably used by the trainees to indicate what is ‘Climate’. Likewise, terms such as
‘Climate change’ and ‘Global warming’ were also perceived as analogous to each
other.
 In respect of the understanding about different manifestations of ‘weather’, it was

noticed that only rainfall and daily temperature were indicated as the constituents
of weather while ignoring other features such as clouds, wind speed, and multiple
forms of water present in the air.
 In respect of the personal experience of climate change, the participants over-
whelmingly claimed that they had a first-hand experience of ‘climate change’.
However, what they were actually indicating was they had seen weather vagaries,
unpredictable monsoons, the rise in summer temperature, and flash floods. It only
proved that the common tendency is to very quickly relate the weather vagaries
and seasonal fluctuations of weather to ‘climate change’.
 A very poor understanding of the causes and drivers, especially in respect of
Greenhouse gases was noticed. Even among the greenhouse gases, the significance
of methane and water vapour was ill recognized. The rise in the daily temperature
was equated with global warming and it was assigned to CO2 emission from
vehicles. Understanding about CO2 emission from other sources was almost nil.
 Likewise, the understanding of the intricacies and the impact of climate change
was quite weak. Consequences in the form of range shift, altered phenology,
melting of glaciers, sea level rise, ice age, etc. were not heard of by many.
 The tendency was more of “Problematic elsewhere, safe locally”.
 Likewise, their focus towards, responsible environmental behaviour as a means of
addressing the climate change issues was also not seen.
This assessment was helpful in developing an overall picture of the prevailing
understanding of climate change among the field forestry staff and helped us to
formulate the necessary focus of the chapters of the Primer. Thus, the primer chapters
specifically focused on certain key concerns and questions of the following kind.
1. Scientific understanding of global warming climate change.
2. Difference between climate and weather, climate variation.
3. Science of climate change: causes, drivers, greenhouse gases.
4. Impact of climate change on vegetation and landscapes.
5. Responses of biodiversity to climate change.
6. Altered growth and productivity patterns of forests biodiversity.
7. What are the ecological changes due to climate change?
8. Altered forest landscapes due to climate change.
9. Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.
10. How to recognise ‘climate change sensitive’ species?
11. How to integrate climate change mitigation mechanisms with forest management
strategies?
12. Citizens role in adapting to climate change.
Section I: Overview of ‘Climate Change’ and its manifestations; drivers and causes
of global warming; contributing factors to the rise in atmospheric Carbon dioxide
concentration. Science of the Climate Change.
Section II: Comprehensive Profile of the Consequences of Climate Change.
Overview of the changes in the environment, landscapes, and biomes due to climate
change. Manifestations of climate change: melting of glaciers, sea level rise,
altered monsoons. Consequences of climate change: submerging coast line, salt
water inundation, loss of habitats, migration of species.
Section III: Comprehensive Profile of the Response of Biodiversity Elements to
Climate Change the impact, modifications in productivity trends. Species ‘sensitive’
and ‘tolerant’ to Climate Change, and their salient features.
Section IV: Ecological Models and Future Scenario—overview of ongoing
Climate Change research; Future prediction models. Climate change mitigation
mechanisms and strategies for future.
Section V: Monitoring the Ecological Response of Forest Species to Climate
Change—simple ecological exercises to record the response of forest plants.
Section VI: Specific Case Studies and Examples from Indian Climate Change
Research in Forestry.
Answers to these questions were provided in the different chapters, which were spread
over 6 sections (box).
Different Stages of Primer Development

Literature Search: A thorough literature searching was carried out in order to gather
comprehensive data sets and information chunks about climate change and related
aspects. Various technical reports, research publications, monographs, and other
documents of global and national importance, published by different research institutes,
government agencies, and researchers from different parts of the world were gathered.
All the latest technical reports prepared by the different working groups of the Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were consulted. Websites of different
agencies (such as NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA’s Earth Data, NOAA
Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, National Academy of Sciences, and US
Global Change Research Program, in the USA, Royal Meteorological Society, England
and Royal Society, London), were consulted for authentic information on the latest
findings. Various technical reports and other periodical communications prepared by
the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF and CC) Govt. of
India, EMPRI and Teri were also consulted. Additionally, semi-technical periodicals
such as Anthropocene and Conversation, which exclusively speak about environmental
issues and climate change, were sifted through for the latest updates. All these informa-
tion resources and published works served as a significant information bank for the
primer.
Developing a Storyboard: An appropriate storyboard was developed to accommodate
all the key questions under focus. Once the information resources were available,
necessary and relevant information on the focal themes and sub-themes was extracted
and these were placed on the storyboard to develop a crude synthesis. Subsequently,
contents of this digest were used to prepare short essays in simple language,
highlighting the core topic and related subtopics under the broad focal subjects.
Developing the Zero Draft: These short essays were subsequently rendered in
Kannada and strung together under theappropriate section which makes the whole
story of different chapters, to form the zero draft. Necessary embellishments and
exaggerations were used to introduce and elaborate the core contents. Appropriate
examples and anecdotes that can enhance the nativity of the language and regional
context were included at this stage to make the subject attractive and appealing.
Iterative re-articulation of the paragraphs was done to ensure that, the focal subject
flows as smooth as possible leading to easy readability. Appropriate facts and figures
were included to strengthen the subject being discussed. ‘Unknown’ elements of a
subject were introduced with the help of the corresponding ‘known’ elements, to
ensure the focal subject is better understood by the reader.
All possible care was taken to make the subject as appealing and attractive as possible.
The chapters were reread and thoroughly edited in order to make the core contents as
much crisp and comprehensive as possible. Necessary re-writing and iterative correc-
tions were carried out on the chapters to make them more user-friendly. Additionally,
In order to attract the attention of the reader, the focal subject of a chapter, was
reflected in the chapter title in an interesting manner. Some of the core themes and
the respective chapter titles are as below:
Core Subject of the Chapter Chapter Title

Climate and Weather ‘Expected v/s Actual’
Greenhouse effect ‘To wrap a thick blanket all over Earth’
Greenhouse gases ‘Treasure trove hidden deep under the seas’
Global warming ‘Mercury rise of 0.8° does a 104° fever!’
Species range shift ‘Going southward or Is it northward?!’
Developing the Illustrated Prototype of the Primer: Once the zero draft was ready,
the draft was taken up for page designing. Relevant visuals, graphics, pictures and
illustrations were inserted into the chapters to make the subject visually appealing.
Necessary page designing of the chapters was also done.
Peer Review and Field Testing of the Primer Prototype: Subsequently, the proto-
type was circulated for peer review and taken up for field testing in the presence of
subject experts and representatives of the target audience. Select portions of the primer
were given to the representatives of the target audience and were asked to go through
it. A structured feedback was sought from them about the subject coverage, clarity
about the core contents, narration and presentation of core subject, readability, and
contribution to the readers’ understanding of the subject. Following are the key points
that came out during the field testing:
 The prototype draft was very well appreciated for the novelty of subject presenta-
tion and its coverage of the subject details, as well as the timeliness bringing it out.
 The readers acknowledged that the complex subject of climate science has been
presented in a simple and lucid manner; it was easy-to-comprehend and quite
comprehensive as it offers a thorough overview of the issues and concerns related
to climate change.
Front Cover of the Primer Inside Page from a Chapter

 The readers agreed that it made a good reading, as the information was presented
with effective narration. The content presentation was quite apt.
 Although the information was quite elaborate with all the necessary details, it could
be presented in two successive parts, in order to avoid the information load, the
feedback pointed.
 Providing finer details of climate change and its impact may be delayed, the feed-
back reiterated.
 It also felt that local examples included in the Primer are quite sufficient and
relevant and therefore help understand the subject better; however local experience
of climate change could be added.
 Frequent exposure to the subject is necessary in order to familiarize oneself with
the subject, the feedback pointed.
Conclusion
Climate change being a new focal subject of global concern is often considered “un-
obtrusive” and therefore becomes a subject far beyond the easy comprehension of the
common citizenry. Different reasons have been assigned to this situation. Climate
change communication to the public, therefore, becomes a difficult proposition. In
India, comprehensive understanding of climate change is still missing among the public
and other stakeholder groups, especially the field forestry staff. Inaccessibility to
authentic information about climate change in a local language and easy-to-com-
prehend style is one factor that contributes to the incomplete understanding of climate
change.
The unique and novel initiative for climate change communication, taken up by our
team in the form of developing a Community Primer on climate change in Kannada,
offers a case study of developing a user-friendly learning tool on climate change for
the use of the frontline forestry staff. The core contents of the primer were drawn from
authentic published sources brought out by IPCC, and other major research institutes,
government bodies, and research publications. This primer has presented the complex
subject of climate science in a vernacular language with necessary elaboration but
without losing the essence of the subject. This unique primer serves as a user-friendly
tool to strengthen the working capacities of the target audience, in respect of climate
change and forest conservation. The Primer presents the different aspects of climate
change and its consequences on environment, society and biodiversity elements, as
well as mitigation mechanisms, in a simple language and easy-to-comprehend style.
The prototype has undergone field testing and received interesting positive feedback
about its significance in meeting the learning needs of the target audience. This Primer
has demonstrated that the complex environmental subjects like Climate Change can be
effectively communicated to meet the learning needs of the no-formal learning groups
like field forestry staff.
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to Mrs. Ritu Kakkar, IFS, Director General, EMPRI, for provid-
ing the small grant to carry out this novel initiative. He is thankful to Shri Vinay
Kumar, IFS, director, Dr. O.K. Remadevi and Dr. M. Manjunath of EMPRI’s Climate
Change team for facilitating the project progress. Thanks are also due to Shri D.K. Ved,
IFS (Rtd.) Advisor, TDU, and Darshan Shankar, Vice-chancellor, TDU, and his team
members for their constant encouragement. Thanks are also due to Dr. R. Vasudeva,
Forestry College, Sirsi, and his students who facilitated the peer review and field
testing of the primer prototype; to Ms. Ganashri, RFO, Forest Training School, Ilawala,
Mysore and her batch of forester trainees who facilitated the need assessment exercise.
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The Possible Impacts of Climate Change on Insect Pests
S ECTION 361
Research Papers
The Possible Impacts of

Climate Change on Insect Pests
A.K. Chakravarthy* and K.S. Nitin
Division of Entomology and Nematology, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Hesaraghatta Lake Post, Bengaluru, Karnataka
*E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Climate change is a variation either in the mean state of the climate
or variability in its components, persisting for an extended period. It encompasses
temperature increase, sea-level rise, changes in precipitation patterns and
increases in the frequency of extreme weather events. These changes have drastic
impacts on the economy of agriculture-based, biodiversity-rich countries like
India.
Biodiversity and climate change are closely linked with each other and impacts
one another. The impacted habitats hold less biodiversity of arthropods than non-
impacted habitat-patches. For instance, the paddy beetle; Hispa armigera has
attained a major pest status in paddy growing tracts of South East Asia. Similarly,
the elongated scale insect, prey upon pigeon-pea by infesting the crop under higher
temperature conditions. Under the normal day temperature, the scale insect does
not attack the crop. Another example is that of the leafhopper complex on mango
plant, where the pests have caused greater losses in fruit yields. Likewise, the
mealybug infestations on fruit crops like grapes, papaya, custard apple and
cultivated palms have exacerbated due to higher temperature conditions.
Keywords: Climate Change, Biodiversity, Pest, Temperature
INTRODUCTION
O ne of the most impinging natural events in the recent times has been the climate
change. Climate change is a variation either in the mean state of the climate or
variability in its components, persisting for an extended period. It encompasses
temperature increase; sea-level rise, changes in precipitation patterns and increases in
the frequency of extreme weather events (Hamilton et al., 2005). These changes have
drastic impacts on the economy of agriculture-based, biodiversity-rich countries like
61
India (Sharma, 2010; Dhaliwal et al., 2004). Insects are cold-blooded, most speciose
animals (Coviella and Trumble, 1999). The temperature of their bodies is approxi-
mately the same as that of the environment. Therefore, the temperature is probably the
single most important environmental factor influencing insect behaviour, distri-
bution, survival and reproduction. Insect life stages predictions are most often
calculated using accumulated degree days from a base temperature and biofix point.
Temperature is the most important factor inheriting insects (Bale et al., 2002). It has
been estimated that with a 2°C temperature increase, insects might experience one to
five additional life cycles per season (Yamamura and Kiritani, 1998). Moisture and
CO2 effects on insects can potentially have important considerations in a global climate
change setting (Hamilton et al., 2005; Coviella and Trumble, 1999; Hunter, 2001;
Sharma, 2010; Dhaliwal et al., 2004, 2010). Human activities have been identified as
likely contributors to global as well as regional climate change (IPCC, 2001). To
understand the impact of climate change, it is essential to assess the climate’s
sensitivity to a variety of factors on insects and in this paper, the focus is on the insect
pests. The monitoring data of insect pests are not available in most of the developing
countries and the software models developed for prediction analysis are not effective
against insect pests.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Observations for about two decades (1990–2010) in field surveys on insects in
relation to weather parameters in select cultivated ecosystems were recorded in South
Karnataka, South India (Table 1). Shifts in the insect pests on cultivated crops,
patterns of their distribution and intensity of pest infestation on cultivated crops were
monitored. For the purpose, standardized procedures of insect sampling, insect
counting and damage assessments were made. Details of the techniques and
procedures are available (Kogan and Herzog, 1980). The observations will focus issues
of climate variability at the regional or local level. The working hypothesis states that
understanding local perceptions of farmers affected by climate variability will yield
useful insights into the impact of climate change in the long term.
As documented information on the impact of climate change on insects in India is
scanty, efforts were made to review the literature on implications of climate change
on insect pests and pest management from electronic media: websites, networks,
e-journals and through e-mails. Information was also collected through print media:
books, journals, brochure, leaflets, manuals and practical kits. In addition, interactions
with entomologists working on insect pests and pest management in India on select
crops were made. Several interactive sessions with experts on climate change from
Indian Institute of Science, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), University
of Agricultural Sciences, Meteorological Department, Indian Meteorological Depart-
ment (IMD), Government of India and scientists from Atmospheric Sciences, in
Bangalore were held.
The Possible Impacts of Climate Change on Insect Pests 63
Table 1: Crops and Insect Pests Impacted by Climate Change from

1990 to 2000 and from 2000 to 2010 in South Karnataka
Change in Weather Impact/Infestation
1999–
Crop (Location) Insect Pests 2000 2000–2010
(Max. and (Max. and 1999–2000 2000–2010
min. tem. min. tem. °C)
°C)
Rice (Mandya) BPH 32.00 and 33.82 and 5 winged and 6–8 11 winged
Numbers/hill 24.50 25.70 apterous hoppers per and 8–12/
(Mean of 10 9 4 clump clump
hills) apterous
hoppers
WBPH 32.00 and 33.82 and Not 2–3/clumps
Numbers/hill 24.50 25.70 recorded/recorded in in kharif, rabi
(Mean of 10 9 4 rainfed rice in and summer
hills) negligible numbers
during summer only
Mandya Hispa 32.00 and 33.82 and Restricted to Spread over
Srirangapatana (km2spread)/year 24.50 25.70 Majjigepura and two 3,000 ha
(Var: Jaya) adjacent villages and
Spread in 1,180 ha
Cotton (Arboreum) Whitefly and 30.20 and 33.85 and Whitefly = 69.90 17.80%
(Hunsur) mealy 21.40 28.00
(Mean of 10 9 5 bug (% plants Mealy bug = 2.40 13.50%
Pls/insect infested)
pest/field/2 (Mean of 10 9 5
Shimoga plants/insect
(Jayadhar) pest/field 9 2)
Mango Leaf hoppers (% 30.45 and 33.65 and Low to moderate Higher (30%
Chickballapura infestation) 22.00 26.70 levels of infestation damage)
(Local) (Mean of 10 9 5 (about\25% damage)
plants/field 9 2)
Pigeonpea GKVK, Pod borer (% pod 25.60 and 26.00 and Low to moderate Higher (20%
Bangalore (TTB-7) infestation) 31.50 32.00 levels of infestation damage)
(Mean of 10 9 5 (about\20% damage)
plants/field 9 2)
Brown scale 25.60 and 26.00 and 23.00 0.0
(% infestation) 31.50 32.00
Chilli/Onion Thrips 26.50 and 27.20 and
(Hiriyur) (% infestation) 33.50 34.20
Groundnut Aphids (% 29.40 and 30.50 and 14.50 26.30
(Tumkur) infestation) 34.60 37.00
Sunflower GKVK, Thrips 25.60 32.70 8.30% 21.50%
Bangalore (% infestation)
Note: The weather data are recorded at specific local weather stations for specific periods and sampling of
insect pests was undertaken in limited cultivated fields.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvatha lugens Stal. (Delphacidae: Hemiptera) is a major
pest occurring in outbreak form in certain rice cultivated patches. Factors contributing
to the increase in BPH population are the application of nitrogenous fertilizers in
excess, closer spacing, cultivating BPH susceptible rice cultivars, cultivating rice after
rice and rising temperatures from the last two decades. Similarly, in Cauvery Command
Area (CCA) the numbers of white-backed planthopper, Sogatella furcifera (Horvath)
is increasing especially on rainfed, summer paddy (Table 1). The chrysomelid beetle,
Hispa which was not a pest on paddy prior to 1990’s, in Srirangapatna, Mandya
covered over 3,000 ha of paddy after 2000, spreading @ 150–175 ha/year (Figure 1),
incurring yield loss to the growers. Sucking pests, viz, whitefly and mealy bugs
increasingly appeared on cotton from the beginning of 2000 in Hunsur and Shimoga.
Under normal pattern of rainfall, the podborers damage to pigeonpea will be lower
than when rains fail in June–July and subsequently heavy showers are received in
October–November (Yelshetty et al., 2003). Closer spacing of pigeonpea attracts
brown scales, Coccus longulus (Douglas) compared to wider spacing because of a
change in microclimatic conditions (Figure 2) (Narasimhamurthy et al., 2011). Table 2
provides insect pests that would exacerbate in India under warmer conditions.
Table 2: Insect Pests that would Intensify on Important Agricultural

Crops by Climate Change in India
Crop Insect Pests
Cotton Mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley
Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius
Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius)
Wheat, Barley, Oats Cereal aphids, Sitobion avenae (Fabricius)
Rhapalosiphum maidis (Fitch), R.padi (Linnaeus)
Schizaphis graminum (Rondani), Macrosiphum misanthi (Takahashi)
Rice Brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) White-backed
planthopper, Sogatella furcifera (Harvath), Leaf folder,
Cnaphalocricis medinalis (Guenee)
Pulse crops Lepidopterous pod borers and coleopterous defoliators
Maize, Sorghum Shootfly, Atherigona spp. Pyrilla, Pyrilla perpusilla (Walker) Stem
borer, Chilo pertellus (Swinhoe) Tobacco caterpillar, S.litura
Oilseed crops Cabbage caterpillar, Pieris brassicae (Linnaeus)
Vegetable crops S.litura, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) Aphids, Whitefly,
Leafminer, spider mites
Fruit crops Fruit piercing moth, Eudocima materna, Mealy bugs
Source: Arora and Dhawan (2011a,b).
Fig. 1: Map of Srirangapatna showing Fig. 2: Long Brown Scale Infestations on

Hispa Beetle Spread on Paddy Pigeon Pea in Bangalore in Response to Spacing
Density, Distribution and Pest Population

Reproduction in insects is a key determinant for the population to increase or decrease.
The reproduction capacity of insects is affected by temperature and moisture. But there
are great differences in the capacity of different insects to tolerate conditions ranging
from extreme dryness to near saturated environments. For example, the incidence of
Rice Hispa, Dicladispa armigera Olivier in Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh has
increased in the last two decades due to prevailing dry situations. Increasing tempera-
tures may result in a greater ability to overwinter in insect species limited by low
temperatures at higher latitudes, extending their geographical range (Elphinstone and
Toth, 2008). This may be true of the root grubs (Holotrichia and Leucopholis spp.) in
parts of India. Many insects such as H. armigera and Spodoptera litura are migratory.
These insects may well be adapted to exploit new opportunities by moving rapidly
into new areas (Sharma, 2005).
One would expect more frequent and intense precipitation events forecasted with
climate change to negatively impact these insects (Jagadish et al., 2005). Other insects
such as pea aphids are not tolerant to drought. Entomologists in India predict additional
generations of important pest insects like Brown plant hopper, leafhoppers, aphids,
thrips and whitefly as a result of increased temperatures, probably necessitating more
insecticide applications to maintain populations below economic damage thresholds.
In South India pests like leaf miner (Liriomyza sp.), whitefly (Bemisia sp.), woolly
aphid (Ceratovacuna lanigera), mealybug (Paracoccus sp. and Planococcus sp.) and
mite (Eriophid, Aceria sp.) (non-insect) have increased. The reason for the increased
incidence is not clear. But the higher pest incidence is related to increased temperature.
In Faridkot, Punjab, North India infestation of cotton mealy bug and whitefly was
related to temperature, rainfall and relative humidity (Figure 3).
Fig. 3: Incidence of Cotton Mealy Bug and Whitefly in Faridkot,

Punjab during 2007–2010 (Source: Pandher et al., 2011)
(Anne et al., 2016) simulated a forest pest mass outbreak using a microcosm incubation
experiment, and show a positive feedback between climate change, forest pests and
the carbon cycle. Treatments with insect faeces showed 16-fold higher fluxes of
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and 8-fold higher fluxes of Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC)
compared to treatments without insect faeces (control) across a four weeks period,
presumably due to the input of limited Nitrogen (N) and fastly decomposable Carbon
(C) compounds that accelerate soil decomposition processes. Anouschka and Anna
(2015) found that numerous species may experience large increases in their potential
distribution in future, which may result in outbreaks in “new” areas. It is therefore
likely that more trees will be infested by pests in future, which may have large
implications for the Swedish forestry sector. Climate change will affect the pest
management industry and Pest Management Professionals (PMPs) in many ways.
Effects by first examining direct, or primary, effects on the businesses and on the PMPs
that are providing hands-on services, with a focus on the North American setting
(particularly USA). It then looks at the potential effects of climate change on individual
and population responses of key pest groups, including wood-destroying insects (such
as termites), ants, cockroaches, mice and rats, nuisance pests (such as spiders), flies,
stinging insects (Africanized honeybees), kissing bugs (Triatominae), fleas, ticks, and
mosquitoes (Sims and Appel, 2017).
More than a dozen insect pest species like Serpentine leafminer (Liriomyzatrifolii
Burgess), Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari), Papaya mealybug
(Paracoccus marginatus Williams), Spiralling whitefly (Aleurodesdispersus Russell),

Erythrina gall wasp (Erythrina spp.) and Subabul psyllid (Heteropsylla cubana
Crawford) have been introduced into cultivated ecosystems in South Karnataka from
the past two decades (1990–2010) and these are invasives having impacts on local
crop productivity. These insect pests have expanded geographical range due to the
availability of susceptible host plants. Currently, these pests are difficult to manage in
wild and cultivated patches as there are no intimidating natural factors. Spatial shifts in
the distribution of crops under changing climatic conditions will also influence the
distribution of insect pests in a geographical region (Parry and Carter, 1989).
An increase of 2°C will reduce the generation turnover of the bird cherry aphid,
Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) by varying levels, depending on the changes in mean
temperature (Morgan, 1996). An increase of 1 and 3°C will cause northward shifts in
the potential distribution of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hub.) up to
1,220 km, with an additional generation in nearly all regions where it is currently
known to occur (Porter et al., 1991).
Sudden outbreaks of insect pests can wipe out certain crop species and encourage the
invasion by exotic species (Kannan and James, 2009). Some plant species may be
unable to follow the climate change, resulting in the extinction of species that are
specific to particular hosts (Thomas et al., 2004). However, whether or not an insect
pest would move with a crop into a new habitat will depend on environmental
conditions.
In addition to the direct effects of temperature changes on development rates, improve-
ment in food quality due to a biotic stress may result in dramatic increases in the
growth of some insect species (White, 1984). While the growth of certain insect pests
may be adversely affected (Maffei et al., 2007). Pest outbreaks are more likely to occur
with stressed plants as a result of the weakening of plants defensive system and thus,
increasing the level of susceptibility to insect pests (Rhoades, 1985).
Higher temperature lead to an earlier infestation of Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.) in
North India (Sharma, 2010), resulting in increased crop loss. Temperature has a
strong influence on the viability and incubation period of H.armigera eggs (Dhillon and
Sharma, 2007). Egg incubation period can be predicted based on day degrees required
for egg hatching, which decreases with an increase in temperature from 10 to 27°C, and
egg age from 0 to 3 days (Dhillon and Sharma, 2007). An increase of 3°C in mean
daily temperature would cause the carrot fly, Delia radicum (L.) to become active a
month earlier than at present (Collier et al., 1991) in Europe. Temperature increases
of 5–10°C would result in the completion of four generations each year, necessitating
adoption of new pest management tactics.
Of all, the temperature is the single most important environmental factor influencing
insects as it directly affects the timing of diurnal activity patterns, accounts for
genetic variations and inheritance of innate recognition of environmental signals,
migratory routes and survival thresholds. Latitude affects temperature because the
farther away one moves from the equator, the less direct sunlight one gets. At higher
latitudes, insects will move farther away from equator with less direct sunlight.
Altitude affects temperature because the atmosphere becomes thinner at higher
altitude, allowing less transmission of heat and making the air colder. Longitude
doesn’t affect temperature much. A state-of-art regional climate modelling system,
known as PRECIS (Providing Regional Centre for Climate Studies) projects warming
to be monotonously widespread in India. There will be substantial spatial differences
in the rainfall changes (Rupa Kumar et al., 2006). These changes will considerably
affect pest insects that require soil to complete life cycle.
Variations in the patterns of responses to temperature changes would disrupt
synchronization in phenology between insects and host plants or natural enemies
(Kiritani, 2006). In Southern Karnataka on cotton and rice, there is a shift observed
from the leaf/fruit-eating caterpillars to sucking pests in recent years. While mono-
culture and chemical pest management practices have resulted in such pest shifts,
climate change has also contributed to such shifts. For example, on cotton, there is a
shift towards sucking pests (mealy bugs, jassids) and mirid bug, Creontiodes
biseratense (Distant) particularly after the introduction of Bt cotton (Table 1).
Similarly, aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) incidence on groundnut in South Karnataka
has increased in recent years. Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood and yellow mites,
Lorryia formosa Cooremann are increasingly observed on chillies nowadays. Most of
these sucking pests are also vectors of viral diseases. With increasing incidence of
sucking pests, viral diseases are also increasing. For example, bud necrosis in
groundnut, tobacco Streak Virus incidence on cotton and similar viral diseases in most
of the fruit and vegetable crops.
Depending on the physiological adaptations of the concerned species, temperatures
above or below optimum limits can prove lethal. Exposure to lethal high or low tem-
peratures may result in instant killing or failure to grow and reproduce. Harmful
effects of exposure to sub-lethal temperatures may be manifested at later critical stages
like moulting or pupation. For instance, in dry tracts of South Karnataka like in Berur,
Hiriyur, Sira, Kadur and parts of Hassan and Chitradurga where onions are cultivated,
the incidence of thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman and diseases transmitted by it have
increased.
Insect Diversity
Insects occupy a wide variety of microhabitat niches. Monitoring of terrestrial
arthropods can provide early warnings of ecological changes due to climate change.
Documented data on monitoring and arthropod diversity in relation to global warming

are meagre in India. Sharma (2010) reviewed the literature on the impact of global
warming on arthropods and extinction of species. In view of the large-scale cultivation
and mechanization, there has been a decline of agrobiodiversity in India, in general.
Arthropods can be used as indicators of environmental change more rapidly than the
vertebrates (Scherm et al., 2000; Gregory et al., 2009). Realistic information on
arthropod diversity must be integrated into policy planning and management practices
if ecosystems are to be managed for use by future generations.
Main effects of climate change and pollution on arthropod communities result in a
decreased abundance of decomposers and predators and increased herbivory, which
may have negative consequences for structure and services of ecosystems. The inci-
dence of leafhoppers (species of Amritodus and Idioscopus) on mango (Mangifera
indica) and whitefly, Bemisia tabaci on ornamental plants and vegetable crops has
considerably increased in south India with depauperated arthropod faunas. Similarly,
in the paddy fields injudicious application of insecticides coupled with global warming
(liberation of methane, CO2, etc., with increased temperature), the arthropod diversity
has declined (Myers et al., 2000; Earn et al., 2000). Biodiversity is continually
transformed by the changing climate. But now a type of climate change, brought about
by human activities, is being added to this natural viability, threatening to accelerate
the loss of biodiversity (Peters and Lovejoy, 1992).
At the same time, exotic species have been introduced beyond their natural bio-
geographic boundaries and a host of chemical for which many species have no
evolutionary experience have been released (Mooney and Hobbs, 2000). For instance,
more than a dozen insect pest species like serpentine leafminer (Liriomyza trifilii
Burbess), coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari), papaya mealybug
(Paracoccus marginatus Williams), spiralling whitefly (Aleurodes disperses Russell),
Erythrina gall wasp (Erythrina spp) and others have seen introduced into cultivated
ecosystems in Southern Karnataka from the past two decades (1990–2010) and these
are invasive having impacts on local biodiversity. The synergy between climate
change and habitat fragmentation is the most threatening aspect of climate change for
biodiversity and is a central challenge facing conservation (Peters and Lovejoy, 1992;
IPCC, 2001).
With the increase of 2°C insects might experience one to five additional life cycles
per season (Yamamura and Kiritani, 1998; Hunter, 2001). So, one can use insects as
indicator species for detecting climate change. Biodiversity plays an important role in
the abundance of insect pests and their natural enemies (Alteiri, 1994; Sharma and
Waliyar, 2003).
There is a need to increase functional diversity in agro-ecosystems vulnerable to
climate change to improve system resilience and decrease the extent of losses due to
insect pests (Newton et al., 2009). However, changes in cropping patterns as a result of
climate change will drastically affect the balance between insect pests and their
natural enemies (Sharma and Waliyar, 2003; Newton et al., 2009; Maiorano et al.,
2008).
Host Plant Resistance

Climate change may modify the interactions between the insect pests and their host
plants (Bale et al., 2002; Sharma, 2010; Arora and Dhawan, 2011a, b). Global warming
may also change the flowering and fruiting times, leading to ecological consequences
such as the introduction of new insect pests, and attaining of a pest status by non-pest
insects (Parmesan and Yohe, 2003; Fitter and Fitter, 2002; Willis et al., 2008). Global
warming may result in the breakdown of resistance to certain insect pests. In
Karnataka, South India, cultivation of rice cultivars of IET series resistant to Brown
plant hopper, resulted in the breakdown of resistance within two years. Sorghum
varieties exhibiting resistance to sorghum midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola (Coq.) in
India became susceptible to this pest under high humidity and moderate temperatures
in Kenya (Sharma et al., 1999). There will be an increased impact on insect pests which
benefit from reduced host defences as a result of stress caused by the lack of
adaptation to sub-optimal climatic conditions. The chemical composition of plant
species change in direct response to biotic and a biotic stresses as a result, their
tissues become less suitable for growth and survival of insect pests (Sharma, 2002).
The introduction of new crops and cultivars to take advantage of the new
environmental conditions is one of the adaptive methods suggested as a possible
response to climate change (Parry and Carter, 1989). Insect host plant interactions
will change in response to the effects of CO2 on nutritional quality and secondary
metabolites of the host plants. Increased levels of CO2 will enhance plant growth, but
may also become vulnerable to select phytophagous insects (Gregory et al., 2009).
In atmospheres experimentally enriched with CO2, the nutritional quality of leaves
declined substantially due to dilution of nitrogen by 10–30% (Coley and Markham,
1998; Coviella and Trumble, 1999). Increased CO2 may also cause a slight decrease in
nitrogen-based defences (e.g., alkaloids) and a slight increase in carbon-based
defences (e.g., tannins). Acidification of water bodies by carbonic acid (due to high
CO2) will also affect the floral and faunal diversity (Gore, 2006). Lower foliar
nitrogen content due to CO2 causes an increase in food consumption by the herbivores
up to 40%, while unusually severe drought increases the damage by insect species such
as spotted stem borer, Chilo partellus in sorghum (Sharma, 2005). Endophytes, which
play an important role in conferring tolerance to both a biotic and biotic stresses in
grasses, may also undergo a change in response to disturbance in the soil due to climate
change (Newton et al., 2009). Transgenic Crops for Pest Management Environmental
factors such as soil moisture, soil fertility and temperature have a strong influence on
the expression of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin proteins deployed in transgenic

plants (Sachs et al., 1998). Cotton bollworm, Heliothis virescens (F.) destroyed Bt-
transgenic cotton due to high temperatures in Texas, USA (Kaiser, 1996). Similarly,
H. armigera and Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallen.) destroyed the Bt-transgenic cotton
in the second half of the growing season in Australia because of reduced production
of Bt toxins (Hilder and Boulter, 1999). Cry1Ac levels in transgenic plants decrease
with the plant age, resulting in greater susceptibility of the crop to insect pests (Sachs
et al., 1998; Greenplate et al., 2000; Sharma and Ortiz, 2000; Adamczyk et al., 2001;
Kranthi et al., 2005). It is important to understand the effects of climate change on the
efficacy of transgenic plants for pest management.
Beneficial Insects
Relationships between insect pests and their natural enemies change as a result of
global warming, resulting in both increases and decreases in the status of individual
pest species. Changes in temperature will also alter the timing of diurnal activity
patterns of different groups of insects (Young, 1982), and changes in interspecific
interactions could also alter the effectiveness of natural enemies for pest management
(Hill and Dymock, 1989). Quantifying the effect of climate change on the activity
and effectiveness of natural enemies for pest management will be a major concern in
future pest management programs. The majority of insects are benign to agro-
ecosystems, and there is considerable evidence to suggest that this is due to population
control through interspecific interactions among insect pests and their natural enemies
pathogens, parasites, and predators (Price, 1987). Oriental armyworm, Mythimna
separata (Walk) populations increase during extended periods of drought (which is
detrimental to the natural enemies), followed by heavy rainfall because of the adverse
effects of drought on the activity and abundance of the natural enemies of this pest
(Sharma, 2002).
Aphid abundance increases with an increase in CO2 and temperature. However, the
parasitism rates remain unchanged in elevated CO2. Temperatures up to 25°C will
enhance the control of aphids by coccinellids (Freier and Triltsch, 1996). Temperature
not only affects the rate of insect development but also has a profound effect on
fecundity and sex ratio of parasitoids (Dhillon and Sharma, 2008, 2009). The
interactions between insect pests and their natural enemies need to be studied carefully
to devise appropriate methods for using natural enemies in pest management. In
contrast, to other insect groups such as leaf chewers, populations of most phloem-
feeders like aphids may not be negatively affected by increased CO2 concentrations in
the future. The reasons for this difference include the possibility that aphids may be
able to compensate for changes in host plant quality by altering feeding behaviour or
by synthesizing amino acids (Hughes and Bazzaz, 2001).
The rise in temperature may have a negative effect on the delicate natural enemies
and pest relationships such as hymenopteran parasitoids and small predators. It has
been estimated that with a 2°C increase in temperature insects might experience
additional life cycles per season, especially species like Brown planthopper. Brown
planthopper is 17 times more tolerant to 40°C than its predator Cyrtorrhynus
lividipepennis Reuter. But not wolf spider Paradosa pseudoannulata (Boesenberg
and Strand) (Ramanjaneyulu and Raghunath, 2009), which is tolerant to 40°C.
Satpathi (2011) reported that the average atmospheric temperature was 2 °C higher in
the rainy season of 2010 than the previous years. The larvae of ephemer-opteran
insects and mosquitoes cannot build up the population in a hot climate. So, indirectly it
affects the growth and development of the insects. Dabhi et al. (2011) reported that
the correlation coefficient between the activity of Bracon hebetor Say and weather
parameters was significant. There was a negative association between the maximum
temperature and adult activity during 2008 (r = –0.310*) and 2009 (–0.337*).
Impact of climate change on plant pollinators is sparse but more critical from ecolo-
gical and economic standpoints. There is a general paucity of long-term climatic data
and its impact on pollinators in developing countries especially India (Inoue, 1993).
However, some insight into the pollinator system in apple orchards of western
Himalayas is available. Regarding the decline of apple production, they emphasized
technical solutions. For instance, it was iterated time and again that one of the driving
forces behind the present crisis was the lack of pollinizers. The official recom-
mendation is that pollinizers should cover about 20% of any orchard. Scientists said
that most of the trees which serve as pollinizers, such as Golden Delicious, had been
chopped down and replaced with commercially lucrative varieties like Red Golden.
However, the typical farmer responded to us in interviews that the number of
pollinizers had decreased prior to the decline in apple performance. Scientists and
local farmers were clearly not looking at the problem equivalently (Neeraj and Robert,
2001).
In April, late cold can delay blossoming and reduce the pollination activity of bees
(Abbott, 1984). Also if it rains in this period, there is a risk that pollen will be washed
away from plants. In addition, late snow affects the process of pollination indirectly; a
relative immobilization of bees is triggered due to low temperatures brought about by
late snowfall. Increasing incidence of pest and disease comprises ecology and different
climate change has played a vital role. Himalayan honeybee Apis cerana, endemic to
the area, starts foraging at temperatures as low as 7°C, whereas Apis mellifera, which
has been introduced over the last 10 years, begins at around 13°C.
In tropical forests an overwhelming majority of tropical forest trees are animal-
pollinated, and many, if not most, species are bee-pollinated. The effects of increased
level of CO2, elevated temperature, or changes in the length of the dry season on
pollinating insects are not well documented. Increased drought, however, is known to
lower population densities of bees that use moist habitat as nesting sites. The decline in
the number of nests associated with El Nino years has also been reported for stingless
bees in Southeast Asia. Thus drought may reduce floral resources as well as nesting
sites for insect—pollinators, further decreasing the reproductive output (Bawa and
Dayanandan, 1998; Frankie et al., 1993; Howe, 1993; Feinsinger, 1983).
Pest Management Tactics

The relationship between crop protection costs and the resulting benefits will change
as a result of climate change. This will have a major bearing on economic thresholds, as
greater variability in climate will result in a variable impact of pest damage on crop
yields. Increased temperatures and UV radiation, and low relative humidity may render
many of these control tactics to be less effective and therefore, there is a need to:
 Predict and map trends of potential changes in geographical distribution. Study
how climatic changes will affect development, incidence, and population dynamics
of insect pests.
 Understand the influence of climate change on species diversity and cropping
patterns, their influence on the abundance of insect pests and their natural enemies.
Understand the changes in expression of resistance to insect pests. Identify stable
sources of resistance and pyramid the resistance genes in commercial cultivars.
 Study the effect of climate change on the efficacy of transgenic crops.
 Assess the efficacy of various pest management technologies under diverse en-
vironmental conditions.
A number of cultural practices used by farmers could be affected by changes in climate,
although it is not clear whether these practices would be helped, hindered or not
affected by the anticipated changes. Using crop rotation as an insect management
strategy could be less effective with earlier insect arrival or increased overwintering
of insects. However, this could be balanced by changes in the earliness of crop
planting times, development and harvest. Row covers for insect exclusion might have
to be removed earlier to prevent crop damage by excessive temperatures under the
covers or would the targeted early insects also complete their damaging periods
earlier or be ready to attack when the row covers were removed?
A coordinated network on climate change to study the issue in its entirety is mooted in
the continent as well as in Asia. In South Karnataka Brown Planthopper, Hispa beetle,
long brown scale, pigeonpea pod borers and sucking insect pest viz, whitefly,
leafhoppers and thrips seemed to have impacted by climate change. The lepidopterous
borer H.armigera is going to be more severe on crops in North India. Suggestions are
advanced to mitigate the impacts of climate change on pest management in cultivated
ecosystems and on biodiversity in general in India. The initiatives of Government of
India and the private sector in this direction are urgently required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the Director, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
(IIHR), Bengaluru.
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Utility of Geospatial Database and its Application for Climate Change Studies 79
Utility of Geospatial Database and its

Application for Climate Change Studies
B.P. Lakshmikantha
Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Center, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: The geospatial inputs are very important in terms of understanding

the climate change studies. The satellite images with varied resolution (coarse and
high resolution) are required for the study. The optical and microwave images are
equally important for the study. The different resolution of satellite images will
define the level of mapping (coarse and detailed). The different thematic layers
viz. base map, land use/land cover, drainage, water bodies, soils, slope, geology,
geomorphology, groundwater prospectus and other climatic parameters are very
important in climate change analysis. A case study of land use changes affecting
the temperature for Bengaluru Urban district by using temporal satellite data has
been studied. The relation between the land use change and Land Surface
Temperature (LST) for Bangalore Urban district indicates that the temperature
has increased from 30.9°C to 32.9°C over built-up classes. The geospatial data-
base with respect to eco-sensitive zones viz. coastal zone, mangroves, national
parks, wildlife sanctuaries, protected/reserved forests in the State of Karnataka
has been discussed. The eco-sensitive mangrove areas have been decreased
drastically and have been converted into artificial prawn culture areas. The
shoreline changes are also been observed over a time period. The forest type and
density classes with MIS data are also discussed. For a better understanding of
climatic changes, geospatial data is found to be economical, less manpower
consuming and providing more efficient solutions.
Keywords: Satellite Images, Thematic Data, Temporal, Land Use/Land Cover
INTRODUCTION
T he Natural resources of the planet earth reflect a history of 4.5 billion years. The
earth’s topography and its resources have undergone many changes in the last
4.5 billion years, because of changes in climate and global tectonics. However, there
is a significant change in the natural resources in the last 100 years, because of
anthropogenic activities, the industrial revolution and two world wars. Technological
development in the last 100 years and increase in population has lead to an increase
79
in demand for natural resources, this resulted in indiscriminate utilization of resources

and environmental degradation such as deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, water
logging, flood, drought, etc. Many species of animals and plants have disappeared
due to habitat loss, at present, the main issue is to maintain a balance between
development and conservation of resources. This is best achieved when there is a
proper inventory of resources from time to time, followed by suitable management
practices for sustainable development.
For inventory, planning and sustainable development of natural resources, spatial and
non-spatial data are required. Natural Resource Information System (NRIS) is oriented
towards providing information about natural resources for planning and decision
making. The NRIS encompasses information on natural resources related to land,
water, soil, mineral, climatic parameters and socio-economic information. The integra-
tion of these data would provide information for effective utilization of resources.
With the availability of space technology, wherein systematic, synoptic, rapid and
repetitive coverage over large areas is possible from its vantage point in space, it is
possible to generate an update, the data required for NRIS in a spatial format.
MATERIALS AND METHOD

The Unique feature of NRIS is the adoption of state of the art information technology
for planning natural resource management. Remote sensing, GIS and GPS are the
core technologies for database generation, analysis and information extraction of
natural resources and generation of thematic maps.
Indian Remote Sensing satellite data from IRS series for three seasons representing
Kharif, Rabi and summer have been utilized for generating thematic maps. The
thematic mapping has been done using Survey of India (SOI) toposheets. The collateral
data used in NRIS includes SOI toposheets, Census data/NIC/NATMO and Cadastral
data and other relevant data.
Table 1: Different Satellite Images and Scale of Mapping

Scale 1cm on Map Corresponds to Satellite Data/Image Spatial Resolution
1:2,50,000 2.5 km IRS AWiFS 56 m
1:50,000 500 m LISS III 23.3 m
1:25,000 250 m LISS IV 5.8 m
1:12,500 125 m PAN 5.8 m
1:10,000 100 m Cartosat-1 2.5 m
1:5,000 50 m IKONOS 1m
1:4,000 40 m Quickbird 0.61 m
The Different resolution of satellite images has been used to map with a different
scale. To Map at 1:50000 Scale LISS-III is suitable, likewise to map at 1:10,000 scale,
it needs Cartosat-1 with 2.5 m resolution. To map at Revenue Survey number wise or
urban mapping, it requires less than metre resolution viz., Quick Bird, Worldview, etc.
The details of different satellite images and scale of mapping are shown in Table 1.
Thematic Mapping
Thematic mapping has been generated as per the guidelines mentioned in IMSD
guidelines and it includes the following themes (Anonymous, 2007):
1. Base Map
2. Slope Map
3. Drainage and Watersheds
4. Hydro-geomorphology and Groundwater Prospectus
5. Soil
6. Land Use and Land Cover
7. Cadastral Map.
1. Base Map: The detail pertains to the existing transport network, settlement
location and administrative boundaries are prepared using SOI topographic maps
and further updated using satellite imagery. These maps have been used as a base
map.
2. Slope: Slope is one of the important parameters in understanding the land
utilization of the area. The runoff and erosion characteristics of the area controlled
by the degree of the slope in the terrain. High degree of slope reveals steep sloping
areas, where the amount of runoff is high. The contour information at 20m
interval is used for the preparation of slope map.
3. Drainage and Watershed: For purpose of planning and development, the first
step is the delineation of watershed areas. Micro-level delineation is needed for
implementation of watershed activities. The drainage information has been
derived/extracted form SOI topographical maps and further upgraded using
satellite imagery. KSRSAC has delineated the larger watershed area (1 lakh Ha)
into smaller Sub-watershed (5000 Ha), mini-watershed (2000 Ha) and micro-
watersheds (500 Ha). Unique names and Alpha Numeric IDs are also given to all
the hydrological boundaries. This is very important for better planning and
management at the micro level and no scope for duplication of works
(Anonymous, 2006).
4. Hydro-geomorphology and Groundwater Prospectus: The occurrence and
distribution and the movement of groundwater in hard rock terrain are controlled
by a number of factors like lithology, structure, landform, the thickness of
weathered material, soil type, etc.
5. Soil Resource: A good understanding of soils with reference to their nature and
distribution is essential to formulate any land-based production system. The soil
mapping units consist of soil series and soil phages, based on this land capability
and land irrigabality classes have generated.
6. Land Use/Land Cover: The Land Use/Land Cover maps are generated by
existing Land Use classification using two season satellite data. It consists of
categories like Build-up land, agriculture land, forest land, wasteland and water
bodies, etc. The expansion of urban areas, which is a part of Build-up land, is
exerting enormous pressure on the infrastructure and resources. The satellite data
derived information on urban areas provides a strong database. With the
increase, biotic pressure on the forest resources, sustainable management of
forest resources is of prime importance. Hence, satellite applications are essential
for effective forest management. Generation of Geospatial database containing
the various forest types/forest density classes provides an excellent capability to
monitor the composition of the forest ecosystem, the impact of management and
degradation processes. The spatial database has been created for forest resources
of the State. Due to increasing population pressure, there is the excessive demand
for land for both agriculture and non-agriculture uses. This has resulted in
degraded wastelands. Multi-date (temporal) and multi-sensor (different resolution)
pertains to IRS satellite has been used to generate the different Land Uses classes
for the State of Karnataka.
7. Cadastral Map: The British period Surveyed map (1:7920 scale) has been
digitised, geo-referenced with different resolution satellite images and seamless
mosaicking for entire State, which is base data to addressing the encroachment of
forest, tanks, mining, etc., which is important for climate study at the micro level.

Eco-sensitive Boundaries: The eco-sensitive boundaries viz., National parks (5 No.),
Wild Life Sanctuaries (25 No.), Reserve Forests, Protected Forest has been generated
for the State. These areas have a lot of restrictions like restricted human activity.
Coastal Regulation Zone: CRZ, where all along the 320 km coastal zone from sea
shore up to 500 m, there should not be any activity. Shoreline change analysis was
made for the coastal area for the different time interval. Coastal land use database is
important for any planning and management.
Mangroves: Mangroves are a very important ecosystem, where fish breeding activity
is being happened. Unfortunately, all these areas are replaced by Prawn Culture.
According to MOEF report the Mangroves area in Karnataka has been reduced to less
than 25 sq km from 60 sq km in 2009 and 1989 respectively.
Mining Lease Boundaries: The mining lease database has generated to know the
number and extent of mining in the state. Multi-temporal satellite data has been used to
address the encroachment of forest and irregular mining activity.
Lakes/Tanks: All the water bodies have been mapped to the state. More number of
water bodies are observed in the South compared to the North Karnataka, which is due
to varied soil types i.e., the black cotton soil in the North. The geo-spatial tank
database is important for tank encroachment studies. According to Lakshman Rao
Committee reports, the number of water bodies in core Bangalore was around 400
tanks, which has been reduced to around 100 tanks now. Majority of the tanks have
been converted into Parks, Bus stand, Residential layout, etc.
Water Quality Mapping: To know portable and non-portable, water quality mapping
has been done for the state. The chemical parameters used are pH, CaCO3, Nitrate,
Fluoride and Total Iron. Majority of the dry land area is affected with Flouride viz.,
Kolar, Chikkabalapur, Tumkur, Chitradurga, Bellary, Koppal, Gadag, etc., However,
some areas are affected with Nitrate, because of the usage of Nitrogenous fertilizer in
command area viz., Tungabhadra command area.
The Land Use/Land Cover change analysis of Bangalore Urban District and the impact
on Land Surface temperature has been made from 1999 to 2012. It was observed that
the build-up area has increased by 78.96% from 1999 to 2009. Whereas, vegetation
and water bodies areas have decreased by 9.39% and 29.87% respectively. This may
be due to rapid urbanisation and industrialization. Land Surface Temperature (LST) of
the built-up area of Bangalore Urban district has increased from 30.9°C to 32.5°C and
LST for other land use classes increased from 27.2°C to 28.1°C (Swetha, 2011). Hence
it clearly indicates that there is a 1°C increase in temperature in a decade of the
period.
CONCLUSION
Climate Change has been happening from time immemorial due to many factors
including anthropogenic activities. To address the climate change issues, Integrated
sustainable approach at micro-level is very important. Geospatial technology is a better
tool in planning, monitoring, management and decision support system.
REFERENCES
[1] Anonymous (2006). Watershed Atlas of Karnataka (Sub, Mini and Micro-watersheds),
KSRSAC, 137 pp.
[2] Anonymous (2007). State Natural Resource Information System for Karnataka State,
KSRSAC, 237 pp.
[3] Swetha, Hiremath (2011). Land Use/Land Cover Change Analysis of Bangalore Urban
District and its Impact on Land Surface Temperature. M.Tech Thesis VTU-EC, KSRSAC,
Bangalore, 85 pp.
Role of GIS Models in Assessing
Vulnerable Districts for Vector-Borne
Diseases under Different
Climate Change Scenarios
R. Abhilash*, Kiranraddi Morab, Roopadevi Koti,
G. Ashwini and P. Chitra
Centre for Geo-informatics, Environmental Management
and Policy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: One of the major impacts of climate change is on epidemics of

vector-borne diseases. Variations in temperature and humid conditions are likely
to increase the risk of mortality and morbidity due to vector-borne diseases.
Changes in climate are likely to change frequency, lengthen the transmission
seasons, and alter the geographic range of important vector-borne diseases,
Malaria, Dengue and Chikungunya being the most important. There is historical
evidence of associations between climatic conditions and vector-borne diseases.
With this background, a study has been carried out to assess the link between
temperature and humidity with the number of vector-borne disease case occur-
rence in various districts of Karnataka.
Vulnerability mapping can allow for improved analysis of risks and what is
threatened. It allows for better visual presentations and understanding of the risks
and vulnerabilities. Hence, the vulnerable districts are identified using various
geospatial tools for the year 2011–2015 and for future climate change scenarios.
Geographical Information System (GIS) provides excellent means for visualizing
and analyzing epidemiological data, revealing trends, dependencies and inter-
relationships. District level season wise spatial data analysis with raster format is
performed for preparing favourable and unfavourable temperature and humidity
conditions map. Resulting raster data were aggregated to create composite indi-
cators of exposure and of susceptibility in GIS platform. These indicators were
weighted by their contribution to disease vulnerability, and the output consisted
of an overall index visualized in map format. The outcome of this study predicts the
possible districts of Karnataka state which may be prone to vector-borne diseases
under different climate change scenarios based on the baseline studies carried out
from 2011–2015.
Keywords: Spatial Raster Analysis, Vector-borne Diseases, Climate Change,
Vulnerability Mapping, GIS Models
84
Role of GIS Models in Assessing Vulnerable Districts for Vector-Borne… 85
INTRODUCTION
T he application of GIS in health application and vulnerability studies dates back to

mid-1850s where “disease diffusion mapping” was used by the father of epi-
demiology, Dr. John Snow (Physician). His research using GIS and influencing
thematic layers in public health investigations widely benefited the medical com-
munity. Since then, GIS holds distinct promise as a tool for Spatial Decision Support
System (SDSS) by providing improved visualization techniques leading to quicker,
enhanced, more robust understanding and decision-making capabilities in public
health area.
GIS helps to generate thematic maps that depict the intensity of a disease vector and
favourable conditions spatially. It can overlay different layers of information and carry
out specific calculations. GIS allows interactive queries of information contained
within the map, table or graph. It permits a dynamic link between the database of dis-
ease occurrences and maps so that data updates through model results are automatically
reflected on maps. GIS allows information like temperature, humidity and other
weather parameters to be integrated and analyze spatial correlations between potential
risk factors and the occurrence of diseases.
The study of public health epidemiology contains the information relevant to the occur-
rence of diseases, infection rate, age group, sex, disease transmission, site specification
of the patients, host availability of the parasite or virus loads, and so on. This
information is used to state the horizontal and vertical structures of the diseases and
history of the disease with reference to space and time. In this study, GIS is used to
map the geographical distribution of disease prevalence and the spatial modelling of
environmental aspects of disease occurrences.
In this study, an attempt has been made to study the vulnerability of vector-borne
diseases due to one of the major parameter i.e., the temperature of baseline scenario
(2011–2015) and the future mid-century scenario (2046–2065) across different carbon
emission scenarios.
METHODOLOGY
In this study, discrete rasters (temperature/humidity value of the region fills the entire
area of the cell) have been generated using district wise temperature and humidity
data. The rasters of temperature and humidity are used to prepare season wise vulner-
ability map. To carry out this process the discrete rasters of temperature and humidity
are separately reclassified using spatial reclassify analyst tool into favourable and
unfavourable regions based on conditions of temperature (14–19ιC/25–27ιC) and
Humidity (40–80%). The next step to obtain vulnerable districts map is achieved using
spatial math-logical operation called combinatorial or on the cell values of two input
rasters of temperature and humidity. In this operation, the raster cells of temperature
and humidity layers are matched under the following conditions as mentioned in
Tables 1 and 2.
Fig. 1: Flowchart of Methodology for Spatial Raster Analysis
Table 1: Relationship of Temperature and Relative Humidity

with Parasite and Mosquito Development
Minimum Temperature for Optimum Temperature for Relative Humidity Range for
Parasite Development Parasite Development Parasite Development
14–19°C 25–27°C 40–80%
[Source: Bruce chwatt, 1980 and Martens et al., 1995]
Table 2: Categorization of Raster Cells for Vulnerability

Category of Raster Cells Raster Cell Value Code Vulnerability
Favourable humidity + favourable temperature 1–1 Very high
Favorable humidity + unfavourable temperature 1–2 High
Unfavorable humidity + favourable temperature 2–1 High
Unfavourable humidity and temperature 2–2 Moderate
Note: 1. Favorable conditions, 2. Unfavorable conditions analysis.
In this study, spatial overlay raster analysis has been carried out drawing thematic
layers of temperature, humidity and disease occurrence at the district level to arrive
at vulnerability mapping. The correlation between temperature, humidity and disease
occurrence was analyzed for different seasons across the state. As per India Meteoro-
logical Department (IMD), four seasons namely winter (Jan.–Feb.), Pre-monsoon
(Mar.–May), Monsoon (Jun.–Sept.) and Post-monsoon (Oct.–Dec.) is considered for

analysis. The vulnerable regions are identified using various geospatial tools for the
year 2011–2015 as baseline study and future mid-century climate change scenarios
for the years 2046–2065.
For Baseline years (2011–2015) the GIS-based Spatial Raster analysis has been
carried out at district-wise and Season-wise to assess vulnerability. Using GIS Raster
conversion tools, the thematic layer of Temperature, district-wise was classified into
favourable condition districts which are having Minimum Temperature for parasite
development (14–19°C) or Optimum temperature for parasite development (25–
27°C) and unfavourable temperature condition districts depending upon the season.
Similarly, the district-wise humidity layer was classified into favourable humidity
condition district having Relative Humidity range for parasite development (40–80%)
and unfavourable humidity condition districts. The favourable and unfavourable
conditions in GIS can be dynamically updated as and when the results of research
progress on “Relationship of temperature and relative humidity with parasite and
mosquito development”.
Keeping in view of limitation that parasite adaptability for slow changes in climatic
conditions is neglected, the above-mentioned conditions in GIS platform provides the
user with an advantage to view districts which are having favourable temperature and
favourable humidity districts for parasite development. Further, spatial overlay analysis
provides users to view districts having combinations of favourable and unfavourable
conditions such as districts having both temperature and humidity favourable for
parasite development or the districts having an only humidity favourable condition or
districts having temperature favourable conditions.
Changes in climate are likely to change frequency, lengthen the transmission seasons,
and alter the geographic range of important vector-borne diseases, Malaria, Dengue
and Chikungunya being the most important. There is historical evidence of associations
between climatic conditions and vector-borne diseases. Hence, an attempt has been
made in this study to assess the vulnerability by temperature parameter under different
climate change scenarios.
This study has incorporated probable scenarios as defined by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (IPCC AR4, 2007), which lists major driving forces
of future emissions, including changes in demographic, technological and economic
development. These scenarios, defined within the Special Report on Emission Scen-
arios (SRES), are separated into four scenarios, A1, A2, B1 and B2, which were
categorized by considering changes in economic and environmental priorities, as well
as regional versus global development.
Scenarios B1, A1 (B), A2 being most prominent and widely used in General
Circulation Models (GCMs), temperature data for these scenarios has been extracted
each district-wise using “GIS Climate Wizard portal” that are based on low (B1),
moderate (A1B), and high (A2) carbon emissions scenarios. The temperature
vulnerable maps have been prepared using spatial raster analysis showing favourable
temperature condition districts for parasite development under different carbon
emission scenarios.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Vulnerability map is the outcome of various raster operations in GIS using most
influencing thematic layers considered i.e., Temperature and Humidity. This vulner-
ability analysis is carried out for the years 2011–2015 reveals the following outcomes:
Season-wise disease case mapping with Season-wise disease case mapping with Season-wise disease case mapping with
vulnerability maps for the year 2011 vulnerability maps for the year 2012 vulnerability maps for the year 2013
Season-wise disease case mapping with Season-wise disease case mapping with
vulnerability maps for the year 2014 vulnerability maps for the year 2015
Interpretation example: In 2011 map, BL Bellary(Chikungunya), DA Davanagere(Dengue), DK Dakshina Kannada (Malaria)
districts are having high disease cases and also predicted vulnerable in GIS map of Winter season.
Fig. 2: Season-Wise Disease Case Mapping with Vulnerability Maps for the Years 2011–2015
In the above disease case and vulnerability maps, it is observed that the districts having
more number of vector-borne disease cases also has favourable temperature and
favourable humidity conditions. This shows that among several influencing governing
factors for parasite activities, temperature and humidity factors are also important.
The temperature vulnerability maps are as follows.
Baseline Scenario [2011–2015]
High (A2) Carbon Moderate (A1B) Carbon Low (B1) Carbon

Emissions Scenario Emissions Scenario Emissions Scenario
Grey color indicates the regions having temperature >19°C (towards favorable temperature for
parasite activities).
Orange color indicates the regions having temperature 14–19°C (critical temperature for parasite
activities).
More the regions falling under Orange color—critical will be temperature conditions for parasite
activities and more the regions having grey color indicates the temperatures might fall under
favourable conditions for parasite activities.
Fig. 3: Future Temperature Vulnerability Assessment for Mid-Century under Different
Carbon Emissions Scenario (2046–2065) for the Winter Season
In the winter season, the temperatures will be low (less than 20ιC on an average) in
most of the districts in Karnataka state. The minimum temperature for parasite
development is 14–19ιC. This minimum temperature makes the vector-borne diseases
to critically high, suspend their activities and rest for survival.
When climate change analysis outputs are examined in future mid-century (2046–
2065), the Climate change under the following scenarios have corresponding impacts:
Under high (A2) carbon emissions scenario the number of districts falling under a
minimum temperature which is critical for parasite development will decrease. The
temperature rise would cause the minimum temperature in most of the districts to be
more than normal which may lead to increase in parasite activities. This also makes
the adaptability conditions to the parasite favourable.
Under moderate (A1B) carbon emissions scenario the districts under minimum
temperature for parasite development will decrease. However, there exist few districts
in the state which will be under minimum temperature conditions, but the majority of
districts would fall under optimum conditions for parasite development (>19°C) even
in winter. This might lead to parasite activities to continue. This also makes the
adaptability conditions to the parasite favourable.
Under low (B1) carbon emissions scenario the districts under minimum temperature for
parasite development will sustain. This minimum temperature conditions will make
the parasite activities to minimize and make sustenance critical in the winter season.
*Orange colour indicates most districts having unfavourable conditions for parasite activities.
Fig. 4: Number of Districts with Minimum Temperatures (14–19ιC)
The graph showing that the number of districts having critical minimum temperature
is achievable in low carbon emission scenario (B1). High carbon emission scenario
(A2)/(A1B) would lead to temperature rise towards optimum conditions for parasite
activities.
Baseline Scenario [2011–2015]
High (A2) Carbon Emissions Moderate (A1B) Carbon Low (B1) Carbon
Scenario Emissions Scenario Emissions Scenario
Grey color indicates the regions having temperature ≠ 25–27°C (not favorable temperature for
parasite development).
Orange color indicates the regions having temperature 25–27°C (favorable temperature for parasite
development).
Fig. 5: Future Temperature Vulnerability Assessment for Mid-Century under
Different Carbon Emissions Scenario (2046–2065) for Pre-Monsoon Season
In pre-monsoon season the average low temperatures are normally in the range of
25–27ιC. This temperature acts as optimum temperature condition for parasite activity.
In the GIS analysis carried out for future mid-century (2046–2065), the Climate
change under the following scenarios have corresponding impacts.
Under high (A2) carbon emissions scenario the number of districts falling under an
optimum temperature which is favourable for parasite activities is highest. The tem-
perature sensitivity would cause the optimum temperature in most of the districts to
sustain which may lead to increase in parasite activities.
Under moderate (A1B) carbon emissions scenario the districts under optimum
temperature for parasite development will remain more. However, there exist few
districts in the state which will not have optimum temperature conditions, but the
majority of districts would fall under optimum conditions for parasite activities (25ιC–
27ιC). This might lead to parasite activities to continue as similar to high carbon
emission scenario.
Under low (B1) carbon emissions scenario the districts under minimum temperature
for parasite development will sustain. This minimum temperature conditions will make
the parasite activities to minimize and make sustenance critical in the winter season.
*Orange colour indicates most districts having favourable conditions for parasite activities.
Fig. 6: Number of Districts with Minimum Temperatures (25–27ιC)
The graphs showing that the number of districts having optimum temperature is due
to High carbon emission scenario (A2)/(A1B). Low carbon emission scenario (B1)
would lead temperature with unfavourable optimum conditions for parasite activities.
CONCLUSIONS
The GIS mapping for weather parameters that regulate vector-borne diseases can be
visualized using Spatial Raster Analysis techniques for influencing theme layers. In
this study two important weather parameters i.e., humidity and temperature which are
influencing vector-borne diseases occurrence are studied for inter-relations. Further,
one of the most influential parameter—temperature is analyzed for baseline year
(2011–2015) as well as future mid-century (2046–2065) scenario. The GIS mapping
depicts the temperature vulnerable districts with reference to the parasite activities
and parasite favourable development conditions in baseline and future scenarios. This
study can be extended to various other seasons and several additional influencing
parameters using spatial analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] Bruce-Chwatt, L.J. (1980). Epidemiology of Malaria. In: Essential Malariology, William
Heinemann Medical Books Ltd., London, 129–168 pp.
[2] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Climate Change 2007 [Fourth
Assessment Report (AR4) of the IPCC]: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, the
AR4 Synthesis Report and 3 V. (The physical science basis, by Working Group I;
Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability, by Working Group II; Mitigation of climate
change, by Working Group III). Available at http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/
publications_and_data_reports.htm
[3] Martens, W.J., Nissen, L.W., Rothmans, J., Jetten, T.H. and McMichael, A.J. (1995).
Potential Impact of Global Climate Change on Malaria Risk. Environ Health Perspect,
103: 458–464.
Variations in Rainfall Trends
over Karnataka
C.N. Prabhu*, G.S. Srinivasa Reddy, N.G. Keerthi,
Emily Prabha, S.S.M. Gavaskar and Prashanth Hiremath
Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Earth’s Climate has been changing with different patterns and
effects at different time-scales. The climate change in the past has been attributed
to the Natural processes but the recent changes in climate is a combined effect of
both Natural and anthropogenic activity. The resultant impact is on the regional
and local hydrological cycle through extreme weather events like prolonged
drought, flood and variations in monsoon cycles in the tropics. A study is carried
out to understand the variations in regional rainfall pattern in Coastal and
Malnad region in Karnataka and its relations to climate change. The trend
analysis of annual rainfall data shows a decreasing trend in the last two decades
and the project rainfall trend suggests about 7–8% decrease in rainfall in the next
3 decades. The variations in solar activity could be the factor triggering variations
in rainfall pattern.
Keywords: Anthropogenic Activity, Climate Change, Solar Activity, Malnad
INTRODUCTION
E arth’s Climate has been changing with different patterns and effects at Million
years – Thousand years – Century – Decadal – Annual time-scales (Schiermeier,
2011, Wu et al., 2013 and Lunt et al., 2013). Several studies across the world have
reconstructed the history of climate change (Loulergue et al., 2008). The past climate
variations in and around India has also been reconstructed by several studies (Sukumar
et al., 1993, Agnihotri et al., 2002, Prabhu et al., 2003 and Prabhu and Shankar, 2005).
The climate change has been attributed to two important factors namely Natural and
Anthropogenic processes.
The Milankovitch cycles, namely Eccentricity (orbit), Obliquity (tilt) and Precession
(wobble) which are related to the effect that the Earth’s positioning with respect to
the sun, which is a natural process, has an impact on the Earth’s climate (Hays et al.,
1976). The Earth’s orbital patterns are always changing and theses variation follows
cyclical patterns that take thousands of years to repeat. The point of the Earth is at in
the cycle changes the distribution of solar radiation, and therefore, cooling or warming
94
Variations in Rainfall Trends over Karnataka 95
in different parts of the world. The amount and distribution of solar energy that Earth
has received (due to the Earth’s natural orbital variations) is thought to be responsible
for triggering major climate epochs in the past, such as ice ages.
The climate has also varied during the Holocene, the period of Earth’s history covering
approximately the last 11,500 years since the last ice age. The climate records reveals
as many as six periods of significant rapid climate change during the time periods
9000–8000, 6000–5000, 4200–3800, 3500–2500, 1200–1000, and 600–150 cal yr B.P.
Most of the climate change events in these globally distributed records are character-
ized by polar cooling, tropical aridity and major atmospheric circulation changes
(Mayewski et al., 2004). In the most recent interval (600–150 cal yr B.P.), polar
cooling was accompanied by increased moisture in some parts of the tropics.
These natural cycles have, in the past, resulted in regional and global climates that are
very different than our climate today. These natural influences are still at work but have
recently been overshadowed somewhat by one more factor, i.e. the influences of human
activities. Thus, the variations in climate in the recent centuries are being attributed to
anthropogenic processes. Human activities have contributed to climate change by
causing changes in Earth’s atmosphere in the amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols
and cloudiness. The largest known contribution has come from the burning of fossil
fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases and
aerosols have affected climate by altering incoming solar radiation and outgoing
infrared (thermal) radiation that are part of Earth’s energy balance. Changing the
atmospheric abundance or properties of these gases and particles has led to a
warming or cooling of the climate system. Since the start of the industrial era (about
1750), the overall effect of human activities on climate has been a warming influence.
The human impact on climate during this era greatly exceeded due to known changes
in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic eruptions.
It is evident that during the post-industrialization period the magnitude of variations in
terms of rising temperature and extreme weather events is very much higher than the
past. It has been suggested that the effect of climate change will have a greater impact
on the tropical region at regional and local scales. The prolonged aridity and/or
extreme rainfall events in the tropics, significant changes in the monsoon circulation,
etc. are expected to be the result of this climate change at regional and local scale.
Thus, it is necessary to understand the magnitude of climate change and its impact at
regional and local scale. Such an understanding will help in planning and implementing
the adaptation strategies to the changing conditions.
To understand the spatial and temporal variations in climate and the resultant change
in rainfall and temperature pattern over Karnataka, in this study, the decadal scale
variation in rainfall pattern over Coastal and Malnad region in Karnataka has been
studied.
STUDY AREA
The climate of the Karnataka state is determined mainly by the geographical location
with respect to the sea, monsoon winds and physiography. Karnataka state has sub-
Humid—humid climate on the West Coast and the Western Ghats and semi-arid to
arid (very warm) climate in central and northern districts of plateau region. The year
is divided into four seasons viz., winter (December–January–February), summer
(March to May); South-West monsoon (June to September) and North East monsoon
(October to November). The occurrence of rainfall and its spatial distribution is
Fig. 1: Map Showing Normal Annual Rainfall Pattern in Karnataka

highly variable. Taluk-wise Normal rainfall of the state varies from 408 mm to
5051 mm. Rainfall contribution is very high, from Southwest Monsoon season (around
80% of the state rainfall), it is seen that the annual rainfall is highest (5051 mm) over
the Western Ghats and lowest (408 mm) in the eastern parts of Chitradurga district.
More than 2/3rd of the state receives less than 750 mm of rainfall. Annual Variability
(CV) of the rainfall ranges from 16 to 40%. The atmospheric temperature in the state
ranges from 23°C to 43°C in summer and 9°C to 27°C in winter.
Coastal and Maland Regions of Karnataka

The state has been divided into four regions namely South Interior Karnataka, North
Interior Karnataka, Malnad (Western Ghats region) and Coastal Karnataka. Of these
four regions, Coastal and Malnad region are the highest rainfall receiving areas in
Karnataka.
The region is bounded on the east by the Western Ghats and on the west by the Arabian
Sea. There are three districts namely Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada and Udupi.
Malnad region has four districts namely Shivamogga, Hassan, Chikkamagluru and
Kodagu. Also, Malnad districts host part of Western Ghats in Karnataka.
The district wise normal annual rainfall for Coastal and Malnad region is given in
Table 1.
Table 1: District Wise Normal Annual Rainfall for Coastal and Malnad Region
Normal Annual Rainfall (mm)
District
(1960–2016)
Shivamogga 1733
Hassan 1023
Chikkamagaluru 1839
Kodagu 2596
Dakshina Kannada 3887
Udupi 4114
Uttara Kannada 2799
THE DATA AND METHODOLOGY

The district wise annual rainfall data for the Coastal and Malnad region for the last two
decades, from 1997 to 2016, has been used for this study. The trend analysis has been
carried out and was obtained annually, seasonally and monthly. Trend slope is tested
by using the Man-Kandall test and increasing/decreasing trend of the slope is obtained
by Sens method (Sens, 1968). The significance level is taken at 5% trend slope.
Fig. 2: Map Showing the Coastal and Malnad Region in Karnataka

The Time-Series analysis of rainfall data for the Coastal District shows that during
2016, Coastal region recorded rainfall 24% less than the normal, which is lowest in the
last 45 years. Also, several years the rainfall has less than the normal in the last 4
decades.
Similarly, the time series analysis of rainfall data for the Malnad region shows that
during 2016, the rainfall was 34% less than the normal, which is similar to 1976 rainfall
and is the lowest in last 45 years. The data shows that the rainfall has been varying
significantly and also many years it has recorded below normal rainfall.
Fig. 3: Percentage Departure of Cumulative Rainfall from Normal

over Coastal and Malnad Regions (1971–2016)
Fig. 4: Rainfall Trend in the Coastal Region the Last Two Decades (1997–2016)
Fig. 5: Rainfall Trend in the Malnad Region the Last Two Decades (1997–2016)
The inter-annual variability of rainfall is evident from the rainfall data from both the
regions. The reduction in annual rainfall against the normal observed in the recent years
suggests that there is a change in precipitation pattern in both the regions. It is also
observed that the changes both in pattern and magnitude of rainfall trend are different
for Coastal region and Malnad.
The rainfall data analysis shows a decreasing trend in rainfall both in Coastal and
Malnad region in the last two decades. The continuation of observed trend would result
in a decrease in 7–8% rainfall in Coastal region in the next three decades. For preparing
the Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) – 2015 the climate trend
has been studied and the 1st assessment report suggested that compared to the 1961–
1990 rainfall trend there would be about 5% variation in Annual Rainfall over Coastal
and Malnad region in the next three decades from 2021 to 2050. The present study also
corroborates the earlier findings and the preliminary results indicate that the variation
in Annual Rainfall would be little more than the SAPCC’s projections. This study will
be extended to each district in both the regions to get a better understanding of the
rainfall pattern, future trend and its impact.
Influence of Solar Activity on the Regional Rainfall Pattern

The variations in solar activity have been identified as the prime factor for the climate
change (Dergachev et al., 2007). It could be due to changes in solar activity, including
the energy output of the sun, and changes in the internal variability of the ocean-
atmosphere system. Simulations of time-dependent climate response to solar radiative

forcing for the last 500–1000 year indicate that solar forcing indeed dominates over
internal variability in generating temperature variations at decadal and longer time-
scales and large spatial scales (Rind et al., 1999; Amman, 2005).
Bhattacharya and Narasimha (2005) have observed the strongest connections between
solar activity and rainfall along the west coast and in central India. The major effect of
higher solar activity may be because of a displacement in the Hadley cell. Such a
displacement of coherent circulation patterns, depending on its magnitude, can have
different effects on rainfall in different regions. Therefore, the observed variations in
rainfall pattern and the projected decreasing trend in rainfall over Coastal and Malnad
region could be linked to the variations in the solar activity over the region which needs
to be studied carefully. Such a study would also reveal the causes of variations in solar
activity and their effect on the regional rainfall and ecology as well.
CONCLUSION
Earth’s Climate has been changing with different patterns and effects at different time-
scales. The climate change in the past has been attributed to the Natural processes but
the recent changes in the climate is a combined effect of both Natural and Anthro-
pogenic activity. The resultant impact is on the regional and local hydrological cycle
through extreme weather events like prolonged drought, flood and variations in
monsoon cycles in the tropics. The variations in the rainfall pattern in Coastal and
Malnad region of Karnataka could be due to climate change. The decreasing rainfall
trend observed in the last 2 decades would continue and there would be about 7–8%
decrease in rainfall in the next 3 decades. The variations in solar activity could be the
factor triggering variations in rainfall pattern. A detailed study of the solar activity and
its relation to the regional rainfall is necessary to understand the rainfall trends in future
and its impact on the regional ecology.
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Communicating Climate Change
Impacts Using Cognitive Science:
A Case of Peri-Urban Bangalore
Arvind Lakshmisha* and Priyanka Agarwal
Environment Governance Group, Public Affairs Centre, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: To respond to future climate change, knowledge on potential impacts

of climate change and identification of vulnerability is of fundamental ımportance
for informed decisions on the design and implementation of adaptation strategies.
In the ongoing context of imminent urbanisation, there is increasing stress on the
water resources due to growing population and rising per capita requirement. The
current form of unplanned extraction and consumption of resources by urban
areas from its periphery coupled with changing climate has impacted availability,
quantity and quality of water resources. Jurisdictional ambiguity, lack of co-
operation and the absence of coordination among the various governmental
bodies often results in uncertain actions among stakeholders. There is a need for
managing water in a sustainable manner through community involvement and
initiatives for implementing effective adaption programs.
Our study captures uncertain knowledge among stakeholders to identify the drivers
and conditions of water security, specific to the peri-urban areas of Bangalore.
The study uses Fuzzy Cognitive Maps (FCM), which provides a rigorous scientific
approach that quantifies subjective knowledge of varied groups. It is a practical
and potentially powerful tool used for anticipatory action research by incur-
porating multiple stressors for planning. Two hundred and forty FCMs were
drawn with the stakeholders to capture their behaviours of how water security in
their areas is impacted. The maps drawn were condensed and analysed using
graph theory. Neural networks calculations were undertaken to simulate policy
options under six scenarios, resulting in identifying options for implementation
by local and state governments, discussed at a policy dialogue platform.
Keywords: Climate Change, Water Security, Fussy Cognitive Maps, Urbanisation,
Citizen Science
INTRODUCTION
I ndia’s carbon contribution is lower than many other developed/developing countries

of the world. But this is set to change dramatically in the coming decade due to
increasing urban population. As urban population grows, pressure on ecosystems
103
increases, large quantities of food, fuel and water need to be moved into urban areas
and huge amounts of garbage and sewage have to be moved out (Base.d-p-h.info,
2010). Ecosystems such as aquifers and wetlands, farmlands and forests are essential
for the survival of urban areas as much as transport networks. Water resource, one of
the most vital and the most abused resource, is the best example of the precarious
relationship between urban areas and natural systems. The city of Aurangabad,
Maharashtra gets its water from 118 km, a journey that involves enormous expendi-
tures (Janaagraha.org, 2015).
Over the past decade, a new amalgamated space that straddles the boundaries of urban
areas has been drawing the attention of scholars. Known as the ‘Peri-Urban Interface’
(PUI), this area is defined as ‘zone of (dynamic) transition or interaction between urban
and rural areas; usually use in the context of rapidly urbanizing poor countries’ (Simon,
2008). These dynamic zones are the main sources of supply of resources such as water
to meet the needs of urban areas and act as recipients of waste generated within the
surrounding urban areas. Hence, we can ascertain that there is a bi-directional flow
between urban and peri-urban areas resulting in a flux or a dynamic state which is in
transition.
While urban demographic transformation is unfolding, the changing climate is ex-
pected to affect the hydrological cycle. This change is likely to affect precipitation
patterns, with some areas becoming wetter and other becoming drier. In this regard, the
trends in climate and demographics will pose a fundamental challenge, how will water
be provided to urban areas in a sustainable manner (McDonald et al., 2011). To
evaluate how climate change will affect the precarious balance between water
availability and demand, it is crucial to assess the entire array of social costs or benefits
of any change in water availability and use. Institutions that govern water resources
play an important role in determining the overall water security in view of the impacts
[social], as well as sectoral gains and losses (Ipcc.ch, 2007).
United Nations, defines water security as ‘the capacity of a population to safeguard
sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality of water for sustaining
livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development to ensure protection
against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and to preserve ecosystems
in a climate of peace and political stability’ (Unwater.org, 2013). Access to potable
water and sanitation is considered a basic human right and yet billions do not have easy
access to these services. It is estimated that approximately 1.8 billion people use a
water source that has faecal contamination and approximately 40% of the world’s
population suffers from water scarcity (United Nations, 2016).
The UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 6 addresses this shortcoming by aiming to
provide clean water and sanitation to all by 2030. While such a water crisis is a
Communicating Climate Change Impacts Using Cognitive Science 105
common phenomenon across developing countries, India has the largest population of
76 million people who do not have access to clean water. A much larger proportion of
the country’s population is faced with water scarcity and is forced to make do with
irregular access to water (Water Aid America, 2016). Residents in peri-urban areas
largely fall into this second category and have to negotiate with water insecurity that is
driven by several factors unique to the peri-urban space.
This paper looks at how urbanisation in conjunction with climate change has impacted
this interface on the periphery of urban areas. The paper uses cognitive mapping
approaches to capture knowledge among various stakeholders and develops six
scenarios based on identifying policy options to improve water security in the region.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Literature on peri-urban areas in India is already scant and it is predominantly focused
in areas around Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai. This paper highlights a study conduc-
ted in the peri-urban areas of Bangalore and thus aides in identifying the drivers and
conditions of water-security, specific to the peri-urban areas of Bangalore city. Narain
(2011) in his analysis of water issues in peri-urban areas highlights that the problem
is not merely one of scarcity but that of security. He identifies three domains over
which conflicts to water resources take place—quantity of water, quality of water and
access to water sources (Narain, 2011). These three categories also emerge in Allen et
al. (2006) investigation into a group of people termed as the ‘peri-urban water poor’.
The defining features of this group include ‘informal/illegal access to water, access to
poor-quality water and insufficient access to water’ (Allen et al., 2003). Water security
can thus be understood to consist of these three dimensions.
The Quantity of Water: A review of the available literature on peri-urban highlights
that water availability of water to peri-urban communities decreased due to increased
demand from urban areas and demand from near-by industrial areas. The latter is parti-
cularly threatening due to the extensive scale of operation. For instance, Janakarajan
et al. (2008) call attention to the fact that the Metro water board transports more than
6000 tanker loads of water each day to Chennai city from its peri-urban areas.
Similarly, in his study on the peri-urban areas of Hyderabad, Prakash (2014) highlights
how the city’s peri-urban residents have lost out to the wealthier urban middle-class
populations and are deprived of sufficient water. In addition to the extraction of water
by tankers, peri-urban water supplies are also attractive for mineral water companies
who extract groundwater, purify and sell them, further increasing the pressure on
peri-urban water supply (Janakarajan et al., 2011). In addition to this, the increase in
pressure of groundwater resources is most evident when one examines the state of
bore wells in India—In May 2016, 4000 bore wells in and around Bengaluru went
dry, possibly due to overexploitation (Deccan Herald, 2016). Borewells are also being
dug deeper into the ground as water resources closer to the surface are being drained
(Deccan Chronicle, 2016).
Rapid and continued exploitation of peri-urban water resources not only reduce the
absolute quantity of water available to households but it also affects the regenerative
capacity of groundwater systems. The high demand for water from the urban core
results in unregulated water harvesting, where water is extracted at much higher rates
than that of replenishment. The lowering of the water table also makes it harder for
low-income households dependent on groundwater as they lack the resources to extract
water from greater depths. In addition to such urban drivers of water shortage, climate
variability has also been reported to lead to a reduction in the quantity of available
water.
Quality of Water: Water security is also threatened by the deteriorating quality of
water sources in peri-urban areas. Industrialisation on urban fringes results in the
dumping of industrial effluents or chemical discharges into groundwater or water
bodies (Dahiya, 2007). Such a state is largely attributable to the lack of industrial
regulations in peri-urban areas, where effective environmental governance is present in
negligible amounts (Simon, 2008). Further, sewage from the increased population load
in peri-urban areas also leads to water pollution when it is released into water bodies
without treatment (Shaw, 2005), primarily due to lack of sanitation infrastructure. In
addition, peri-urban population depend on rivers flowing downstream through the
urban core, which receive heavily contaminated water due to the improper disposable
of residential and industrial wastes (Simon, 2008). Depending on the extent of conta-
mination, peri-urban households may resort to buying water from other sources such as
mineral water companies. However, it is not uncommon for low-income households to
consume water of poor quality due to the lack of alternatives (Simon, 2008).
Access to Water: In several instances, the poor purchasing power among residents and
jurisdictional ambiguity of peri-urban governance result in communities not having a
regular water supply. The low frequency of water supply is often an issue of in-
convenience for peri-urban households. There have been instances where peri-urban
dwellers lose all access to their traditional sources of water. The accessibility of peri-
urban areas to the economic markets, result in water bodies being lost to other
purposes, inhibiting access to households. For example, the filling up of water bodies
for urban acquisition is a common phenomenon across India (Narain, 2010), which
displaces communities that have traditionally been using the source. At times, even if
water bodies are not eradicated, their management is transferred to corporate bodies,
making them inaccessible to the public. In their analysis of the peri-urban interface in
Shahpur Khurd, Narain and Nischal (2007) note that three ponds in the village
traditionally used by residents are now auctioned off by the village panchayat to
fisheries contractors. Such emerging market relations further threaten the water security
of peri-urban dwellers.
Behind several considerations of water security mentioned above, is the issue of

governance. There is a general consensus among scholars that the lack of proper
governance is the main driver of water insecurity in peri-urban areas. Shaw (2005)
highlights that peri-urban areas ‘generally lack the institutional capacities and
governance structures’ to respond to the changes happening in their area. A key
reason for this lack of governance capacity is that peri-urban areas often fall through
the cracks when it comes to authorities as cities are managed by municipalities and
while villages are managed by panchayats—which body has authority over which
sectors of the peri-urban space often varies from state to state (Prakash, 2014).
Jurisdictional ambiguity, lack of co-operation and the absence of coordination among
the various governmental bodies often result in peri-urban issues not being addressed
effectively (Prakash, 2014).
It should be noted that while effective governance is impeded in peri-urban areas due
to the reasons mentioned above, market-based solutions do not preserve the water
security of peri-urban residents either (Allen et al., 2006). This is attributable to the
low purchasing power of peri-urban residents, which do not provide sufficient incentive
for the private companies to meet their water needs (Allen et al., 2006). It is given this
dual failure of both the state and the market that several scholars have resorted to
calling for greater community involvement and initiatives in addressing issues of water
security. For instance, in analysing the plight of a peri-urban community in Chennai,
Shaw (2005) proposes ‘looking beyond dependence on government and attempting to
solve problems through community or local involvement’.
Such citizen participation is considered ideal for it allows householders, as key
stakeholders in the issue of water insecurity, to identify and prioritize the problems to
be addressed, set the agenda for action and assess the efficiency of the measures taken
to address the problems (Swedish Water House, 2007). A more ground-up approach
then reduces the dependency of these communities on local government bodies and is
expected to result in more effective solutions that benefit the community. Ideally, such
participatory initiatives should be inclusive and be carried out at a sufficiently small
scale to ensure that subgroups that vary in economic and social status are not
marginalised (Swedish Water House, 2007). Integral to such citizen empowerment is
the presence of civil society organisations that enable and facilitate communities in
identifying and addressing problems of water security (Dahiya, 2003).

A Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) approach was used in this study. FCMs are models
of how a system operates based on defined variables and the causal links between
these variables. These variables can be measurable physical quantities or complex
aggregates. The person making the maps decides what variables are important that
affect the system and then draws causal relationships among them, indicating the
relative strength and sign of the relationships between –1 and 1. Once the maps are
drawn their structure can be analysed using graph theory and outcomes determined
through cognitive mapping computations.
Interviews and Drawing Fuzzy Cognitive Maps

In this research 80 interviews were conducted with stakeholders belonging to four
different stakeholder groups (Table 1). In total 221 people (86 men and 135 women)
participated in the drawing of 240 maps. Before drawing cognitive maps, the field staff
drew their own maps to understand the local ecosystem. Thus, the interviewers were
aware of their map and realised their biases while drawing maps with the stakeholders.
Table 1: Classification of Stakeholder for Drawing Cognitive Maps

No. of Groups Total Number
Categories
Men Women of Maps
Agricultural
Labourers 1 1 6
Livestock Herders 1 2 9
Industrial Labourers 1 1 6
Farmers 1 2 9
Total per village 4 6 30
Cognitive maps were drawn as prescribed by Ozesmi (1999) and Carley and Palmquist
(1992). The interviewer listed the names, occupation and gender of the correspondents
on the chart paper. The stakeholders were briefed about the reasons behind the research
before the start of the interview. Once the respondents understood this, they were
asked: ‘If I mention variation in Rainfall and water security, what are the factors,
things, variables that come to your mind?’ Similarly, questions were asked for an
increase in temperature and urbanisation.
The interviewees were then asked to list the factors on the paper. Once listed the
respondents were asked to explain the relationships between the variables and draw
lines between them to represent their relationships. Respondents were then asked to
mark these lines with arrows to indicate their directions, and give signs of positive or
negative and strengths: high (1), moderate (0.5) and low (0). If the interviewees seemed
confused, or not focussed on the mapping, they were asked non-directional questions.
The process continued till the interviewees felt they had nothing more to add, thus
completing the map. After the completion of the maps, they were transformed into
adjacency matrix according to principles of graph theory. The variable Vi were listed
on the vertical axis and Vj on the horizontal axis thus, forming a square matrix.
Condensed Cognitive Maps and Calculating the Indices

The square matrix developed by individual stakeholders was combined into village
wise cognitive maps by adding the augmented matrices as developed by Kosko (1988).
Each of the stakeholder maps was given equal weightages before being condensed.
Condensation is undertaken to reduce the complexities associated with fuzzy cognitive
maps, due to numerous variables and connections between them. As FCMs are quite
complex, graph theory indices provide a simplified way to analyse their structure
(Ozesmi and Ozesmi, 2003).
The first step is to identify the number of variables (N) and the number of connections
(C) in the condensed map. The density of the cognitive map (D) is an index of
connectivity: D = C/(N (N–1)) or D = C/N2 if the map has self-loops i.e. if a variable
can have a causal effect on itself (Hage and Harary, 1983; Ozesmi and Ozesmi, 2003).
Ozesmi and Ozesmi (2003) provide details on how to calculate the other indexes upon
counting the number of different types of variables. The variables are defined as
outdegree [od(Vi)], row of sum of absolute values of a variable in the adjacency matrix
and show the cumulative strength of connections (aij) exiting the variable,
N
od (Vi )   aik
k 1
The indegree [id(Vi)], is the column sum of absolute values of the variables and shows
the cumulative strength of connection (aij) entering the variable,
N
id (Vi )   aki
k 1
This calculation is used to identify the transmitter variables [indicating forcing

functions] which have a positive outdegree and a zero indegree. The receiver variables
[indicating utility functions] have a zero outdegree and a positive indegree. Ordinary
variables have positive outdegree and indegree (Bougon et al., 1977; Eden et al., 1992;
Harary et al., 1965). Furthermore, the centrality of a variable is assessed to calculate
the contribution of a variable in a cognitive map, which is the summation of the
indegree and outdegree (Harary et al., 1965). The centrality of the variable is calculated
by,
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 = 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑(𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖) = 𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑑(𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖) + 𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑(𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖)
The next step is to calculate the complexity index of the map, which is the ratio of the
receiver to transmitter variables (R/T). Maps with a large number of receiver variables
are seen to be complex because they reflect many outcomes and implications that are
a result of the system (Eden et al., 1992; Ozesmi and Ozesmi, 2003).

Based on our initial scoping and survey research it was found that the changing climate
in conjunction has a key role in ensuring water security in peri-urban areas. This was
found to be true upon analysing the cognitive maps as discussed in this section.
In the condensed social cognitive map, which includes 240 maps the strongest connec-
tions are between variations in rainfall and affecting agriculture practices, availability
of drinking water, the quantity of drinking water including surface and groundwater
available. Change in rainfall is also said to reduce the food security of the communities.
Increase in temperature is seen to affect agricultural practices, reduce the availability
of fodder and hence cattle in the region. In addition, it negatively impacts financial
conditions and health of the communities along with water sources (ground and
surface) and drinking water. Temperature is also seen to affect forests in a negative
way. Whereas industries are seen to have the highest impact on financial conditions
of the local communities, this increase in financial conditions is seen to be offset by
spending on health-related issues caused due to changing the climate and increasing
urbanisation. Urbanisation is said to increase the sale of agricultural land, leading to
increasing in the number of industries and the level of pollution due to improper waste
management systems. The maps also suggest that there has been an increase in the
modern infrastructure facilities in the study area as a result of urbanisation (Figure 1).
Fig. 1: Model Assumptions and Implied Changes
Therefore, to improve the water security in the area which is negatively impacted by
climate change and aggravated by urbanisation, there is a need to reduce pollution
and the conversion and sale of agriculture land. The map also indicates a positive
relation between surface water bodies and groundwater. Hence, there is a need to
improve surface water bodies such as lakes and tanks, present in large numbers in the
region to improve groundwater, thus reducing the level of contamination and providing
quality drinking water. This improvement in water sources will result in improved
agriculture practices, as the current practice uses contaminated effluent water to
cultivate crops which in turn harm the health conditions. Thus, improving water
security will also lead to alternative benefits such as improving the health conditions
of the communities, through improved food security.
Modelling different policy options in a fuzzy cognitive map helps identify and selecting
the alternatives to achieve the goal of improving water security in the region. The
policy options were done on the social cognitive map that included maps drawn by all
stakeholders with equal weights. Steady-state conditions were first determined and all
the variables were set to the value of 1. Various policy options were then run on the
models, a variable was fixed at 1 if a variable was to be kept high or fixed at 0 if it was
to be eliminated. In this paper we highlight one of the six cases of policy options that
were run. The case run included various ways to increase water availability. The
proposed changes included reduction of pollution and sewage water (fixed at 0) and
improving agriculture practices as shown in Figure 2. Modelling these assumptions we
can see that, there is a positive change in the health, and drinking water availability in
the region. A moderate positive change can be seen in water (surface and ground)
sources, in addition to forests. Thus, fodder availability increases moderately resulting
in a surge in the cattle population, causing improvements in the dairy sector. These
Fig. 2: Social Cognitive Map Showing the Relationship between

Climate Parameters and Other Variables
outcomes also result in a strong positive increase in the financial conditions of the
community. Thus, improving agriculture practices and reducing the current levels of
pollution through effective enforcement of current policies is found to improve water
security in the region. This sector will have positive repercussions on the health and
financial conditions thus reducing local vulnerability to the impacts of climate change.
The findings with recommendations were shared with Mr. T.M. Vijay Bhaskar, IAS,
Additional Chief Secretary to the Department of Ecology, Forests and Environment
Government of Karnataka (GoK) who directed the concerned authorities to undertake
specific actions. A stakeholder consultation was conducted with experts from govern-
ment departments, academia, practitioners and researchers in addition to peri-urban
communities. This provided an inclusive platform for the community to share their
local experiences with other stakeholders.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all the stakeholders from Manchanayakanahalli, without their
participation this research would not have been possible. Special thanks to SACRED,
Bidadi for organising field research and for the hospitality extended. This study has
benefitted greatly from discussions with Mr. T.M. Vijaya Bhaskar, IAS, Additional
Chief Secretary, Government of Karnataka, in addition to all the experts and re-
searchers in the field of urban water governance. This research is funded by the
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI).
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Vehicular Emission Monitoring
System (VEMS)
Peter Manoj*, Vijay Mishra, Puneet Sharma and Mehboob Jailani
Centre for Nano Science and Engineering (CeNSE), System Engineering Facility (SysEF),
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: The Global warming is caused due to multiple sources. Automobile

emission contributes significantly to air pollution. The present reality is the
majority of the vehicles ply on the city roads without emission check certificate.
Noticeably, the emission checks are carried when the vehicle is at static
state. This justifies the difference in emission level when the vehicle is moving
with commuters. So there is a dire need for a vehicular emission monitoring at
the source/tailpipe using sensors (CO, CO2, NO2, Temperature, Humidity and
Pressure); are important to know the actual emission footprint of the vehicle. The
VEMS is a system consisting of several subsystems, which facilitates the sensors
to work beyond temperature reduction and particle removal. The sensor footprint
data are important to the many namely: User, Automobile Manufacturers,
Pollution control boards, NGOs and even the public/commuters.
The current state of VEMS is presented here that is, completion of design,
simulation and performed experiments considering multiple parameters. We are
envisioning to do the pilot test and for different vehicles.
Keywords: Vehicular Emission, Gas Sensor, Internet of Things (IoT), Air
Pollution, System Engineering
INTRODUCTION
A ir pollution is the fifth leading cause of death in India after high blood pressure,
indoor air pollution, tobacco smoking and poor nutrition; with about 620,000
premature deaths occurring from air pollution-related diseases. Half of the urban
population breathes air laced with particulate pollution that has exceeded the safety
standards. Nearly one-third of the urban population is exposed to a critical level of
particulate pollution. Smaller cities are among the most polluted in the country. On-
road vehicular sources burning fossil fuel are the second largest Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
emitters after fossil fuel-fired power plants. CO2 is the major Greenhouse Gas that is a
precursor to climate change. According to World Meteorological Organization (WMO),
CO2 concentration has increased by an average of 2.0 ppm per year for the last decade.
At this current rate, the global annual average of CO2 concentration would cross the
400 ppm threshold in 2015 or 2016.
115
Bengaluru city has more than 90 lakh population within an area of 742 sq km. The
population is increasing due to economic development in the city. This has led to
increasing in a number of vehicles, diesel generator sets and other associated outfits.
There is a number of areas within the city where the air pollution is high such as
major traffic junctions, industrial areas, etc. For Bengaluru, CO 2 concentration is
around 400 ppm sometimes as high as 490 ppm. This has led to more number of hot
days during summer for the city. Also, CO2 concentration within the city varies from
area to area, depending on the traffic volume and other sources.
A recent study says India’s high air pollution is reducing most of the Indian lives over
three years—The Economic Times, Feb. 2015. The major air pollution caused is due to
carbon dioxide, unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulphur
dioxide and particulate matter. On the other side, the vehicle growth is significantly
increased on the other side as shown in the image below.
Figs. 1 and 2: Vehicular Growth and Total Emission Loads

in Bangalore from Transport Department
Vehicular Emission Monitoring System (VEMS) 117
The exhaust composition given by NTK–Exhaust composition indicates the percentage

split indicating the pollutants from Petrol and Diesel engine.
Fig. 3: Exhaust Composition from NTK
Thus a rightful use of technology and strategies are required to address the vehicular
air pollution problem.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A short literature study was carried out to know the existing sensing mechanism
pertaining to vehicle emission monitoring and we found the usage of gas analysers.
The major hurdle for it was high cost, no mobility and the size of the unit. The picture
below shows an emission test centre that has a gas analyser unit, which uses the light
scattering based technique to measure different gases.
Fig. 4: Emission Test Centre, Gas Analyser, Probe Inserted to Tailpipe and Display Readout
As mentioned earlier, the emission checks are done at the static position of the vehicle.
Hence the need for low cost, on the go monitoring and a compact system are required.
Challenges/Factors Influencing Emission

Importantly, the exhaust/emission from vehicle depends on number of factors such as
the stoichiometric ratio is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that burns all fuel with no excess
air,
25
O2 + C8H18 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
2
Driving mode, Road network, Vehicle age, type and its usage (Source: VAPIS).
Temperature of exhaust gases.
Particulate matter size.
Hence during the design process of VEMS, these complex factors were taken into
account.
Solution
The proposed solution is to build a Vehicular Emission Monitoring System (VEMS).
This system is directly connected to a tailpipe which consists of several sub-systems:
Fig. 5: Block Diagram of Sensor Technology and Design Model of VEMS

for cooling and filtering the corrosive gas, dilution chamber and other accessories like
pumps, valves, sensors, etc. The system enables the gas sensors to work at this reduced
temperature. The sensor electronics unit called Envirobat is proposed to collect the
sensor data. The PM and SO2 sensors are planned to be integrated into next phase of the
project.
The purpose of VEMS is to find out the emission gases from automobiles through the
sensors. By placing VEMS directly after the mufflers of the automobile and identifying
the gases in real-time and getting those results in our gadgets or even in-vehicle display
monitors. To achieve VEMS, design, simulation and pilot test has been carried out.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The VEMS has been executed in following major steps and their outcomes are namely:
Modelling of entire setup (Figure 5).
Analysis using simulation tools of the entire setup for fluid, thermal and structural.
Fig. 6: Thermal Analysis before and after Cooling and Filtering Chamber
Fig. 7: Complete Flow Analysis—Zero Relative Pressure at Tailpipe

Fig. 8: Thermal Analysis of Cooling Chamber
Pilot Testing of Cooling Chamber
Fig. 9: Temperature Reduction to –2°C
Sensor electronics unit (Envirobat) displaying CO, NO2, CO2, temperature, humidity,
pressure, data in ambient environment [Hebbar et al., 2014; Kashyap et al., 2016].
Fig. 10: Envirobat Displaying Sensor Data
Anticipated outcomes in next phase of VEMS.

Pilot test at lab keeping the complete VEMS.
Pilot at vehicle tailpipe and obtain Real-time pollution data analysis and report.
Test VEMS for different vehicles.
Significance of VEMS
The data will create significant importance to:
User: Awareness will bring a lot of sense to reduce global warming to promote
carpool, fuel consumption can be optimized, promotion of public transport and proper
maintenance of the vehicle.
Vehicle manufacturer can know their vehicle parameters, call for maintenance, under-
stand engine patterns then improve it, upgrading pollutant vehicles thereby contribute
to counteract global warming.
Large Industries/Startup: We are envisioning implementing this service for India
“emission prevention as a service” with dedicated devices + apps creates a potential
business case.
Government agencies/Joint drive forces can regulate and can take a proactive
measures to control more emission areas.
CONCLUSION
Hence, the VEMS enables real-time sensing at the source. The deployment of sensors
in significant numbers can help in knowing the total vehicular emission.
REFERENCES
[1] Hebbar, S. et al. (2014). “System Engineering and Deployment of Envirobat an Urban
Air Pollution Monitoring Device,” 2014 IEEE International Conference on Electronics,
Computing and Communication Technologies (CONECCT), Bangalore, 2014, pp. 1–6.
[2] Kashyap, M., Mishra, V. and Bhat, N. (2016). “Realtime Measurement of Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) Levels at the Periphery of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Campus,
Bengaluru”. The Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 36.
Estimation of Methane Gas Emissions
from Selected Municipal Solid Waste
Landfills of Urban Bangalore
Papiya Roy*, M. Manjunatha, Ritu Kakkar,
Saswati Mishra and K.H. Vinaya Kumar
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Urban sprawling across the globe is one of the many factors attri-
buting to global climate change. The alarming rate of waste generation across the
globe is leading to unscientific dumping of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in many
cities. The disposal of MSW results in the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs)
from unscientific landfill because of aerobic decomposition of MSW. Generation of
landfill gas mostly contains CH4 (about 50–60%) which has 25 times more global
warming potential than the CO2. Dispersion of CH4 gas from the landfill to the
nearby areas poses a potential threat to the natural environment including human
population. Methane also has a considerable potential as a source of energy that
can replace the number of fossil fuels currently in use. Gas extraction and
utilization systems need to be designed and implemented in order to exploit this
resource. Assessment of economic viability of gas extraction systems necessitates
estimation of gas released from the existing landfills. Estimation of methane
emission from landfill sites is one of the key gaps identified in INDC, submitted to
UNFCC. In this context, to fill in the above mentioned gap, an effort is being made
to quantify the CH4 emission from selected landfills in Bangalore through three
independent methods viz, Triangular method, LandGEM and IPCC. The onsite
instrumental analysis was conducted to monitor the gas generation and the results
were compared and analysed. Results showed that significant quantity of CH4 is
available in closed landfills and the same can be harnessed if requisite LFG
management systems are installed. The use of Methane as an energy source
maximizes the extraction of useful resources from landfills which in turn minimizes
the global warming.
Keywords: Methane Estimation, Triangular Method, IPCC Default, LandGEM
INTRODUCTION
G eneration of solid waste is a continually growing concern at global, regional and

local levels. The continuous increase in the urban population yields increasing
amount of waste volume globally. The alarming rate of waste generation is leading to
122
Estimation of Methane Gas Emissions from Selected Municipal Solid Waste Landfills… 123
unscientific dumping of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in the cities like Bangalore.
Finding solutions to this ever growing, pervasive and very real problem is not simple.
Landfills are the final destinations for the wastes we create in our everyday lives.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of the present study is to quantify Methane gas production using two
different methods namely, FOD triangular and gas sensor instrument. The quanti-
fication would serve as motivation for shifting from the present unscientific landfill to
engineered landfills with provisions of gas collection and utilization systems.

Characteristics of Bangalore municipal solid waste and several studies (Chanakya and
Sharatchandra, 2005; Ramachandra, 2011; Ramachandra et al., 2012) on MSW audit
for Bangalore city found that household MSW contributes 55% to the total waste,
which is the highest among all sources. The second largest source which generates
about 20% of total waste is hotels and eateries. It was observed that fruit and vegetable
market contribute about 15% of total waste, trade and commerce about 6%, and street
sweeping and parks about 3%. The quantity of waste generated from different sources
and their percentage by weight is combined in Table 1.
Table 1: Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Bangalore (2012)

Quantity Composition
Source
(t/d) (% by weight)
Domestic 780 55
Markets 210 15
Hotels and eatery 290 20
Trade and commercial 85 6
Slums 20 1
Street sweepings and parks 40 3
Source: Ramachandra et al., 2012.
Waste composition changes with the source of generation, but most of the sources
generated a major fraction (70%) of organic waste. Source wise physical composition
of Bangalore solid waste composition is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Physical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Bangalore

Composition (% by weight)
Waste Type Street
Trade and All
Domestic Market Hotels Slums Sweepings
Commercial Sources
and Parks
Fermentable 72 90 76 16 30 90 72
Paper, cardboard 8 3 17 56 2 2 12
Cloth, rubber, 1 0.30 4 0.5 0 1
PVC and leather
Glass 2 0.2 0.7 8 0 1
Plastics 7 7 2 17 2 3 6
Metals 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0 0.2
Dust and 8 4 8 57 5 6
sweeping
Source: TIDE, 2000.
In Bangalore, organic waste mainly consists of vegetable and fruit wastes; its
percentage contribution ranges between 65 and 90% (Rajabapaiah, 1988; TIDE, 2000;
Ramachandra, 2009; Chanakya et al., 2009). Determine the waste composition.
Table 3 summarizes the studies conducted by different researchers to determine the
waste composition.
Table 3: Studies on Waste Composition (%) of Bangalore

Study Area Waste Beukering TIDE Sathish Kumar CPCB BBMP Ramachandra
Type (1994) (2000) et al. (2001) (2004–05) (2008) et al. (2012)
Glass 0.24 1.43 3 1.4
Plastic 0.48 6.23 9 22.43 12 6.2
Paper 3.12 11.6 18 13 11
Metal 0.05 0.23 1 1
Organic 57.04 72 73 51.84 59 72
Other 38.08 6.5 6.5
Municipal solid waste management is associated with the control of waste generation,
storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. The management
should be in accordance with the best principles of public health, economics, eng-
ineering, conservation, aesthetics, public attitude, and other environmental con-
siderations.
Gas Sensor Method of Estimation

Gas sensor analysis was carried out in the selected landfill. Measurement of Methane
emission by using gas sensor instrument was carried out in each study site twice a
week in a month. The instrument reading was fixed for an interval of 30 secs. The
instrument recording was carried out for 4 hours in each study site. The emission data
was later transferred to a computer for further analysis.
Fig. 1: Gas Sensor Instrument
In order to calculate the emission per ton of waste, one kilogram of waste was
segregated from heaps of windrows at 50 cm depth from the top in waste processing
unit as well as landfills. On an average, 1 hour sampling was carried out for a different
segment of waste. The final estimation of total emission, therefore, converted into
yearly emission by multiplying 365 days × 24 hours. Further, for the processing units,
total waste quantity was calculated by multiplying 365 days with current waste
processing data as provided by BBMP.
Estimation of Methane through Triangular Method

The first-order decay method provides a time-dependent emission profile that reflects
the true pattern of the degradation process over time. The FOD method requires data
on current as well as historic waste quantities, composition and disposal practices for
several decades. Since the historical data is not available for most cities of India, this
method cannot be used for estimation of realistic method, which will account for
variation in the waste deposition, the degree of stabilisation, the zone for aerobic and
anaerobic decomposition and the most importantly the cycle over which LFG is
generated from the deposited waste. Therefore, a modified approach is proposed
wherein the biogas release is based on FOD in a triangular form as shown in Figure 2.
Where the area of the triangle would be equivalent to the gas released over the period
from every tonne of solid waste deposited. In the absence of detailed data, this area
(volume of gas) is assumed to be equal to the volume computed using the default
methodology. It is also assumed that the degradation takes place in two phases. The
first phase starts after one year of deposition and rate increases, which continues for
6 years. Therefore, the second phase starts when the gas generation decreases and
becomes zero after 15 years. The Methane emission estimated using the default method
is equated to the area of the triangle. The ‘h’ value, i.e. peak value, of methane
emission shown in Figure 2 is calculated knowing the volume of gas and base of the
triangle. Using the peak value (h), other ordinates are calculated.
Activity Data Considered for Triangular Method in the Study

From the starting year of deposition, the gas generated between (2008–2014) for
Mandur and between years (2012–2015) for Bingipura landfill are computed. The same
procedure is applied for every year and the gas emission values for consecutive years
are added up to get the volume of Methane emission for every year.
Fig. 2: FOD in a Triangular Form
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Estimation of methane through gas sensor method.
Gas sensor analysis was carried out in the selected landfill in the study site, twice a
week in a month. The instrument was fixed at an interval of 30 seconds. The instrument
recording was carried out for 4 hours in each study site. The emission data was later
transferred to a computer for further analysis. The average emission estimated in the
Bingipura landfill is 1.9 Gg/yr.
Methane Emission Estimation based on Triangular Methodology

Methane emissions were estimated at Bingipura (for 2012 to 2015) landfill using the
FOD triangular method. The estimated values using triangular form are close to
realistic values, as it assumed that the gas generation follows triangular form and keeps
on generating for the next 12 and 13 years. Every year the methane is generated due to
waste deposition in the past years. The Table 4 represents the year wise inventory of
CH4 generation from Mandur and Bingipura landfills.
Table 4: Estimation of Methane Emission (in tons) using the Triangular Method
Year Bingipura Landfill (2012 to 2015)
2008 0
2009 0
2010 0
2011 0
2012 0
2013 369.44
2014 1108.32
2015 2216.64
2016 3694.40
2017 5172.16
2018 6649.92
2019 6280.48
2020 5541.60
2021 4802.72
2022 4063.84
2023 3324.96
2024 2586.08
2025 1847.20
2026 1108.32
2027 738.88
2028 554.16
The year wise availability of CH4 gases in the landfills are estimated through triangular
method. It shows that Bingipura landfill, peak availability of CH4 gas will happen in the
year 2018.
Comparative Analysis of Two Different Methods

The estimation of CH4 emissions using the two different methods are shown in Table 5.
Results of the IPCC method indicate a CH4 emission potential of approximately
46.4 Gg/yr, 70.6 Gg/yr and 11.3 Gg/yr in the Mandur, Bingipura and Belahalli landfills
respectively. The LandGEM estimates the total CH4 emission to be 13.6 Gg/yr from
Mandur and 3.76 Gg/yr from Bingipura and 0.61 Gg/year in Belahalli disposal sites.
Table 5: Comparative Analysis of Different Models CH4 Emission

Sensor
Landfill Site Triangular Method
Instrument
In Gg/year
Bingipura (closed) 3.7 1.97
The emission rate estimated by the gas sensor method was 1.97 Gg/yr in Bingipura
landfill. It can be observed that the results of the Triangular method and gas sensor
methods are comparable in case of Bingipura (3.7 Gg/yr and 1.97 Gg/yr) respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
With the increase of the urban population and increasing amount of waste volume,
landfills will continue to evolve. And so will be the potential for Methane generation
and its utilization. In this paper estimation of methane available in a closed landfill in
1 year time period was performed using two methods: (A) FOD triangular method
and (B) Gas sensor instrument. There are a number of uncertainties associated with the
derivation of the data. The uncertainties are, however, very dependent on the quality
of the site-specific data on the various input parameters needed in the calculations.
Results showed that a sufficient quantity of waste is available in the landfill and
maximum energy can be harnessed from it. Thus, there is immense scope for using
Methane as a source of energy for the city of Bangalore subject equipped with gas
extraction and utilization systems are undertaken. The use of Methane as an energy
source will maximize the extraction of useful resources from landfills.
REFERENCES
[1] Chanakya, H.N., Ramachandra, T.V. and Shwetmala (2009). Towards a Sustainable
Waste Management System for Bangalore. First International Conference on Solid Waste
Management and Exhibition on Municipal Services, Urban Development, Public Works
Icon SWM, Kolkata, India.
[2] Chanakya, H.N. and Sharatchandra, H.C. (2005). GHG Footprint of a Developing
Country City—Bangalore. ASTRA Technical Report, CST, Bangalore.
[3] Rajabapaiah, P. (1988). Energy from Bangalore Garbage—A Preliminary Study. ASTRA
Technical Report. Centre for Application of Science and Technology to Rural Areas,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
[4] Ramachandra, T.V. (2011). Integrated Management of Municipal Solid Waste,
Environmental Security: Human and Animal Health, Ibdc Publishers. Chapter 30: 465–
484.
[5] Ramachandra, T.V. (2009). Management of Municipal Solid Wastes, TERI Press, New
Delhi.
[6] Ramachandra, T.V., Shwetmala and Chanakya, H.N. (2012). Interventions in the
Management of Urban Solid Waste. International Journal of Environmental Science,
1(3): 259–267.
[7] TIDE (2000). Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Wastes in Around Bangalore.
Technical Report, Malleshwaram, Bangalore.
Climate Change Alters the Intensity and
Population Dynamics of Insect Pests:
A Case Study with Ferrisia virgata
(Cockerell) Infesting Sandalwood and
Pongam in Karnataka
R. Sundararaj* and Rashmi R. Shanbhag
Forest and Wood Protection Division, Institute of Wood Science and Technology,
Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Climate change is expected to have an effect on the ecosystems,

human health and also phytophagous pests. It is already felt that some pests will be
able to invade new areas and become a threat to biodiversity and crop production.
Minor pests which are present in small areas and at low densities may spread
and reach the status of major pests. Among the insect pests the striped mealy bug,
Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) is a polyphagous and cosmopolitan species, which
attacks a wide variety of crops and tree species. In India, it is known to infest
important tree species like Santalum album (Sandalwood) and Pongamia pinnata
(Pongam). Studies were undertaken on the population dynamics of F. virgata on
S. album and P. pinnata in Bangalore, Karnataka. On P. pinnata its infestation
starts from February coinciding with the formation of new foliage and flowering,
reaching a peak during March and April and then it declines. In 2016, though the
similar trend was observed the intensity of infestation was more. Monthly mean
maximum temperature exhibited significant positive correlation while morning
relative humidity and evening relative humidity exhibited significantly negative
correlation with the population while other weather parameters had a less
significant effect on its population. In 2013 to 2015, the incidence of F. virgata on
S. Album was noticed in the beginning of January which gradually increased to its
peak during the first fortnight of April to the last week of May. Then the
population slowly declines at the onset of monsoon and by August when proper
monsoon a small negligible population was left in the field. But in 2016 its
population was continued for a longer period even in July and August and an
increase in population was noticed from the beginning of November. This might be
due to monsoon failure with less frequency of rainy days which could result in the
elimination of limiting factor for F. virgata thus resulting in the extended
population and generations.
Keywords: Ferrisia virgata, Pongam, Population Dynamics, Sandalwood
130
Climate Change Alters the Intensity and Population Dynamics of Insect Pests 131
INTRODUCTION
I nsects are among the groups of organisms most likely to be affected by climate
change as temperature and other climatic factors directly influence their develop-
ment, reproduction, and survival. Another most important factor is unlike other
organisms insects have short generation period and high reproductive rates because of
which they react strongly as well as quickly to the climate change. Many researchers
have shown that climatic parameters have a direct effect on insect population dynamics
through the modulation of survival, development rates, fecundity, dispersal and
outbreaks along with indirect climatic effects via hosts, competitors and natural
enemies have also been shown (Karuppaiah and Sujayanad, 2012). We see the impact
of climate change on one of such insect population during the regular monitoring of
insect pest of Indian sandalwood and pongam Pongamia pinnata. This paper deals
with the changes in population dynamics of the tailed mealybug Ferrisia virgata
(Cockerell) infesting sandalwood and Pongam in Karnataka with reference to climate
change.

Population dynamics of F. virgata was assessed from January to July in both con-
secutive years 2013 to 2016 in sandalwood provenance and pongam trees from 2009 to
2010 and in 2016 in Bangalore. The study area located at the measurement of 1258′N
7738′E with an altitude of 1000 m in south India. The area consists of red loamy soil
with an acidic pH ranging from 6.3 to 6.5. The semi-arid area with annual precipitation
is around 850 mm and mean maximum and minimum temperatures ranging from
36.8C and 12.2C respectively. Ten sandalwood and pongamia trees of 3 to 4 years
old were selected at random. From these trees, ten branches of size 30 cm in length
were selected in each direction. On each branch, an abundance of F. virgata was
recorded. Observations were made at fortnight intervals. The data thus collected were
pooled and mean was computed for statistical analysis. Meteorological data viz.,
monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures, morning and evening relative
humidity and total rainfall were also collected during the experimental period for
statistical analysis. Correlation and multiple regression analysis were carried out
separately for each factor by following the Fisher and Yates (1938) method.

F. virgata is a major coccid pest of S. album and P. pinnata which was found to be
attacking various parts of the trees including leaves, stems and fruits. On P. pinnata
F. virgata infestation starts from February coinciding with the formation of new
foliage and flowering, reaching a peak during March and April and then it declines. In
2016 though the similar trend was observed the intensity of infestation was more
(Figure 1). On S. album from 2013 to 2015 incidence of F. virgata was noticed in the
beginning of January and gradually increased at its peak in between first fortnight of
April to last fortnight of May. Then the population slowly declines at the onset of
monsoon and by August when proper monsoon a small negligible population was left
in the field. In 2016, though the similar trend was observed, a good level population
was continued even in June to July and build up of the population reaching a second
peak was observed from October to December (Figure 2).
Fig. 1: Population Dynamics of F. virgata on P. pinnata
Fig. 2: Population Dynamics of Ferrisia virgata on S. album

Climate Change Alters the Intensity and Population Dynamics of Insect Pests 133
Similar trends in the F. virgata population dynamics were observed throughout the
world. In Java dry season’s shows higher abundance of F. virgata (Begemann, 1926)
whereas in Philippines abundance was observed during February to May (Lapis, 1970).
The profusion of F. virgata on Jute in Dacca was seen between July–August where as
on garden land fruit infestation was found during winter and early spring (Das et al.,
1948). In Sri Lanka, F. virgata was found mostly in the dry zones (Sirisena, 2013).
Many Indian workers also reported that F. virgata reaches its peak at the dry season
and ceases activity mostly in winter and cooler months (Basu and Chatterjee, 1963;
Rawat and Modi, 1969; Mangala et al., 2012).
Correlation of population dynamics with weather factors indicated that monthly mean
maximum temperature exhibited significantly positive correlation while morning rela-
tive humidity and evening relative humidity exhibited significantly negative correlation
with the population while other weather parameters had less significant effect on its
population (Table 1) these results are in contradiction with the studies conducted by
Ammar et al. (1979) who did not find any significant relationship between population
density and relative humidity.
Table 1: Correlation and Regression Equation of the Population of

F. virgata with Weather Factors on Sandalwood and Pongamia Pinnata
Correlation Coefficient Correlation Coefficient
Weather Factors
with Sandalwood with Pongamia
Maximum Temperature 0.634 0.846
Minimum Temperature 0.616 0.318
Maximum Relative Humidity –0.233 –0.705
Minimum Relative Humidity –0.579 –0.662
Rainfall 0.383 0.004
Regression Equation Y = 25.30 + 2.94 TMax + Y = –522.56 + 13.07TMax

2.46 TMin – 0.20 RHI – + 0.069 TMin + 1.45 RHI
0.126 RHII – 4.63 RF – 0.034 RHII + 0.066 RF
The drastic changes in the population dynamics occurred during 2016 on S. album. Its
population was continued for a longer period even in July and August and an increase
in population was noticed from the beginning of October. This might be due to
monsoon failure with less frequency of rainy days which could result in the elimination
of limiting factor for F. virgata thus resulting in the extended population and genera-
tions.
REFERENCES
[1] Ammar, E.D., Awadallah, K.T. and Rashad, A. (1979). Ecological Studies on Ferrisia
Virgata Ckll. on Acalypha Shrubs in Dokki, Giza Homoptera, Pseudococcidae. Dtsch.
Entomol. Z, 26(4/5): 207–213.
[2] Basu, A.C. and Chatterjee, P.B. (1963). Study on the Behaviour and Control of Ferrisia
Virgata (Ckll.)—A New Mealy Bug Pest of Betel Vine, Piper Betle Linn. in West Bengal,
Zool. Soc. Bengal, 1: 109–114.
[3] Das, G.M., Mukherjee, T.D. and Gupta, N.S. (1948). Biology of the Common Mealybug,
Ferrisia virgata Ckll (Coccidae), a Pest on Jute, Corchorus Olitorius L., in Bengal. Proc.
India, Indian Agricult, 7: 112–117.
[4] Karuppaiah, V. and Sujayanad, G.K. (2012). Impact of Climate Change on Population
Dynamics of Insect Pests. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 8(3): 240–246.
[5] Lapis, E.B. (1970). The Biology of the Grey Mealybug, Ferrisia Virgata (Cockerell)
(Pseudococcidae, Homoptera). Philippine Entomologist, 1(5): 397–405.
[6] Mangala, N., Sundararaj, R. and Nagaveni, H.C. (2012). Scales and Mealybugs
(Coccoidea: Hemiptera) Infesting Pongamia Pinnata (L.) Pierre and Their Population
Dynamics in Karnataka, India. Annals of forestry, 20(1): 110–15.
[7] Rawat, R.R. and Modi, B.N. (1969). Studies on Biology of Ferrisia Virgara (Ckll).,
(Pseudococcidae Homoptera) in Modhya Pradesh. – Ind. J. Agric. Sci., 3: 274–281.
[8] Sirisena, Ugai, Watson, G.W., Hemachandra, K.S. and Wijayagunasekara, H.N.P. (2013).
Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Species on Economically Important Fruit Crops
in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research, 25(1): 69–82.
Butterflies as Indicators of Climate
Change—A Baseline Study
in Bengaluru City
O.K. Remadevi*, Roshan D. Puranik, S. Sooraj,
Centre for Climate Change, Environmental Management and
Policy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Climate change affects the diversity and distribution of flora and
fauna and even the survival of many species on earth. Butterflies with short life
cycle are extremely sensitive to changes in the environment and serve as the best
bioindicators of the impact of climate changes. Though there are few studies on the
diversity of butterflies from some areas in Bengaluru city, there is no study docu-
menting the season-wise occurrence of butterflies from all the green areas of the
city. The objective of our study was to study the diversity of butterflies in major
green spaces of Bengaluru city, which has changed from air-conditioned city to a
city with heat islands. 30 permanent transects of approximately 500 m in length
and 5 m in width were laid across six major green spaces (Gandhi Krishi Vignan
Kendra Campus (GKVK), Indian Institute of Science Campus (IISc), Cubbon
Park, Lal Bagh, Doresanipalya Forest Campus and Bannerghatta National Park)
to survey and observe the diversity and abundance of butterflies. Surveys were
conducted in winter, summer and rainy seasons during 2015–2016 and we could
record 108 species of butterflies during the study period. The highest number of
species (34) was recorded from the family Lycaenidae (Blues). GKVK recorded the
highest number of species (79). Monsoon showed the highest butterfly diversity
followed by summer and winter. The butterflies were ranked as very common,
common, rare and very rare based on the number of individuals sighted for each
season. The present study forms the baseline data for any future studies on butter-
flies as bio-indicators of climate change.
Keywords: Climate Change, Butterflies, Green Spaces, Diversity Indices, Seasons,
Baseline Data, Bio-indicators
INTRODUCTION
T he relationship between diversity of animals and plants and climate has been a
well-established fact and changes in species composition and diversity are reported
to be closely linked to changes in climate. Though many organisms reflect the impact
135
of climate change, butterflies serve as the best candidates for analyzing the extent of
the impact of environmental changes. Studies on their diversity and importance in the
ecosystem have been carried out by hundreds of years. They play important roles and
contribute to major ecosystem services such as pollination, food source for higher
organisms like reptiles and birds, environment indicators of pollution, landscape
changes, climate change etc. Insects have an important role to play in conservation
assessments because of their dominance in terrestrial ecosystems (Wilson, 1987), their
short generation times and their wide range of lifestyles that make them sensitive to
changes in the biotic and a biotic environments. Butterflies are useful in studies of
community ecology as indicators of ecosystem health. They are dependent on specific
host plants for completion of their life cycle. Since the availability and phenology of
host plants change due to climate change, the diversity and distribution of butterflies
also change and hence they are considered as the potential indicators of environmental
and climate change. Parmesan et al. (1999) examined the changes in the northern
range boundaries of 52 species of European butterflies over the past 30–100 years. This
study indicated a northward shift in 34 species, 1 southward shift and no change in the
remaining 17 species. The temperature was the most significant climatic factor
explaining differences in butterfly richness and abundance throughout the year in
Ecuadorian Amazonia. This reinforces the need for temporal studies to better predict
how tropical butterfly populations will respond to predicted climate change (María
et al., 2009).
India has a rich butterfly fauna comprising of about 1504 species (Kehimkar, 2008).
Western Ghats harbour 334 species of butterflies including 37 endemics (Kunte, 2000).
Earlier studies by Yates (1933) and Kathikeyan (1999) revealed the occurrence of
about 140 and 153 species of butterflies in Bengaluru. Bengaluru city, also known as
the garden city of India because of its unique green spaces and floral distribution is
also experiencing the effects of climate change and consequent warming up over the
years. The green spaces are either woody areas, garden spaces or vegetated areas.
These spaces harbour many butterfly species. It is not clearly known whether the
butterfly composition, diversity and abundance have changed over years especially in
the last decade, which has really witnessed an increase in atmospheric temperature
and overall change in climate. Though butterflies in few green spaces of the city have
been recorded by some workers, the list is either incomplete or without proper
information on the season of collection. The information is limited to only the diversity
of species, but not in relation to specific seasons/green spaces. The current study was
conceptualized with a view to studying whether butterflies can serve to indicate the
extent of climate change in the Bengaluru city. As there is no detailed data to make
immediate comparisons with earlier years, it was planned to collect site wise and
season-wise information which can form a baseline data for future so that if similar
data are collected later, we can draw comparisons on the effect of climate change on
the occurrence/shifting/diversity of butterflies in the city.
Butterflies as Indicators of Climate Change—A Baseline Study in Bengaluru City 137
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study Area
Fieldwork was carried out in various established green spaces located in and around
Bengaluru City during summer, rainy and winter seasons of 2015 to 2016. Bengaluru is
located 12°59′N and 77°57′E and at an altitude of 920 m above sea level. The mean
annual total rainfall is about 880 mm. The average summer temperature ranges between
18°C and 38°C while the winters witness an average temperature between 12°C and
25°C. The city known as garden city is characterized by green spaces of mini forests,
gardens and parks interspersed with heat islands of buildings. 6 green spaces in the
city limits (Gandhi Krishi Vignan Kendra (GKVK), (University of Agricultural Science
(UAS) Campus), Indian Institute of Science Campus (IISc), Cubbon Park, Lal Bagh,
Doresanipalya Forest Campus and Bannerghatta National and Biological Park) were
selected for the study.
Gandhi Krishi Vignan Kendra (GKVK) is spread across 1300 acres in size near
Hebbal. The area houses different landscapes such as cropland, mixed vegetation and
plantations. Four transects were laid in GKVK campus. Indian Institute of Science
is spread across 370 acres of land. It is surrounded by the mixed type of vegetation
with patches of deciduous and evergreen species spread across its campus. Three
transects were laid here. Cubbon Park established in the year 1870 is spread over 100
acres of land initially but later got expanded. Two transects were laid in this area. Lal
Bagh Botanical Garden is one of the oldest landmarks of the city which hosts one of
the largest tropical plant collections in the country and has a lake within. It hosts
about 1854 species of plants and trees. It is about 240 acres in size making it one of the
largest green spaces in the city. Four transects were laid here. Doresanipalya Forest
Campus was established in an area of about 86 acres of land near Bannerghatta Road
in Bangalore city. It is inhabited by diverse plant groups/vegetation and plantation
forests of Bamboo and Eucalyptus. Bannerghatta National Park (BNP) was esta-
blished in the year 1970 and declared as National Park in the year 1974. In 2002, a
portion of the Bannerghatta National Park emerged as an independent establishment
known as Bannerghatta Biological Park (BBP). BNP covers an area of 260.51 km2
and is about 22 km away from the centre of the city. Only the part of the park which
falls under the Bengaluru Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA)
region was selected for the study. The park has two types of vegetation viz; mixed
deciduous forest and scrubland. Fifteen transects were laid in BNP. Maps for the
study areas with transects were generated for the area using Google Earth (Version
7.1.7.2606) and QGIS (Version 2.16.3) (Figures 1 to 7).
Fig. 1: Map of Bengaluru—The Study Area
Fig. 2: Transects and Map of GKVK Fig. 3: Transects and Map of IISc
Fig. 4: Transects and Map of Cubbon Park Fig. 5: Transects and Map of Lal Bagh
Fig. 6: Transects and Map of Fig. 7: Transects and Map of

Doresanipalya Forest Campus Bannerghatta National Park
Temperature Data
Temperature data of the City from the year 1990 to 2015 was collected from two
sources viz. www.waterportal.org and Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring
Center (KSNDMC).
Fig. 8: Annual Average Temperature Trend of Bangalore City between 1990–2015
Survey Method
Permanent-Line Transects of approximately 500 m length was laid with the help of
GARMIN etrex 20x GPS and SUUNTO KB-20 Compass. A transect is a path along
which one counts and records occurrences of the species of study. It requires an
observer to move along a fixed path and to count occurrences along the path. Fieldwork
was carried out periodically two times in a month in each location between 8 a.m. and
2 p.m. where individual species of butterflies and their numbers were recorded within
2.5 m on both sides of the transect line and 5 m above the eye level height. Photographs
were taken for identification of butterflies and the unknown was later identified using
Issac Kehemkar’s field guide titled, “The Book of Indian Butterflies” and/or the
website www.ifoundbutterflies.com.
Changes in Yearly and Seasonal Temperature of Bengaluru City

The average temperature of Bangalore city was collected from the years between 1990
and 2015 and the average annual temperature was plotted against each year. The trend
showed that the average temperature has gradually increased over the period of 25
years. As we had no data on butterflies recorded year wise, no correlation could be
made based on the temperature increase.
The average monthly temperature during the years 1990 to 2014 was also plotted. It is
observed that the winter months are getting warmer year by year compared to that of
the other seasons similar to the trends shown in the European study. The temperature
data was computed separately for the three seasons, winter, and summer and rainy
during 1990 to 2015. There is a significant change in the seasonal temperature in all
the years which also showed an increasing trend across years. In the study period, the
seasonal variation of butterfly diversity in each of the green space was documented. As
there is no data on the seasonal occurrence of butterflies across the green spaces in
earlier years, no conclusion could be derived from the change in diversity in relation
to hike in seasonal temperature.
Seasonal Occurrence of Butterflies in Bengaluru City

Temperature and rainfall plays important role in the life cycle of butterflies and some
butterflies are observed only in specific seasons. Season-wise checklist of butterflies in
each of the green space studied is given in Tables 2–7. The butterfly diversity was
assessed using Shannon’s diversity, evenness indices and Simpson’s richness Index
for the seasons of Winter, Summer and Monsoon of 2015–16. The monsoon season
showed higher diversity indicating that the climatic conditions are more favourable
during monsoon season (Table 1).
Table 1: Diversity Indices in the Different Seasons

Seasons Shannon’s Index Evenness Simpson’s Index
Winter 3.171 0.701 0.925
Summer 3.326 0.727 0.950
Monsoon 3.562 0.762 0.951
Butterflies of Bengaluru
A total of 30 transects were laid in 6 selected green areas of Bengaluru city which were
used for observations on the butterflies during 2015 to 2016. A total of 108 species of
butterflies were recorded during the study period. With reference to the number of
species observed, GKVK campus with 79 species is the most diverse. Doresanipalya
stood second with 78 species. 69 species were observed in Bannerghatta National Park
and 64 in Lal Bagh, 58 in IISc campus and 50 in Cubbon Park. The butterflies were
identified and listed as per their family status. The family Lycaenidae recorded the
highest number of species of butterflies (34) followed by Nymphalidae (29), Pieridae
(20), Hesperiidae (14), Papilionidae (10) and Riodinidae (1). The butterflies observed
in our study except for Karwar Swift and Rounded Palm Redeye were all reported in
the list given by Yates (1933) and Karthikeyan (1999). Common Grass Yellow,
Common Emigrant and Mottled Emigrant were the most abundant species as they had
multiple host plants which were easily available in Bangalore city. As per our studies,
Common Grass Yellow, Eurema hecabe (Linn.) (Pieridae) is the most common butter-
fly in Bengaluru city. Common Emigrant, mottled Emigrant and Common four rings
were the other most prevalent butterflies.
The checklist was compared family wise to see which family of the butterfly was
dominant and whether the trend is similar in all the previous studies. It is found that a
number of butterflies recorded is more in earlier studies (Yates, 1933 (140 species))
and (Karthikeyan, 1999 (153 species)). It was observed that the number of species in
different families was lesser in our studies. Probably the earlier studies covered wider
areas and longer time span to record the diversity. Lycaenidae recorded the highest in
all the studies including the present (Figure 9). The definite conclusion is not possible
as the area and duration of study are different in each case. But unfortunately, conclus-
ions cannot be drawn as the study area and seasons are not clear for the earlier studies.
Fig. 9: Family Trends of Butterfly Distribution in Bangalore City

Table 2: Checklist and Season-wise Observation of Butterflies in Lal Bagh Botanical Garden
Seasons
Family Common Name
Winter Summer Monsoon
Hesperiidae Common Banded Awl ×  ×
Rice Swift × × 
Oriental Grass Dart × × 
Dakhan Small Branded Swift  × ×
Giant Redeye  × ×
Indian Grizzled Skipper  × ×
Grass Demon × × 
Chestnut Bob  × ×
Papilionidae Common Jay ×  
Dakhan Tailed Jay   
Common Mormon   
Lime Butterfly × × 
Crimson Rose  × 
Pieridae Three Spot Grass Yellow  × ×
Common Grass Yellow   
Red-line Small Grass Yellow × × 
Common Emigrant   
Mottled Emigrant   
Yellow Orange Tip × × 
Great Orange Tip   ×
Indian Wanderer   
Pioneer × × 
Common Jezebel   
Psyche  × 
Common Gull ×  
Lycaenidae Apefly   ×
Slate Flash × × 
Zebra Blue   
Forget me not ×  
Common Lineblue ×  
Tailless Lineblue  × ×
Dingy Lineblue × × 
Seasons
Family Common Name
Common Cerulean × × 
Pea Blue   
Lime Blue  × 
Gram Blue   
Common Hedge Blue   ×
Pale Grass Blue  × ×
Lesser Grass Blue   
Dark Cerulean × × 
Tiny Grass Blue   
Nymphalidae Blue Tiger ×  
Dark Blue Tiger   ×
Striped Tiger   
Plain Tiger   
Common Crow   
Double-branded Black Crow ×  
Common Bushbrown  × 
Common Four-ring   
Tailed Palmfly  × 
Tawny Coster ×  
Common Leopard   
Common Sailer   
Chestnut-streaked Sailer  × ×
Common Castor   
Common Baron  × 
Chocolate Pansy   
Lemon Pansy   
Peacock Pansy × × 
Yellow Pansy × × 
Great Eggfly  × 
Danaid Eggfly × × 
Table 3: Checklist and Season-wise Observation of Butterflies in Cubbon Park

Seasons
Family Common Name
Hesperiidae Bush Hopper  × ×
Chestnut Bob  × ×
Papilionidae Common Jay × × 
Dakhan Tailed Jay  × 
Common Mormon × × 
Lime Butterfly ×  
Pieridae Three Spot Grass Yellow  × 
White Orange Tip × × 
Great Orange Tip ×  ×
Pioneer  × 
Psyche   ×
Common Gull × × 
Pieridae Zebra Blue ×  
Common Lineblue ×  ×
Tailless Lineblue × × 
Common Cerulean   
Pea Blue  × ×
Lime Blue ×  
Gram Blue  × 
Common Hedge Blue   
Lesser Grass Blue  × 
Tiny Grass Blue  × 
Dark Grass Blue × × 
South Asian Grass Jewel ×  ×
Plains Cupid ×  
Seasons
Family Common Name
Nymphalidae Blue Tiger ×  
Dark Blue Tiger  × ×
Striped Tiger ×  
Plain Tiger × × 
Double-branded Black Crow ×  
Common Evening Brown  × 
Tailed Palmfly × × 
Common Leopard  × ×
Common Sailer × × 
Common Baron × × 
Great Eggfly  × ×
Danaid Eggfly × × 
Common Three-ring × × 
Table 4: Checklist and Season-wise Observation of Butterflies

in Doresanipalya Forest Campus
Season
Family Common Name
Hesperiidae Common Banded Awl  × 
Karwar Swift  × ×
Dakhan Small Branded Swift  × ×
Giant Redeye  × ×
Rounded Palm Redeye  × ×
Pale Palm Dart  × ×
Bush Hopper × × 
Indian Grizzled Skipper   
Common Branded Redeye × × 
Season
Family Common Name
Papilionidae Narrow banded blue bottle  × ×
Common Jay   
Dakhan Tailed Jay  × 
Blue Mormon  × 
Lime Butterfly   
Common Rose   
Crimson Rose   ×
Pieridae Three spot Grass Yellow  × 
Spotless Grass Yellow   ×
Red-line small Grass Yellow  × 
Great Orange Tip × × 
Common Albatross × × 
Western Striped Albatross  × ×
Pioneer   
Common Jezebel ×  
Psyche   ×
Common Gull × × 
Crimson Tip × × 
Lycaenidae Peacock Royal  × ×
Lankan Large Oakblue   ×
Common Guava Blue  × ×
Oriental Cornelian  × ×
Monkey Puzzle × × 
Common Pierrot   
Season
Family Common Name
Banded Blue Pierrot  × ×
Slate Flash  × ×
Redspot  × ×
Zebra Blue   
Forget me not   
Tailless Lineblue × × 
Pea Blue   ×
Lime Blue ×  
Common Hedge Blue  × ×
Pale Grass Blue  × 
Dark Grass Blue ×  
Plains Cupid   
Small Cupid × × 
Riodinidae Suffused Double-banded Judy  × ×
Nymphalidae Blue Tiger   
Dark Blue Tiger  × 
Striped Tiger  × 
Double-branded Black Crow   
Bamboo Treebrown  × 
Common Bushbrown   
Tailed Palmfly  × ×
Tawny Coster   
Season
Family Common Name
Anomalous Nawab  × ×
Baronet   
Chestnut-streaked Sailer  × ×
Angled Castor   
Common Baron × × 
Peacock Pansy  × ×
Blue Pansy  × ×
Great Eggfly  × 
Danaid Eggfly   
Table 5: Season-wise Observation of Butterflies in GKVK Campus

Season
Family Common Name
Hesperiidae Common Banded Awl  × 
Rice Swift  × 
Dakhan Small Branded Swift   ×
Dark Palm Dart ×  ×
Bush Hopper × × 
Indian Grizzled Skipper   
Papilionidae Narrow Banded Blue Bottle  × ×
Common Jay  × 
Blue Mormon  × 
Common Rose  × 
Crimson Rose   
Season
Family Common Name
Pieridae Three Spot Grass Yellow   
Spotless Grass Yellow ×  ×
Red-line Small Grass Yellow   
Yellow Orange Tip   
Great Orange Tip   
Indian Little Orange Tip ×  ×
Indian Wanderer  × 
Pioneer   
Psyche   ×
Common Gull ×  
Crimson Tip × × 
Plain Orange Tip × × 
Modest Small Salmon Arab × × 
Indian Sunbeam  × 
Common Guava Blue ×  ×
Apefly × × 
Monkey Puzzle  × 
Slate Flash   
Zebra Blue ×  
Forget me not   
Common Lineblue × × 
Tailless Lineblue   ×
Pieridae Common Cerulean   
Lime Blue ×  ×
Season
Family Common Name
Common Hedge Blue  × 
Pale Grass Blue   
Dark Grass Blue  × 
South Asian Grass Jewel × × 
Plains Cupid   ×
Small Cupid ×  
Dark Cerulean ×  
Pointed Ciliate Blue × × 
Nymphalidae Blue Tiger  × 
Dark Blue Tiger ×  ×
Double-branded Black Crow  × 
Common Evening Brown × × 
Common Bush brown  × 
Baronet   
Angled Castor  × ×
Common Baron   
Blue Pansy   ×
Yellow Pansy   
Great Eggfly   
Table 6: Checklist and Season-wise Observation of Butterflies in IISc Campus

Season
Family Common Name
Hesperiidae Rice Swift × × 
Indian Grizzled Skipper ×  ×
Chestnut Bob × × 
Papilionidae Narrow Banded Blue Bottle  × 
Common Jay   
Blue Mormon   
Lime Butterfly  × 
Common Rose ×  ×
Pieridae Three Spot Grass Yellow  × 
Great Orange Tip   
Common Albatross ×  ×
Pioneer  × 
Psyche   
Common Gull   
Crimson Tip ×  ×
Lycaenidae Slate Flash ×  
Forget me not × × 
Common Lineblue   ×
Season
Family Common Name
Lime Blue   
Gram Blue ×  
Tiny Grass Blue  × 
Dark Grass Blue × × 
South Asian Grass Jewel  × 
Plains Cupid  × 
Small Cupid ×  
Silver Streak Blue ×  ×
Dark Blue Tiger   ×
Striped Tiger × × 
Double-Branded Black Crow ×  
Common Evening Brown   
Common Bush brown   
Tailed Palmfly  × 
Common Leopard ×  
Common Baron   
Blue Pansy × × 
Danaid Eggfly   ×
Common Three-ring   
Table 7: Season-wise Observation of Butterflies in BBP and BNP

Season
Family Common Name
Hesperiidae Common Banded Awl ×  ×
Indian Grizzled Skipper × × 
Papilionidae Narrow Banded Blue Bottle ×  ×
Common Rose   ×
Common Banded Peacock ×  ×
Spot Swordtail ×  ×
Pieridae Three Spot Grass Yellow   
Spotless Grass Yellow   ×
Red-line Small Grass Yellow   
Mottled Emigrant ×  
Yellow Orange Tip   
White Orange Tip   
Great Orange Tip   ×
Indian Little Orange Tip ×  ×
Indian Wanderer   ×
Common Albatross  × 
Pioneer   
Common Gull   
Crimson Tip ×  ×
Plain Orange Tip × × 
Lycaenidae Indian Sunbeam × × 
Monkey Puzzle  × 
Common Silverline ×  ×
Zebra Blue ×  ×
Forget Me Not ×  ×
Season
Family Common Name
Lime Blue × × 
Common Hedge Blue   
Pale Grass Blue   
Dark Grass Blue ×  
South Asian Grass Jewel ×  ×
Plains Cupid   
Small Cupid ×  ×
Syrian Babul Blue ×  ×
Dark Blue Tiger   
Double-branded Black Crow   
Common Bushbrown   
Baronet   
Common Sailer   ×
Common Lascar ×  ×
Common Castor   ×
Blue Pansy   
Yellow Pansy   
Common Three-ring  × 
 – Present × – Absent
Season-wise Ranking
The study was conducted for three different seasons viz; Winter, Summer and Rainy
of 2015– 2016. The tables below (Tables 8–10) summarizes the species which are most
common (100+ observations), common (observed 30 to 99 times), rare (observed 6 to
29 times) and very rare (5 or below) for each of the seasons separately during the study
period. As far as seasons are concerned, winter witnessed 4 very common species of
butterflies, 16 common, 32 rare and 28 very rare. Summer witnessed 3 very common
species, 19 common species, 31 rare and 28 very rare species. Rainy season witnessed
6 very common species, 23 common species, 38 rare and 23 very rare species of
butterflies. Though there is a clear variation of distribution of species in different
seasons, common grass yellow and common emigrant and common crow were very
common in all the seasons.
Table 8: Winter Ranking Index

Very Common Common Rare Very Rare
Common Grass Pea Blue Common Cerulean Blue Pansy
Yellow
Common Four- Mottled Emigrant Common Hedge Blue Dakhan Small
ring Branded Swift
Common Tiny Grass Blue Pale Grass Blue Indian Grizzled
Emigrant Skipper
Lemon Pansy Common Leopard Common Rose Blue Mormon
Three spot Grass Gram Blue Spotless Grass Yellow
Yellow
Common Sailer Striped Tiger Great Orange tip
Lesser Grass Blue Plain Tiger Blue Tiger
Crimson Rose Dakhan Tailed Jay Dark Blue Tiger
Chocolate Pansy Common Jezebel Tailed Palmfly
Common Pierrot Baronet Common Banded Awl
Common Great Eggfly GiantRedeye
Bushbrown
Common Castor Plains Cupid Lankan Large Oakblue
Common Crow Common Mormon Slate Flash
Indian Wanderer Karwar Swift
Zebra Blue Rounded Palm Redeye
Forget me not Oriental Cornelian
Tawny Coster Red Pierrot

Angled Castor Pale Palm Dart
Chestnut Bob Bush Hopper
Yellow Pansy Yellow Orange tip
TaillessLineblue Indian Sunbeam
Pioneer Common Guava Blue
Chestnut-streaked Apefly
Sailer
Psyche Monkey Puzzle
Rice Swift Banded Blue Pierrot
Dark Grass Blue Lime Blue
Common Evening Peacock Pansy
Brown
Double-branded Black
Crow
Danaid Eggfly
Narrow banded blue
bottle
Common Jay
Lime Butterfly
Red-line small Grass
Yellow
Bamboo Treebrown
Common Baron
Table 9: Summer Ranking Index

Common Common Grass Pale Grass Blue Common Banded Awl
Emigrant Yellow
Common Crow Mottled Emigrant Pioneer Blue Mormon
Common Lemon Pansy Common Castor Lime Blue
Bushbrown
Plain Tiger Dark Blue Tiger Dark Grass Blue
Common Four-ring Blue Tiger Dark Cerulean
Pea Blue Forget me not Three Spot Grass
Yellow
Crimson Rose Common Sailer Indian Little Orange Tip

Spotless Grass Common Cerulean Crimson Tip
Yellow
Chocolate Pansy Lesser Grass Blue Common Guava Blue
Zebra Blue Yellow Pansy Small Cupid
Lime Butterfly Common Lineblue Common Banded
Peacock
Red-line small Grass Common Mormon Slate Flash
Yellow
Yellow Orange tip Great Orange Tip Tailless Lineblue
Baronet White Orange Tip South Asian Grass
Jewel
Tiny Grass Blue Common Pierrot Great Eggfly
Common Leopard Double-branded Common Three-ring
Black Crow
Indian Grizzled Dakhan Small
Skipper Branded Swift
Common Jezebel Dark Palm Dart
Tawny Coster Narrow Banded Blue
Bottle
Danaid Eggfly Spot Swordtail
Plains Cupid Common Albatross
Striped Tiger Apefly
Common Baron Common Silverline
Indian Wanderer Dingy Lineblue
Common Hedge Blue Syrian Babul Blue
Angled Castor Silverstreak Blue
Common Jay Common Evening
Brown
Psyche Common Lascar
Gram Blue
Blue Pansy
Dakhan Tailed Jay
Common Rose
Common Gull
Lankan Large
Oakblue
Table 10: Monsoon Ranking Index

Common Grass Common Three Spot Grass Yellow Common Albatross
Yellow Cerulean
Mottled Emigrant Common Leopard Dingy Lineblue Apefly
Common Common Mormon Tiny Grass Blue Suffused Double-
Emigrant banded Judy
Red-line Small Lemon Pansy Common Jay Peacock Pansy
Grass Yellow
Common Crow Common Pale Grass Blue Bush Hopper
Bushbrown
Common Four- Common Pierrot Blue Tiger Blue Mormon
ring
Common Gull White Orange Tip Spot Swordtail
Common Baron Common Jezebel Slate Flash
Common Castor Common Three-ring Blue Pansy
Striped Tiger Yellow Orange Tip Grass Demon
Lesser Grass Blue Great Orange Tip Common Branded
Redeye
Plain Tiger Dark Cerulean Indian Little
Orange Tip
Danaid Eggfly Baronet Western Striped
Albatross
Lime Butterfly Dark Blue Tiger Plain Orange Tip
Double-branded Gram Blue Peacock Royal
Black Crow
Pioneer Crimson Rose Redspot
Dakhan Tailed Jay Common Lineblue Oriental Grass Dart
Plains Cupid Chestnut Bob
Zebra Blue Modest Small
Salmon Arab
Dark Grass Blue Tailless Lineblue
Common Rose Syrian Babul Blue
Indian Wanderer Pointed Ciliate
Blue
Pea Blue Bamboo Treebrown
Tawny Coster

Chocolate Pansy
Psyche
Common Evening Brown
Angled Castor
Lime Blue
Indian Grizzled Skipper
Small Cupid
Common Sailer
Yellow Pansy
Rice Swift
Monkey Puzzle
Forget Me Not
Great Eggfly
Tailed Palmfly
Common Banded Awl
Narrow Banded
Bluebottle
Crimson Tip
Indian Sunbeam
Common Hedge Blue
South Asian Grass Jewel
DISCUSSION
According to Larsen (1987) butterflies are good indicators for the general ecological
impact assessments and in continued monitoring of ecological health. Blair and Launer
(1997) studied the butterfly diversity and human land use. Bangalore being the IT city
has been developing in leaps and bounds with its burgeoning population and fleets of
vehicles causing a heat island effect. Luckily as a garden city, some of the major
green spaces are kept intact and the flora in these areas is also protected. No study has
been carried out so far within the Bangalore city to scientifically document the effects
of pollutants, greenhouse gases and warming on butterfly diversity in the city. The
warming effects have pervaded into the green areas of the city and it was felt
appropriate to study the diversity in the lung spaces of the city so that the effects of
climate change can be picturised. Kunte (2000) mentioned about 1501 species of
butterflies found in India, of which 321 are Skippers, 107 Swallowtails, 109 Whites
and Yellows, 521 Brush-footed butterflies and 443 Blues. During our study, 108
species of butterflies belonging to six families could be observed from all the study
areas. The literature review could show up only two major studies in Bengaluru, one
by Yates in 1933 and one by Karthikeyan in 1999. But as their study is only a listing
from Bangalore as a whole, no comparison could be made area wise in relation to
environmental and climatic changes in the city. Except for two species, other butterflies
were prevalent in those years also. This indicates that the floral composition has not
changed much.
Studies in other countries show that butterfly communities shift as per the climatic
changes. It is already an observed phenomenon in Europe that some of the species
have moved up north along the latitudinal gradient because of a warming climate in
their original habitats. Parmesan et al. (1999) examined the changes in the northern
range boundaries of 52 species of European butterflies over the past 30–100 years. This
study indicated a northward shift in 34 species, 1 southward shift and no change in the
remaining 17 species. According to Konvicka et al. (2003), during the second half of
the 20th century, 12–15 butterfly species ascended in elevation in the Czech Republic.
To their knowledge, this was the first evidence that butterflies are ascending to higher
elevations in mainland Europe and that the altitudinal pattern found by Hill et al.
(2002) for Britain applies to other areas of the continent. Wilson et al. (2005) compared
the population level census of butterflies in Sierra de Guadarrama mountain range in
Central Spain with the results of a comparable survey carried out in the same region
between 1967 and 1973. They estimated that the low elevation boundaries of 16
montane butterfly species had moved uphill by an average of 212 m.
The association of butterflies with distinct seasons is already established by many
researchers. In our study, the monsoon season showed higher diversity indicating that
the climatic conditions are more favourable during monsoon season. It was also
observed that the months of winter and monsoon was getting significantly warmer
similar to that of the European model. In the current study, as we do not have data on
diversity of butterflies in Bangalore city for the past 25 years, no correlation could be
derivedfrom the diversity data and seasonal temperature data. Kunte (1997) studied
seasonal patterns in butterfly abundance and species diversity in four tropical habitats
in the northern Western Ghats. During unfavourable seasons, i.e. in spring and summer,
a low population was maintained. Krishna Kumar (2008) studied ecology and con-
servation of selected Papilionid butterflies in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,
Anamalais, Western Ghats, South India. In the study, the highest density of butterflies
was found during North-East monsoon period followed by winter. A study by Sengupta
(2014) in the surroundings of upper Neora Valley National Park, a sub-tropical broad
leaved hill forest in the eastern Himalayan landscape conducted during 2011 and 2012
recorded 161 species of butterflies which was dominated by the family Nymphalidae
with 70 species followed by 45 of Lycaenidae, 18 by Hesperiidae, 15 by Pieridae and

13 by Papilionidae. The maximum number of butterfly species (158) and the maximum
number of individuals (2480) was recorded during the monsoons.
Our primary study on Butterflies was to build a baseline data for the coming years
which can be monitored long term. More elaborate information can be gathered to
correlate if there is a shift in the diversity of Butterflies in Bangalore city due to
climate change and change in host plant patterns distributed in the city. Hence, we
chose areas where the local authorities have an inventory of host plants which can be
accessed and thereby better outcomes can be drawn. Since Bangalore city is at an all-
time expansion, green cover in the outskirts of the city such as Bannerghatta National
Park and Doresanipalya Forest, which are natural habitats for many species of
butterflies are under constant threat by anthropogenic activity, pollution and climatic
changes. The current study is expected to form a baseline data, the collection of which
if continued in future years, can help in comparing the data on a spatial and temporal
scale to elucidate the probable impacts of climate change on butterfly diversity.
REFERENCES
[1] Blair, R.B. and Launer, A.E. (1997). Butterfly Diversity and Human Land Use: Species
Assemblages Along an Urban Grandient. Biological Conservation, 80(1): 113–125.
[2] Hill, J.K., Thomas, C.D., Fox, R., Telfer, M.G., Willis, S.G., Asher, J. and Huntley, B.
(2002). Response of Butterflies to Twentieth Century Climate Warming: Implications for
Future Ranges. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B., 269: 2163–2171.
[3] Karthikeyan, S. (1999). The Vertebrates and Butterflies of Bangalore: A Checklist. Publi-
shed by World Wild Fund for Nature—India Karnataka State Office, Bangalore, 48 pp.
[4] Kehimkar, I. (2008). The Book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society,
Oxford University Press, 497 pp.
[5] Konvicka, M., Maradova, M., Benes, J., Fric, Z. and Kepka, P. (2003). Uphill Shifts in
Distribution of Butterflies in the Czech Republic: Effects of Changing Climate Detected
on a Regional Scale. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 12: 403–410.
[6] Krishnakumar, N.A., Kumaraguru, K., Thiyagesan and Asokan, S. (2008). Diversity of
papilionid butterflies in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, Southern
India. Tiger Paper, 35: 1–8.
[7] Kunte, K. (1997). Seasonal Patterns in Butterfly Abundance and Species Diversity in
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[8] Kunte, K. (2000). Butterfly Diversity of Pune City along the Human Impact Gradient.
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[9] Larsen, T.B. (1987). The Butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of South India (Lepidoptera:
Rhopalocera). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 84(I): 26–54.
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the Ecuadorian Amazonia and their Relationship with Climate, Annales de la Société
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[11] Parmesan, C., Ryrholm, N., Stefanescu, C., Hill, J.K., Thomas, C.D., Descimon, H.,
Huntley, B., Kaila, L., Kulberg, J., Tammaru, T., Tennent, W.J., Thomas, J.A. and
Warren, M. (1999). Poleward Shift in Geographical Ranges of Butterfly Species
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[12] Sengupta, P., Banerjee, K.K. and Ghorai, N. (2014). Seasonal Diversity of Butterflies and
their Larval Food Plants in the Surroundings of Upper Neora Valley National Park, a
Sub-Tropical Broad Leaved Hill Forest in the Eastern Himalayan Landscape, West
Bengal, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 6(1): 5327–5342.
[13] Wilson, E.O. (1987). The Little Things That Run the World (The Importance and
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[14] Wilson, R., Gutierrez, D., Gutierrez, J., Martinez, D., Agudo, R. and Monserrat, V.J.
(2005). Changes to the Elevational Limits and Extent of Species Ranges Associated with
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[16] www.ifoundbutterflies.org
Conserving Biodiversity
Conserves Carbon
A.S. Devakumar*, K. Srinath and Anil Khaple
Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Climate change is the greatest concern of this century and loss of
biodiversity is one of the important repercussions of climate change. However,
ecosystems with higher biological diversity are proved to be more resilient to
climatic aberrations and thus contribute to climate amelioration as well as
biodiversity conservation. This study is an attempt to test this hypothesis as well
as to assess the sacred groves which are community conserved forest ecosystems
for their contribution towards biodiversity conservation, climate resilience and
carbon sequestration. Groves existing across diverse climatic conditions recorded
144 tree species, of which 15 were found to be endemic. Shannon’s diversity
index of 4.15 indicates a high tree diversity as well as even distribution of tree
diversity among the groves spread across the diverse climatic regions. High tree
density (360 trees ha–1) with a basal area ranging between 32.8 and 49 m2 ha–1 is
an indication of favourable growing conditions as well as the physiological
functioning of the groves. A typical inverted “J” pattern of girth class distribution,
suggests healthy regeneration in the groves. The carbon sequestered from the
above ground standing biomass, soil organic carbon and litter was 139.78, 62.3
and 0.38 tC ha–1 respectively amounts to 196.43 tCha–1 sequestered in the groves,
which is the highest so far reported among the forest ecosystems of India. Results
indicate the importance of community conserved forest ecosystems in sustaining
the biodiversity which imparts functional diversity and in turn resilience to the
ecosystem. Such forest ecosystems under changing climate scenarios play a
significant role not only in biodiversity conservation but have a critical role in
carbon sequestration.
Keywords: Climate Change, Western Ghats, Biodiversity Conservation, Sacred
Groves, Climate Resilience
INTRODUCTION
F orests are the bastion of human needs. India has a wide range of forest types
(Champion and Seth, 1968) and is a hub of biodiversity as it houses four out of 34
global biodiversity hotspots (Meyers et al., 2000). Sacred groves are one of the forest
163
ecosystems conserved by local communities out of religious sentiments. The local

communities contribute immensely to maintaining sacred groves which in turn provide
many ecosystem services such as biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, water
and soil conservation, aesthetic and recreational services (Bhagwath, 2005). Such eco-
systems in the semi-arid tropical countries are of great importance considering the
significant land cover changes and associated loss in ecosystem services.
The benefits derived from forests primarily depend upon the ecosystem functioning
and the susceptibility to various climatic aberrations. Ecosystem functioning is shown
to increase with an increase in the biodiversity in the early nineteenth century itself
(Odum, 1953). The variations in physiological processes, morphological differences of
plant species (Chapin, 1980; Chabot and Mooney, 1985) allow a mixture of species to
utilize the resources comprehensively and help in optimizing ecosystem productivity
(MacArthur, 1955). Under the current climate change scenario understanding the funct-
ional ecosystem, the response has become more relevant to provide robust interpretat-
ions and generalizations (Loreau, 2000) that help in addressing climate mitigation.
Biodiversity loss is one of the major concerns due to global climate change. Global
climate is becoming variable as predicted, due to unabated GHG emissions. Measures
through ambitious steps like Kyoto protocol have not yielded the desired results
(Victor, 2004), carbon sequestration from forest ecosystems is considered to be a
potential means of climate mitigation (Stern, 2006) and many ecosystem services
derived from forests. Forest ecosystems have been clearly shown to be one of the
important sinks of carbon (Brown and Lugo, 1982; Houghton, 1991; IPCC, 2002).
Globally, the combination of reforestation and afforestation could reduce atmospheric
CO2 concentrations by as much as 30 ppm in this century (House et al., 2002). The
biomass accumulation in the Indian forests has contributed in removing 9.31% of the
total annual emissions of the year 2000 (Chhabra et al., 2002). The ecosystems such
as sacred groves are of special relevance because of their high biodiversity that imparts
a wide range of functional abilities in terms of stress tolerance, carbon assimilation
and optimum resource utilization and help in maximizing carbon sequestration.
The global climate change can be mitigated by addressing issues at the regional levels.
Therefore collating carbon stocks of different ecosystems at regional levels is not
only useful in making precise estimations but is also essential for making policy
interventions in sustaining these ecosystems and their services. In this background,
the present study is an attempt to assess the sacred groves for their contributions
towards biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration.

Kodagu district is situated in “Western Ghats” that extend between 11º 56′–12º 52′ N
and 75º 22′–76º 11′ E. It is a hilly district with elevation ranging from 900 to 1,750 m.
Conserving Biodiversity Conserves Carbon 165
It has 46% of the geographical area covered with natural forest and around 16% of
the forested area is found outside the reserve forest. Sacred groves are part of the forest
outside the reserve forest. There are 1,214 sacred groves covering an area of about
2,550 hectares spread across three talukas of the district (Accavva, 2002).
The annual rainfall of the district ranges from 1500–5000 mm with a dry spell of
three to four months. The mean annual temperature is 24°C and the mean temperature
of the coldest month is around 20°C and it ranges from 25°C to 31°C during hot
months (Pascal and Maher, 1986). The major soil types of the district are mollisols,
alfisols, ultisols, inceptisols, entisols and red soil (Korikanthimat et al., 2002). All these
climatic and soil variables across the district provide varied conditions suitable for
different types of plant species and result in housing a rich biological diversity.
The sacred groves were located on the village maps (scale 1:7920) maintained by
Office of Assistant Director of Land Records. The selected groves were grouped into
five size classes and from each size class 25% of the groves were sampled (Table 1).
Stratified random sampling was adopted for collection of data from the groves.
Table 1: Sacred Groves Distribution in the Kodagu District with

Three Talukas and the Stratified Sampling Intensity from Different Size Classes
Madikeri Taluka Virajpet Taluka Somwarpet Taluka
Size Classes No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
(acre) Groves Groves Groves Groves Groves Groves
Present Sampled Present Sampled Present Sampled
I 5–10 34 9 50 13 28 7
II 10–15 15 4 27 2 7 2
III 15–20 9 2 16 4 7 2
IV 20–25 5 2 9 2 1 1
V >25 8 5 18 5 11 3
Total 71 22 120 26 54 15
Carbon stock estimation of the sacred groves was collated from three major pools of
carbon namely; the Above Ground Biomass (AGB) of standing trees, litter and the
soil. For estimating the carbon in the standing trees non-destructive method of biomass
estimation was followed. In each of the identified groves, two plots of size 20 m × 20 m
were laid. Height and Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) of all the tree species with
more than 30 cm girth were measured and identified to species level (Keshavamurthy
and Yoganarasimhan, 1989). DBH was measured at 1.37 m from the ground using
the measuring tape and the height was measured using digital clinometer (Haglof,
Sweden). In the absence of allometric equations for all the 145 tree species, we used
DBH and tree height to estimate the trunk volume (Chaturvedi and Khanna, 1982) and
volume were multiplied with the wood density of respective tree species (Philip, 1997)
to derive the biomass. To estimate the biomass in the crown, expansion ratio was used
(Ajay Kumar and Singh, 2003) and 50% of the biomass thus derived was considered as
carbon content (MacDickens, 1997).
For soil carbon estimation samples were drawn using a core sampler from a depth of
30 cm (MacDicken, 1997). Samples were drawn from five groves to represent each size
class. Samples were analyzed for organic carbon content as per modified Walkley and
Black method (Yeoman and Bremner, 1988).
To assess the standing litter, four plots of 1 × 1 m dimension were laid in each of the
sampled groves. Total weight of the litter collected from each plot was weighed in the
field using portable electronic field balance. A representative sample was brought to
the lab and washed to remove the soil particles, dust and other adhering particles and
then dried in the oven at 70ºC. Using the dry weight of litter, necessary corrections
were made to the total weight of the litter collected. To assess the structural com-
position of the sacred groves, trees were stratified into six size classes in the vertical
and horizontal axis using height and DBH of the trees. Species diversity was assessed
using Shannon’s diversity index (Shannon and Weaver, 1948). Data thus obtained on
various parameters were subjected to statistical analysis to determine the significance
using MSTAT software.

This study is an attempt to assess the sacred groves and how it can contribute towards
sustaining the growth and stability of the system under changing environmental
conditions. In order to assess the functional ability of sacred groves at the landscape
level, structural attributes, spatial arrangements, size distribution and regeneration
abilities of the ecosystem are considered to be good indicators (Pokhriyal et al., 2010;
Getachew et al., 2010). These traits reflect the cumulative effects of energy flow,
nutrient cycling and environmental perturbations on the ecosystem performance. The
basic premise of ecosystem functioning is the interaction between the biological
components and their environment (Odum, 1953), where the environment will
influence and also get influenced by the biological components of the ecosystem.
Therefore the productivity of an ecosystem depends on the efficiency with which the
interactions occur. Higher the efficiency, higher will be the productivity. Efficient
interaction is noticed when the plant diversity is higher (MacArthur, 1955). Because
larger the number of species in an ecosystem, greater would be the possibilities of
interactions that enable the selection of extreme traits that would enhance the collective
performance (Tilman, 1996).
Biological Diversity
One of the major components that play an important role in the functioning of an
ecosystem is tree diversity (Richards, 1996). From the results, it was found that there
are 144 tree species recorded in the sacred groves of which 14 were found to be
endemic to sacred groves. The tree species richness of the sacred groves is greater than
species reported earlier for this region (Pascal and Maher, 1986). Such large tree
diversity is primarily due to diverse climatic conditions prevailing over the district
located in the hilly terrain of the central Western Ghats (Ram et al., 2004). It receives a
mean annual rainfall ranging from 1500 mm in the lower planes to 5000 mm in the
higher altitudes (Pascal and Pelissier, 1996). The altitude varied from 900–1757 m. The
rainfall, altitude and its associated changes in soil and physiographic factors bring in a
lot of climatic variations and resulted in the formation of dry deciduous, moist deci-
duous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forest types in the district. Since the sacred
groves are spread across the district in these diverse forest types it is likely that diverse
species of different climatic requirements would thrive in these sacred groves. Further,
the religious sentiments towards the sacred groves have secured the groves from
anthropogenic disturbance also help substantially in sustaining the diversity over
generations. The Shannon’s diversity index has remained high and non-significant
across the size classes of the groves (Table 2) suggests that the tree diversity remained
same, irrespective of the size of the sacred groves. The co-existence of species is
substantially explained through neutral and niche theory (Hubbell 2005; Kraft et al.,
2008). Higher diversity is hypothesized to enhance the ecosystem productivity.
Table 2: Tree Distribution, Growth and Carbon Stocks in

Major Carbon Pools in the Sacred Groves
Growth Components and CD@
Class-I Class-II Class-III Class-IV Class-V Mean
Carbon Pools 5%
Shanon’s diversity index 4.27 4.27 4.05 3.87 4.32 4.15 NS
Tree density (tree/ha) 305 299 431 360 405 360 57.43
Basal area (m2 ha–1) 32.80 33.30 42.90 49.00 40.60 39.70 08.24
AGB (t ha–1) 228.00 252.00 317.00 301.40 299.40 279.56 76.74
C-content of AGB (tha–1) 114.00 126.00 158.50 150.70 149.70 139.78 38.36
C-content of Litter (tCha–1) 0.29 0.33 0.28 0.35 0.65 0.38 0.038
Soil Organic Carbon 113 124 123 139 126 125 NS

content (tCha–1) (2.5) (2.8) (2.7) (3.1) (2.8) (2.8)
Total Carbon (tCha–1) 170.29 189.05 219.26 190.49 213.07 196.43 NS

Foot Note: Values given in the parenthesis are the carbon content expressed in percent.
Because larger the number of species, greater would be the interactions of physio-
logical, morphological traits that will help in enhancing the efficiency of ecosystem
functioning in subjecting the resources to more efficient use (Loreau, 2000). More
alternate pathways for the flow of energy and internal cycling of nutrients available
among the diverse tree species are reasons for enhancing the resilience of the system.
Structural Composition of Sacred Groves

Most important ecosystem function that provides the primary energy required for life
is photosynthesis. This function of an ecosystem depends on the efficiency with which
the solar energy is utilized. In this context, the composition and structure of the
ecosystem is a key factor according to niche theory (Kraft et al., 2008). Accordingly, a
strong growth-strategic differentiation at varying light levels has been reported across
the species (Rüger et al., 2011). Thus in order to understand the structural composition
and its influence on the functional ability of sacred groves the spatial arrangement of
trees was analyzed. Results showed that the number of trees in the lowest (1–5 m) and
highest height classes (>25 m) remained least among all the size classes of the groves
and the highest number of trees were found in the height classes ranging between 5.1
to 20 m (Figure 2). The mean height distribution of trees in all the size classes of the
sacred groves also had a similar trend in which one and five percent of the total
population was found in lowest and highest height classes respectively, followed by
28, 30, 21 and 13 percent of the population in the other height classes (Figure 2). This
suggests that the canopy species, as well as the shade tolerant species, are less in
number compared to those that need moderate light. Such an arrangement of species
depending on their light saturations would optimize the light use efficiency of the
ecosystem (Laurance and Bierregaard, 1997) resulting in good growth. This was
evident from many of the growth attributes such as biomass accumulation, girth
increment, distribution, tree density and regeneration as described.
The highest numbers of trees were seen among the lowest diameter class and the
number decreased with increased DBH (Figure 3). The mean distribution pattern of
number of trees of different diameter classes was no different wherein, about 48
percent of the total population was found in the lowest DBH class (0.31–0.60 m) and
decreased in the subsequent diameter classes continuously to as low as seven percent in
the highest diameter class (Figure 3). This has resulted in classical “inverted J” pattern
of distribution of diameter classes of trees which is conventionally considered to be a
reflection of normal growing conditions of an uneven-aged forest ecosystem (Smith
et al., 1996). The subtle climatic variations seen in the vertical and horizontal profiles
of the ecosystem provide variable climatic conditions congenial for diverse species,
enabling many species to co-exist (Kraft et al., 2008).
When the conditions are favourable for growth it should also be reflected in the tree
population. Tree density in the groves varied from 299 to 431 tree/ha across the size
class of the groves, with an average 360 tree ha–1 (Table 2). Tree density recorded in a
deciduous forest type of the district is as low as 67 trees ha–1and highest recorded is 270
tree ha–1 in semi-evergreen forest type (Devakumar, 2009). In a managed ecosystem of
the district viz; coffee plantation (coffee is grown under the partial shade of trees in
India) shade tree density is reported to vary from 370 tree ha–1 in evergreen vegetation
type to 361 trees ha–1 in moist deciduous vegetation type of the district (Manjunath,
2009). Thus it is evident that the tree density of sacred groves is on par with a managed
ecosystem and much higher than a natural forest ecosystem, reiterating the fact that the
growing conditions prevalent in the sacred groves are congenial for growth.
Carbon Sequestration
The biomass and carbon stocked in the standing trees ranged from 228–316 tha–1 and
114–158 tha–1 respectively, with significant differences among the size classes. The
average amount of carbon stored is 139.78 tones ha–1 (Table 2). Biomass accumulation
in evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forests in India is 183.06, 181.73 and
105.2 tones ha–1 respectively (Haripriya and Ravindranath, 2003). In tropical dry
evergreen forests of peninsular India, it ranged from 36.69 to 170.02 tones ha–1 (Mani
and Parthasarathy, 2007), while that of the tropical rainforest of Uttara Kannada district
of Western Ghats ranged from 92 to 268.49 tha–1 (Bhat et al., 2003). Average biomass
accumulation of Indian forests is 135.6 tha–1 (Pandey, 2002). Highest biomass of
397.7 tha–1 is reported from the Amazonian forests (Henrique and William, 2002).
These comparisons suggest that the sacred groves have highest carbon stock in the
standing trees among the forest ecosystems of India. Such a high productivity seen in
the sacred groves can be largely attributed to the high species diversity as well as its
distribution in the groves. Because according to Tilman (1997) higher diversity can
increase productivity as the probability of having highly productive species presence
will increase with plant diversity (competition effect) and complementary resource use
by different species would also be higher with plant diversity.
From the size class distribution and their respective biomass contribution, it was found
that the number of individuals present in different girth classes decreased with the
increase in girth, while the biomass contribution from these respective size classes
was exactly the opposite (Figure 2). This is a general trend seen in most mixed forest
ecosystems (Brown and Lugo, 1982) where the largest contribution towards biomass
comes from old growth (larger trees) whose number invariably remains less.
The quantum of carbon present in the standing litter is in the range of 0.28 to 0.65 tones
ha–1 (Table 2), which is relatively less compared to earlier reports for Western Ghats
(Swamy et al., 2004; Arul and Parthasarathy 2005) and also considering the higher tree
density of the groves. These are the average values across the groves which are distri-
buted across the varying climatic conditions with a composition of both evergreen
and deciduous types. Therefore litterfall and its mineralization can be both seasonal
(in deciduous species) as well as continuous (in evergreen species) among the groves
(Madritch and Cardinale 2007). These factors must have been the reasons. Since this
was not a major focus of this study, more detailed investigations are necessary.
Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) content of the groves varied from 56(1.25%) to
69.45(1.55%) tones ha–1 across the groves with an average of 62.45(1.4%) tones ha–1
(Table 2). The average soil carbon content of the Kodagu district is reported to be in the
range of 0.5 to 0.75% (ICRISAT, 2011). The values reported for sacred groves were
found to be higher, compared to the dry deciduous forest (42 tones ha–1) and semi-
evergreen forests (63.12 tones ha–1) of the Western Ghats (Reddy and Devakumar,
2012). Another major land use system of the region is coffee plantations and SOC
values reported are in the range of 56 t/ha (Coffea arabica) to 33.6 t/ha (Coffea
robusta) (Korikanthimath et al., 2002) which is less than that of sacred groves. Higher
SOC in the groves can be ascribed to high tree density and diversity and is also an
indication of low anthropogenic interference. This is an indication of favourable soil
conditions in the groves which is essential for normal growth and development of the
trees.
The total carbon sequestered from all the three major pools varied from 170 to 213
tones ha–1 with a mean of 196 tones ha–1. This is considerably higher among all the
forest ecosystems of the Western Ghats reported. Largest contribution among the
three pools come from AGB followed by soil carbon and litter reiterate the fact that the
growing conditions in the groves are favourable and stable.
Tree growth is a function of ability with which solar energy is utilized in assimilating
atmospheric carbon to produce carbohydrates, which are building blocks of growth.
This process needs to be complemented with essential mineral nutrients. In a closed
ecosystem, the nutrient turnover is shown to be generally not limiting. If so, it becomes
evident in the growth and other processes of the ecosystems (Smith, 1996; Vitousek
and Harper, 1993). The composition of groves (Figures 2 and 3) and growth (Tables
1 and 2) as a cumulative response of the system, it was evident that the health of the
sacred groves was good or not limited by the nutrients and therefore we presume that
nutrients circulated reasonably well like a closed forest ecosystem in the sacred groves.
The contribution of local communities has a significant role in sustaining this healthy
environment. Moisture is another major growth limiting factor which was found to be
not affecting the growth. Kodagu district receives an annual rainfall ranging from 1500
to 5000 mm and is recognized to be a high rainfall region (Pascal and Maher, 1986).
The rainfall distribution is also fairly well spread as this region receives both South-
West and North-East monsoons (Attri and Thyagi, 2010) with only two to three months
of dry spells. This suggests that moisture may not be a constraint in the growth of
sacred groves.
From the above observations, it is evident that the groves are functionally diverse due
to higher tree diversity that facilitates efficient utilization of resources and in turn
sustaining a balanced interaction between the environment and the biological entities
of the sacred groves. Higher productivity of the groves among the similar natural
ecosystems in the region was because of the resilience of the sacred groves which is
perhaps lacking in less diverse systems.
Average
Fig. 1: Height Class Distribution of Trees in the Different Size Class of the Sacred
Groves (Values indicated above the bars in the graph of average tree
height is the percentage of tree population)
Fig. 2: Girth Class (DBH) Distribution of Trees among the Size Class of the Sacred
Groves (The values indicated above the bars in the graph
depicting the average DBH is the percentage)
Fig. 3: Size Class Distribution of Tree Population in the Sacred Groves and
the Amount of Carbon Stored in the Respective Girth Classes
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A Quantitative Study on Adaptability
of Indigenous Cattle of Wayanad,
Kerala on Climate Change
Using Heat Tolerance Test
Siddhartha Savale* and M. Muhammed Asif
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode Kerala Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University, Wayanad, Kerala
ABSTRACT: Heat tolerance is the ability of the animals to withstand heat when
all other factors are constant. Physical responses such as Respiration rate, heart
rate and rectal temperature are reliable indices for recording the heat tolerance
of the animals. Heat stress will likely become more prevalent over the next few
decades as predicted changes in climate could cause increases in severity of
weather events and warmer average temperatures. Heat stress results from a
negative balance between the net amount of energy flowing from the animal to its
surrounding environment, and the amount of heat energy produced and absorbed
by the animal.
An animal that is heat tolerant has the ability to maintain a normal body
temperature under high ambient temperatures and Heat tolerance indices are
widely used to evaluate animals for their tolerance capacity. The Dairy Search
Index (DSI) is one of the major heat tolerant test and rectal temperature and
respiration rate and pulse rate taken under consideration by giving appropriate
weightage to each parameter (Thomas et al., 1973). This study recorded these
parameters twice daily at 8 a.m. and 2 p.m. and values were used for analysis of
Dairy search index in native Wayanadan dwarf cows. This breed has played once
a pivotal role in the sustenance of dairy farmers of the district is now left only with
300 in numbers. Mainly the tribes of Thirunelly and Muthanga regions of the
district are rearing it. It was found that the Wayanadan dwarf cows had DSI of
1.01, as per DSI standard which indicates that animals have minimal stress
during hot climatic conditions. In this era of varying climatic conditions, we should
not discard the truth that climatic severities reduce productivity in exotic cattle,
but not in native Indian breeds.
Keywords: Heat Tolerance, Heat Stress, Dairy Search Index, Wayanadan Dwarf
Cows
176
A Quantitative Study on Adaptability of Indigenous Cattle of Wayanad… 177
INTRODUCTION
L ivestock genetic resources are of economic, scientific and cultural interest to

humankind in terms of food and agricultural production for the present as well as
future generations. These are particularly vital to subsistence and economic develop-
ment in developing countries as they continually provide essential food products,
contribute draught power and manure for crop production and generate income as
well as employment for most of the rural population. They also produce non-food
items such as hides, skins, wool, traction power and fuel (from dung). In addition,
livestock contributes towards environmental sustainability in well balanced mixed
farming systems. The current pattern of consumerist society had led to the promotion
of high milk yielding exotic crossbred milch animals. With the advantage in milk
yield, these exotic crossbred animals are prone to the climatic variations and have less
disease resistance. The exotic crossbred milch animals require high-quality feed,
medicines resulting in the animal rearing venture a challenging one. On the other hand,
the indigenous cattle breeds are highly disease resistant and can adapt to the climatic
vagaries. These animals are a reservoir of gene pool compared to the crossbreds and
their management is cost-effective.
Climate change is one of the major threats to the survival of various species,
ecosystems and the sustainability of livestock production systems across the world,
especially in tropical and temperate countries (Das et al., 2016). The greenhouse gas
emission from agriculture sector is the most important factor for global warming, and
livestock sector share 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The productive and
reproductive performances of cattle and buffaloes are likely to be aggravated due to
climate change and global warming (Dash et al., 2016). The heat stress is considered as
one of the main factors affecting reproductive performances in dairy cattle. Heat stress
is a condition caused by an animal’s inability to dissipate body heat effectively to
maintain normal body temperature, a vital process known as thermoregulation. Heat
tolerance is the ability of the animals to withstand heat when all other factors are
constant. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported that temperature of
the earth has been increased by 0.2°C per decade and also predicted that the global
average surface temperature would be increased to 1.4–5.8°C by 2100.
The native Wayanad dwarf cow seems the next lined up to face the threat of
extinction among indigenous cattle varieties. A few decades ago, the cattle were
common in the district of Wayanad, Kerala, but its population has dwindled to around
200 owing to the aggressive crossbreeding policies followed in the state by using exotic
germplasm on local female cattle. The cow slightly taller than the Kasaragod dwarf
variety is known for its high resistance to weather vagaries, tremendous strength, low
cost of maintenance and high-fat content of milk. The few Wayanad dwarf cows that
are there can be found in the tribal hamlets. Straight horns, black with brownish skin,
and nearly one-meter height are the physical features of the cow. The variety was
favourite among both tribes and others as these hoofed creatures could negotiable steep
slopes and difficult terrains with utmost ease. The traditional pattern of grazing on
fields is enough for them to be healthy and no cattle feed is required. The animal is of
importance in the ayurvedic stream of medicines where its milk and urine are con-
sidered to be of medicinal value. These small-horned animals are known for their
high endurance and adaptability and give enough milk to support a family.

The present study was conducted on seven Wayanad dwarf (Figure 1) cattle for a
period of seven days in Wayanad district. Rectal temperature and respiration rate and
pulse rate were recorded twice daily at 8 a.m. and 2 p.m.
Fig. 1: Wayanadan Dwarf Cattle
The different heat tolerance indices that can be applied are as follows:
Iberia Heat Tolerance Test (HTC)
Gaalaa’s heat tolerance test
Benezra’s Coefficient of Adaptability (BCA)
Dairy Search Index (DSI) (Singh et al., 2013)
Dairy Search Index (DSI) was applied to measure the heat tolerance in the present
study.
Dairy Search Index (DSI) formula
0.5 X1 0.3 Y1 0.2 Z1
DSI = + +
X Y Z
A Quantitative Study on Adaptability of Indigenous Cattle of Wayanad… 179
Where X1, Y1 and Z1 are rectal temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate after
exposure and X, Y and Z the same parameters before exposure respectively.
Interpretation: If the calculated value is nearer to one than the animals is more heat
tolerant than the animal are deviating more from one.

The physiological parameters (Table 1) recorded were within the normal range and
are comparable with results of Lype et al., 2016. The overall average forenoon and
afternoon rectal temperatures recorded were 100.82ºC ± 0.04 and 101.79ºC ± 0.04 with
ranges of 98 to 103ºC and 99.8 to 103.8ºC, respectively. The overall mean pulse per
minute in the forenoon and afternoon 62.9 ± 0.4 and 68.78 ± 0.4 with ranges of 46 to
85 and 48 to 90, respectively. All categories showed an increase in respiration rate
per minute in the afternoons compared to forenoons. The overall average forenoon
and afternoon respiration rate recorded were 20.93 ± 0.2 and 23.89 ± 0.2 with ranges of
12 to 32 and 16 to 36 respectively. (Iype et al., 2016)
Table 1: Physiological Parameters of Wayanadan Dwarf Cattle

Parameters 8.00 a.m. 2.00 p.m.
Temperature 100.7 ± 0.2 103.4 ± 0.23
Respiratory rate 16 ± 0.13 22 ± 0.14
Pulse rate 76 ± 0.15 84 ± 0.4
The above results were further subjected to analyzing the heat tolerance by using the
Dairy Search Index (DSI).
Dairy Search Index (DSI) for indigenous cattle was found to be 1.01, as per DSI
standard which indicates that animals have minimal stress during hot climatic condi-
tions. These cattle can be adapted to cope up with the adverse climatic conditions and
to maintain sustainability in livestock production system.
CONCLUSION
Looking at the drawbacks of the present crossbreeding programme and the importance
of indigenous breeds to all aspects of the life of rural people, a proper breeding policy
should be evolved. By the sustainable utilisation of the genetic capability of the native
of tropical cattle breeds, we can ensure the sustainability of the livestock production
for future. There is an urgent need for more genetic and grass root level studies on the
potential of the native breeds to resist the climate change and global warming. The
Paris Agreement, 2016 regarding the global climate change focus on the sustainable
utilisation of the local resources to cope with the climate change and our nation also
pledged to it. In this aspect, the conservation indigenous breeds and utilisation of its
genetic potential is a matter of national importance.
REFERENCES
[1] Das, R., Sailo, L., Verma, N., Bharti, P., Saikia, J., Imtiwati and Kumar, R. (2016). Impact
of Heat Stress on Health and Performance of Dairy Animals: A Review—Veterinary
World, 9(3): 260–268.
[2] Dash, S., Chakravarty, A.K., Avtar, S., Upadhyay, A., Manvendra, S. and Saleem, Y.
(2016). Effect of Heat Stress on Reproductive Performances of Dairy Cattle and Buf-
faloes: A Review. Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231–0916.
[3] Lype, S., Venkatachalapathy, T., Santosh, P.K. and Behera, A. (2016). Characterization
of Kasargod Cattle of Kerala. IOSR J. of Agri. and Vet. Sci. (IOSR-JAVS), 9(11).
[4] Singh, S.V., Soren, S., Beenam, Singh, A.K. and Kumar, S. (2014). Heat Tolerance
Indices for Cattle and Buffalo. Climate Resilient Livestock and Production System.
Increased Public Transport Usage:
Perception Contra Realities in Access
and Usage Comparing Norway and India
Tanu Priya Uteng1 and Mridula Sahay2
1Department of Mobility and Organisation, Institute of Transport Economics (TOI),
Gaustadalléen 21, NO 0349 Oslo, Norway
2Department of Mathematics, Ganga Devi Mahila Mahavidyalaya,
Magadh University, Kankarbagh, Patna, India

1E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Motorised transport is one of the major sources of pollution in urban

areas. Though both freight and personal transport contribute to the increasing
pollution levels, the sheer volume of personal transport and its high dependence on
car-based mobility has exacerbated the problem multifold times. This issue has
gained importance in the developing countries as well but it has not been studied
in detail with respect to the challenges posed by climate change. This paper
proposes to examine the links between travel behaviour, transport planning and
climate changes and further, how this topic can be studied and assimilated in
future planning of urban areas.
Keywords: Public Transport, Access, Usage, Perceptions, Comparison
INTRODUCTION
T he transport sector is one of the most polluting sectors and a major role player,
both as producer and consumer, in the climate change debate. Country-level
assessments conducted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India,
puts the transport sector to be the second largest contributor (after electricity) to GHG
emissions in India (INCAA, 2007). Since the economic liberalisation of 1991, the
country’s transport sector witnessed an unprecedented growth in the tripartite
interlocking of demands for mobility (both personal and freight transport), associated
energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. And despite all climate change debates in
place, India’s economic development ambitions necessitates an upscaling of the
transport sector. This upscaling can either happen in a sustainable, climate-friendly
manner or follow the current path of increasing automobility, dependence on fossil fuel
and paving path for a potential disaster. The emergency situation, owing to alarmingly
181
high pollution levels, declared in Delhi in November 2016 validates such grim future
scenarios.
TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR: PERCEPTIONS CONTRA REALITIES

In a car-dominated society (Norway) or shifting towards a car-based urban society
(India), tilting the modal split towards public transport is a tricky task. It can, however,
be achieved by studying and aligning the future public transport planning towards
addressing these two issues:
 Habitual travel choice (in terms of distribution in time-space, underpinnings behind
the choice, preferences, etc.).
 Effects of “perception” vs. “reality” on mode choice (to collate information on
how to channel the populist ideas on public transport usage).
In light of climate change imperative, reducing car use has become a central topic in
transport policy and research in the developed world. Studies have shown that inducing
mode change requires both making the car less attractive and increasing travellers’
awareness and knowledge of alternative modes of transport (e.g. Handy et al., 2005).
One of the main barriers identified to the use of alternative modes is car drivers’
distorted perceptions of the quality of these alternative modes, having considerable
influence on their choice-sets. Kenyon and Lyons (2003), for instance, found that the
majority of travellers rarely considered alternative modes for their journey. Kingham
et al., (2001) observed that one of the main barriers for modal change among car
drivers was the perception that alternatives were not viable, particularly with regard
to travel time. Kenyon and Lyons (2003) state that car drivers’ perceptions of
alternative modes of transport are often not informed by experience or travel
information, but based on perception. Handy et al. (2005) work on this topic highlights
that drivers simply lacked information about alternative modes, and only a few of
them were willing to try public transport to check if it was a viable option.
Given this reluctance, it is only natural that car drivers’ perceptions often deviate
from the reality. And these deviations are independent of trip purpose, so car-usage
becomes the ubiquitous mode irrespective of the purpose or space-time dynamics of
the trip. For example, Goodwin (1995) found that although 50–80 percent of people
perceived themselves to be generally dependent on car use, an analysis of the trips
taken revealed that only 10–30 percent of trips were necessarily tied to a car and had
no realistic alternatives. In a similar vein, Kropman and Katteler (1990) found that
although 83 percent of a sample of morning peak-period car drivers had the objective
possibility to switch to public transport for commuting purposes, only 17 percent
perceived public transport as a viable alternative. This conscious opting out from
using public transport was largely based on perceptions of travel time and travel cost.
Increased Public Transport Usage… 183
Though the following is an old study, but it illustrates how perceptions operate—
Brög and Erl (1983) conducted an in-depth analysis of car drivers’ travel options and
showed that half of their sample of car drivers had the objective opportunity to use
public transport for the trip they were making, but only five percent perceived
themselves as having a real choice between car and public transport. This difference
illustrates that perceptions can play a vital role in making moral choices and though
perceptions may have a considerable effect on mode choice, there is also evidence
that perceptions can be changed and that this may lead to changes in attitudes,
consideration of alternatives and mode choice behaviour. Kenyon and Lyons (2003)
illustrate this through how making a dent in these perceptions on thematic issues like
cost, duration, comfort, and convenience could challenge existing perceptions and
lead to consideration and use of alternatives. Garvill et al., (2003) found that increasing
the awareness of travel mode choice could help in decreasing car use among people
with a strong car habit. Similar reports were submitted by Rose and Ampt (2001), and
van Knippenberg (1988), and van Exel and Rietveld (2001) further observed that
temporary behavioural changes, may lead to adjustment of perceptions and, consecuti-
vely, to attitudinal change and possibly to the adoption of a new travel pattern.
van Exel and Rietveld (2010) investigated the accuracy of car drivers’ perceptions of
public transport travel time and the potential effect of these perceptions on car
drivers’ choice sets. The research was carried out on a large sample of car drivers
intercepted on the main corridors leading to Amsterdam, using a combination of
reported data collected through a questionnaire and objective data obtained from web-
based route planning software. Their results confirm the findings of earlier studies
that used different methodologies: car drivers’ perceptions of public transport travel
time sometimes deviate substantially from real travel times, and these deviations can
be partly explained by familiarity with the trip and characteristics of the trip and the
public transport system. Their results also suggest that providing better information to
car drivers about objective travel times for the public transport alternative for their
trips—which is the aim of many Travel Demand Management (TDM) initiatives
adopted internationally—may lead to a much higher proportion of car drivers including
public transport in their travel choice sets.
Changing Perceptions
While perceptions exist on travel time, punctuality, convenience and comfort of the
public transport systems, the existing technologies and app-based applications make
it possible to address these and start marketing public transport in a more sellable
manner. Spears et al. (2013) highlight that taking steps to understand the public’s
perception of services can inform the development of promotional campaigns and
Transport Demand Management (TDM)—related brands. In India, a host of informal

systems of public transport exist along with para-transit and formal systems, but seldom
is there an effort made to build a cohesive understanding of how these different formats
of public transport link with each other, how they are perceived and they can be better
inter-connected.
THE NORWEGIAN CASE

The national transport authorities in Norway have conducted a national travel survey
every fourth year since 1985. From 2016 onwards, this survey has been made a
continuous one. 60000 people were interviewed in the 2013/14 National Travel Survey
(NTS) which maps out details of each trip taken (start and end coordinates, time,
length, the mode used, trip purpose, no. of persons accompanying, etc.), along with
socio-economic variables of the respondents. The NTS 2013/14 and the publicly
available database for public transport’s timetable provides an interesting dataset to
compare the perceived and factual public transport supply in Norway.
Through coupling NTS 2013/14 data and the national database on public transport
frequency and timing database, we analyzed the relationships between perceived and
actual public transport supply for two urban areas in Norway, namely Oslo munici-
pality and Nord-Jaeren urban region. Supply is interpreted here as the frequency in
peak hours and off-peak hours. The descriptive data analysis of commuting trips
shows a certain a degree of convergence on the public transport supply as indicated by
the respondents and as extracted from the timetable database, thus highlighting that
the respondents in the NTS had a realistic impression of the public transport supply
available near their place of residence.
Contrary to the findings from other studies where drivers tend to inflate the travel time
by public transport, the descriptive analysis in this study highlighted that the perceived
and objective commuting time converges to a certain extent. This result suggests that
people have a realistic perception of travel time on public transport but since huge
differences exist between travel times by car and public transport, travel time savings
seem to be the logical rationale behind choosing to drive. A multivariate analysis was
also done and among the key findings was that men estimate the travel time to be lower
than women when controlling for other factors. High population density had significant
influence both in Nord-Jaeren and Oslo but had opposite effects in the two areas. The
variables associated with automobile use (driver’s license, domestic cars and parking)
were statistically significant for the discrepancy in travel time estimation in Nord-
Jaeren, but no such effects were found in Oslo. Perception of public transport varies
greatly between urban areas with a mature public transport culture (Oslo), as opposed
to areas with car-based mobility culture (Nord-Jaeren).
Problem Statement
The National Transport Plan of Norway has a clear mandate for the Norwegian urban
regions to absorb entire future traffic growth on sustainable transport modes with zero
percent increase in car traffic. It is indeed a very ambitious goal. One of the concrete
ways to go about bringing this change is analysing the potential for change in work
(commuting) trips and potential for shifting commuting trips on public transport.
Given that commuting trips are concentrated in time and space, it is relatively easy to
plan specific public transport supply to cater to these trips considering the population
projections, planning of employment centres etc. Further, in order to design future
public transport supply, it is imperative that the current state of affairs is thoroughly
examined. The study discussed here delved into one particular aspect, the ways in
which public transport supply is perceived by the inhabitants of the urban region of
Nord-Jaaeren and Oslo municipality and contrasts these subjective results with the
objective realities.
Perceptions in this study dealt with questions which have been put in the NTS 2013/14
regarding travel time to work on public transport and available frequencies on the
nearest transit stop.
The main problem statement that this study attempted to comment on was: What is
the difference between the perceived and real frequency and travel time on public trans-
port and which socio-economic factors have a significant effect over these differences?
The study was divided into the following parts:
 An overview of trip distribution, modal split and trip purposes for Nord-Jaeren and
the municipality of Oslo for 2013/14.
 Calculating the difference between the perceived and the actual public transport
supply and a mapping of the important variables through both descriptive and
multivariate analyses.
 Comments on future designing of public transport supply based on the results of
the study.
Modal Split in Nord-Jaeren and Oslo Municipality

In order to appreciate the results on perceived vs. actual data on commuting time and
public transport frequency, it is imperative to sketch the existing modal split in the two
case areas. As is evident in the following figure, the urban region of Nord-Jaeren
(Stavanger municipality is the bigger urban centre of Nord-Jaren) exhibits heavy car-
dependence while Oslo has a fairly high share of public transport usage for commuting
purposes.
Fig. 1: Modal Split on Commuting Trips. Nord-Jaeren,

Stavanger and Oslo Municipality, NTS 2013/14
Using data from NTS 1998, 2005, 2012 and 2013/14, Figure 2 highlights that the heavy
car-dependence in Nord-Jaeren is latively steady feature of the region, which means
that given such low usage of public transport, perceptions on public transport supply
might be different from the actual supply.
Fig. 2: Modal Split on Commuting Trips in Stavanger and

Nord-Jaeren (on weekdays) NTS 1998–2013/14.
Estimated Public Transport Frequency in Nord-Jaeren and Oslo Municipality

On exploring the relationships between the public transport frequency specified by
the respondents in the NTS and frequency obtained through the national database, it
was found that results varied between the two case studies. A clear trend towards
overestimating the higher frequency categories was found among the RVU respondents
in the Oslo municipality. While the timetable indicates 26% of respondents having a
frequency of 12 departures or more (5 min. between departures) during the rush hour,
36% of the NTS respondents answered that this frequency category (or higher) is
available to them in the peak period (07–09). This difference may have risen due to the
variation between the stops that the respondents regard as the nearest stop locations
(in the physical sense) but which in reality might not have been the nearest transit stop.
The respondents could be stating the frequency available at the transit stop which they
most frequently use instead of what is physically closest to their home.
Fig. 3: Departures per Hour between 07–09, Nearest Transit Stop, Oslo Municipality Percent
Fig. 4: Departures per Hour between 09–15, Nearest Transit Stop, Oslo Municipality Percent
Nord-Jaeren is far removed from the case of Oslo as trips made on public transport are
severely restricted in this region. The region remains dominated by car-based mobility,
and this dominance may also be translated as lack of respondents’ knowledge when
it comes to identifying the correct frequency categories and travel times estimates.
Unlike Oslo, there exists a systematic underestimation of the category with the highest
frequency based on the internet database contra that reported by the NTS respondents.
This applies to both peak and off-peak hours. The timetable reports that nearly 13% of
respondents live near a transit stop where the reported frequency during peak hours
lies in the category of “12 or more per hour”, but as per the NTS respondent’s
evaluation, only 5% fell in the same category. For off-peak hours, NTS reports that
only 4% of the respondents fall in the frequency category of “12 or more (5 min.
between departures)” compared with 10% reported by the timetable.
It is interesting to note that the second highest frequency category – 8 times (7.5 min.
between departures) is also underestimated by the NTS-respondents for rush hour, but
that they match perfectly for data outside the rush hours. The results suggest that
respondents in Nord-Jaeren possess a greater insight into the public transport supply
during off-peak hours. It is difficult to provide a good explanation of why the data
correlates better for off-peak hours, but the results could most likely an outcome of
respondents educated guess.
For categories “6 departures per hour”, there is a scarce 0.1 percentage point difference
between the timetable data and NTS estimates for both peak and off-peak hours. The
deviations are a little higher for category 4 departures per hour (15 min. between
departures). Here, the timetable database reports that 23% of the respondents fall into
this category during the rush hour, while the corresponding figure is 27% among the
NTS-respondents. There exists a relatively similar deviation for off-peak hours, where
the timetable indicates that 25% of respondents fall into this category while 30% of
the NTS respondents acknowledge this frequency category.
One of the most striking results of Nord-Jaeren is the relatively large discrepancy
between the timetable’s data and the NTS estimates regarding the frequency category
of “once per hour” or lower. For peak hours, the timetable database indicates that
15% of passengers will have a departure frequency equal to “once per hour” from the
nearest transit stop, but only 3.2% of respondents reported the availability of this
frequency category. Similarly, the timetable database suggests that 23% of the
respondents should have the “once per hour” frequency available during off-peak hours
but among the NTS respondents, this share is as minimal as 4%. The discrepancy
indicates an almost complete lack of knowledge about the actual public transport
supply in low-frequency category. This is further supported by the fact that nearly a
quarter of respondents (26%) reported “do not know” regarding the departure rate at the
nearest public transport stop during rush hour, while it is 15% outside the rush hour.
The corresponding Figures for the category “do not know” in Oslo is located at 12%
during peak hours and 6% during hours outside rush hour.
One can conclude that there exists both a combined lack of knowledge of public
transport supply and a systematic underestimation of high-frequency availability in
Nord-Jaeren.
Fig. 5: Departures per Hour between 07–09, Nearest Transit Stop, Nord-Jaeren Percent
Fig. 6: Departures per Hour between 09–15, Nearest Transit Stop, Nord-Jaeren Percent
Estimated Commuting Time with Public Transport

in Nord-Jaeren and Oslo Municipality
Data analysis from the NTS highlights that the average commuting time for public
transport users is 12 minutes higher than the average commuting time of car-drivers
in the municipality of Oslo. Car-drivers’ estimate of travel time by car and actual
travel time by car converge, as the actual travel time of 19 minutes and the estimated
travel time of 21 minutes are only 2 minutes apart. The travel time estimate of the same
group (car-drivers), if they had used public transport, shows a quantum leap in com-
muting time. The average commuting time on public transport would be 100% higher
than the travel time by car (41 minutes). Looking at the estimates provided by the
public transport users, this group has an actual commuting time of 31 minutes and an
estimated commuting time of 30 minutes. In other words, the actual and estimated
commuting time for both the groups—car-drivers and public transport users—
converge.
Since the estimated travel time by car is 20 minutes for the public-transport users, it
implies that the public transport users would be saving 10 minutes each way on their
commute if they switched from being public transport users to car-drivers. It also
shows that public-transport users had less to gain by switching to a car-based
commuting (10 minutes each way) than car-users, who would (on average) lose 22 min
each way by switching to public transport.
It was also found that the estimated commuting time on public transport, as provided
by the NTS dataset, converged well only with the onboard travel time provided by the
internet based timetable. This suggests that the NTS-respondents do not include access
and egress time to transit stop while providing the travel time estimates, even though
the question put to them in the NTS solicited the total travel time. Considering this
crucial finding, only onboard time was considered for further analysis.
Findings from Nord-Jaeren exhibited patterns similar to the case of Oslo municipality.
An average difference of about 13 minutes exists between the commuting time of car-
drivers and public transport users, as extracted from the NTS 2013/14. This difference
increases to 15 minutes when we compare the commuting time estimates given by
these two groups. The timetable, however, reports that this difference is 4 minutes.
As per commuting by car is concerned, both car-drivers and public transport users
estimate that they will, on average, use 17 minutes on commuting by car. Changes in
commuting time from 17 minutes to 45 minutes (estimated by car-drivers) or 41
minutes (provided by the timetable) represent increase of approximately 26 minutes
(each way) for car-drivers. If this difference forms the basis for further discussion, it
seems unlikely that drivers will switch to public-transport for commuting purposes.
Public transport users can save 13 minutes (based on their own estimate) or 20 minutes
(as given by the timetable) if they switch to the car for commuting purposes.
Table 1 shows that car-drivers’ estimate of commuting time on public transport has a
deviation of approximately 4 minutes in Oslo. Surprisingly, this deviation is less than 1
minute among the respondents in Nord-Jaeren. The result indicates that drivers in Oslo,
on average, overestimate the journey time by public transport, but the result could also
be an outcome of an estimation error in the timetable. It is difficult to determine the
cause of this deviation with certainty.
Table 1: Difference between the Estimated and Reported Travel Time on Public Transport.
Estimated—NTS 2013/14. Reported—Internet-Based Timetable. Disaggregated by Users of
Different Transport Modes. Oslo Municipality. Time in Minutes
Std.
Main Mode Mean N
Deviation
Walking 0,6 332 18,2
Cycling –2,7 205 15,4
MC/moped –1,5 6 11,9
Car driver 3,8 531 18,2
Car passenger 1,3 38 13,6
Public transport –1,0 955 15,6
Total 0,4 2068 16,8
Table 2: Difference between the Estimated and Reported Travel Time on Public Transport.
Estimated—NTS 2013/14. Reported—Internet-Based Timetable. Disaggregated by Users of
Different Transport Modes. Nord-Jaeren. Time in Minutes
Std.
Main Mode Mean N
Deviation
Walking 1,1 74 27,3
Cycling –9,4 129 21,8
MC/moped –8,7 16 21,6
Car driver 0,7 620 25,6
Car passenger –9,9 33 25,1
Public transport –7,3 127 20,6
Total –2,1 999 24,9
When it comes to deviations reported by the public-transport users, Tables 1 and 2

highlights that the public transport users in Oslo, on average, estimate the commuting
time to be only a minute less than the that reported by the timetable. Public transport
users in Nord-Jaeren have a travel time estimate of 7.3 minutes less than the
corresponding figure reported by the timetable. This could be an indication that the
answers given in Nord-Jaeren were derived from the users of Express bus only and
that the travel time is less than the general routes available in the area. What is
interesting to note is that car-drivers in Nord-Jaeren have almost a perfect fit for their
estimate of travel time by the public transport, which further indicates that it is a
conscious choice to save on travel time by not using the public transport. How these
facts will shape in light of the increasing digitalization, automation, car-sharing,
compact city building programs, upscaling of public transport and such policy
orientations and packages in the future, remains an interesting topic for further fine-
tuning.
Multivariate Analysis
A multivariate analysis, based on linear regression analysis with OLS estimation
method, was conducted with an aim to identify the existence of significant differences
between perceived and actual travel time (estimated from the timetable) taken on
public transport for commuting purposes. The focus of the analysis was to identify
how the differences between the expected (as reported by the NTS-respondents) and
the estimated travel time (from the timetable) differed according to certain key
variables (the main means of transport, income, education, gender, etc.). A combined
snapshot of the results from Nord-Jaeren and Oslo municipality is summarized in the
following points:
 Men estimate travel time on public transport to be lower than the women, both in
Oslo and in Nord-Jaeren.
 There exist statistical differences between travel time estimates by the respondents
with respect to household income and education in Oslo municipality, but the
same was not found in Nord-Jaeren.
 High population density was found to be significant in both Nord-Jaeren and Oslo,
but the relationship had opposite indications for the two case areas.
 Possession of driving license, no. of cars in the household and parking availability
at the workplace was found to have a statistically significant effect on the travel
time estimates in Nord-Jaeren, but no such effects were found for Oslo munici-
pality.
 Though the distance to the nearest transit stop was not found to be significant for
both cases explored in this study, we posit that this could have arisen due
problems related to the estimation of the correct distance on non-motorized paths.
 Age of the respondents was found to have a statistically significant effect on
travel times estimates among the respondents of Nord-Jaeren but no such effect
was found for the case of Oslo municipality.
 The group with full-time employment status had a lower deviation for the travel
time estimates in Nord Jaeren, while the estimate was marginally higher in Oslo.
Summary of the Norwegian Case and the Way Forward

To facilitate a shift from car-based to public transport based commuting, both national
(and regional) agencies and local authorities need to focus on the following:
 Restructuring of the traditional public transport supply, which currently relies on
connecting point A to point B, to become a more dynamic system. This dynamic
system should ideally resemble the car-based system in terms of travel time,
convenience, supply, planning, and comfort. Linking of demand-based feeder
routes to the high-speed main line could be one option. Potential of solutions like
ride-sharing should also be further explored.
 Implementation of technologies that would make it easier for public transport
users to utilize onboard time on meaningful activities like working (on their laptop
or other relevant electronic gadgets), charging of electronic devices, reserving seats
online, etc.
 Exploring technological possibilities to ensure that future public transport supply
is optimized for both time-savings and ease of usage.
THE INDIAN CASE

Background
Unabated urbanization, a voluminous growth in the urban middle class with its
imageries of development and economic growth linked closely to personal motori-
zation, fuelled both at the policy and personal levels, remains one of the key challenges
in developing economies. This is especially true for the case of India. The automobile
industry further facilitated this trajectory in India—the introduction of Maruti Suzuki
in the 1980s changed the game for personal mobility overnight, and the same trend
continues with the market being flooded with cheaper and smaller cars like the Nano.
This almost perfect and rare collision of personal and public dreams puts motorization
on the very apex of “development” agenda and not surprisingly, motorization is
expected to continue to increase at an unprecedented rate (Schipper, Fabian and
Leather, ADB, 2009).
Indian cities are experiencing a dramatic increase in urban roadway congestion, noise,
air pollution, and traffic accidents as a result of increased car ownership, substantial
shifts from active modes to motorized modes, new roads and highway projects, and a
categorical lack of focus on public transport.
Rising Automobility and the Ticking Time-Bomb

The Indian case is a typical example of the policy orientation, power dynamics and its
dissociation with existing travel behaviour, existent in practically all developing cities.
In a nutshell, daily mobility is dictated by a high dependence on active modes and
public transport but public planning is geared towards increasing automobility. The
following table presents the case of mid-small Indian cities, a special economic zone in
Kochi, Kerala and Delhi to illustrate the kind of modal splits that exist in most
developing cities. The predominance of active modes and public transport is self-
evident, except the case of Kochi SEZ which, interestingly enough, is the result of a
planned project. We can also see a strong presence of two-wheelers (scooters and
mopeds) at all levels. The two-wheelers, in many cases, are a stepping stone towards
buying a car and be accepted in the “modern, progressive” car-owner, car-user social
strata of Indian urban centres.
Table 3: Modal Split for Varying Urban Settings in India

Mid-Small Cities1 Delhi2 Kochi SEZ3
Walk 30–45% 7%
Cycle 20–25% 7% 3%
Cycle rickshaw 20–30% 10%
Two wheeler 20–30% 21% 33%
Auto rickshaw 6–15% 3% 11%
Bus 15–30% 41% 17%
Metro 4%
Car 4–8% 14% 29%
1. Source: Arora 2011.
2. Based on 2007–2008 Vehicular Trips Distribution in Delhi. Source: Arora, 2011.
3. Based on Travel Surveys of Employees in Kochi Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in 2014 (Gopinath and
Gupta, 2014).
If we contrast this scenario with the trends in cycle modal share in eight major cities
in India, we see a progressive decrease in cycle use from 1980’s to 2000’s. Since
routinized and structured travel behaviour survey (like in Norway) are not a part of the
Indian transport planning scenario, it is difficult to trace a linear history till recent years
and comment on if this trend has continued. But the increasing traffic congestion,
increased automobility combined with an ever-decreasing infrastructure available for
bicycling and increasing accident rates point towards a radical decrease in the cycling
shares. The absolute number of cyclists, however, might be increasing due to popula-
tion growth, rural-urban migration and cycling is the only mode choice available to the
poor man.
Fig. 7: Trends in Cycle Modal Share, India

Source: Arora, 2011.
**PMR is Pune metropolitan region.
Fig. 8: Trends in Vehicle Ownership, India

Source: Singh, 2012.
Note: Figures 7 and 8 are also given in colour in the Appendix. See page number 315.
The urban population in India has shot from 17% in 1951 to 32% in 2011 and is
expected to rise to 35% in 2021. In absolute numbers, it is estimated that 91 million
joined the ranks of urban dwellers in the 200s, though this number might be much
larger than the official estimates. Analyzed in terms of vehicular growth, 35% of the
total vehicles in the country are concentrated in the metropolitan cities alone, which
constitute just 11% of the population. And though public transport usage is high, the
share of buses is negligible—two-wheelers and cars constitute 90% of the total
vehicles on road in contrast to buses which constitute less than 1% of the motorized
vehicles.
The multiplicity of organizations at the National, regional and local levels which
govern the transport planning arena invariably diminishes a sole focus on transport
planning solutions.
In this scenario, it is not surprising that no routine studies are in place to gauge the
perceptions of either public-transport users or non-users to facilitate planning towards
increased public transport usage in the Indian urban centres. In lack of such datasets,
it is difficult to produce analyses like the one presented for Norway in section 3.0 of
this chapter. And without a disaggregated and detailed analyses of how public transport
usage can be increased, a realistic check on both pollution levels and preparing the
Indian cities for climate-change-related challenges will be impossible to achieve.
INFORMAL MODES OF TRANSPORT

The Norwegian case was presented to highlight the kind of detailed analyses that are
possible if data is available on daily mobility/travel behaviour where all transport
modes, socio-economic variables and physical location of trips are plotted on a regular
basis. Studies on informal modes of transport are rare and even despite their strong
presence in the urban mobility scenario, they are seldom considered in the formal
transport planning decisions. Exceptions to this scenario are presented by the case of
Bhopal (Tiwari, 2014) where attempts were made to include the informal transport in
the formal mode of planning.
In the transport arena, the associated Risk, Uncertainty and Irreversibility (RUI) issues
get exacerbated by the fact that decisions like constructing a highway or major road
projects are both resource consuming, practically irreversible and generally operate on
longer time horizons (Richardson, 2005; Kaijser, 2005).
Given the primacy of road-building (and highways) projects in the Indian urban
centres despite the existing modal split, highlights that firstly, policies and investment
decisions are based on imperfect and incomplete knowledge, and secondly, there is a
strong dynamics of power play in decision making which goes unchecked due to a
categorical lack of evidence-based planning methodologies/approach. And in light of
the fact that decision parameters seem to be unobserved and unmeasured, there is a
demand for rethinking traditional approaches that assume a deterministic model of the
world in which the future is predictable (Lewis, 2007, cited in World Bank, 2010)
and increasingly automobile-based. This has implications for institutional arrangements
as well, including the allocation of responsibilities, funding and evaluation mechanisms
to the different levels of government (state, regional and local) in the transport sector.
Given the multiplicity of actors involved in decision-making—public authorities,
NGOs, experts and policymakers, bureaucrats, economic agents, activists, etc.—an
understanding of the belief and value systems, perceptions, attitudes, preferences and
behaviour of both these actors and citizens related to RUI can provide a starting point
of designing public transport policies. This will help in adopting an evidence-based,
inclusive approach towards creating policy instruments (economical, regulatory,
technological, etc.), in light of appreciating the barriers to implementation.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This chapter set out to underscore the importance of steering current travel behaviour
and modal split in Indian cities towards increased public transport usage and curbing
both the increasing incidence of and focus on automobility. It briefly mapped the case
of Oslo and Nord-Jaeren, Norway to highlight firstly, how a systematic and routine
data collection on travel behaviour can aid in making meaningful interpretations of
travel behaviour. Secondly, gauging users’ perceptions on public transport and plotting
these perceptions against the factual data can give vital clues on the areas which need
to be addressed for making public transport an attractive and viable option. In case of
Norway, the travel time differences emerge as a major explanatory factor for skewed
distribution between public transport and car usage for commuting purposes in Oslo
and Nord-Jaeren.
Zooming down on the actual physical mobility dimension, one needs to acknowledge
that this field is highly charged to make significant changes in people’s life. A final
suggestion of this chapter is to create feedback systems on public transport usage
which can be incorporated into mainstream planning. Åström and Murray (2008)
define Feedback as the interactions of two (or more) dynamical systems that are
connected together in a fashion where each system influences the other and their
dynamics are thus strongly coupled. A system is a closed loop if the systems are
interconnected in a cycle and open loop when this interconnection is broken. Two key
properties of feedback are its ability to provide robustness to uncertainty and its use in
the design of dynamics. The following five key criteria can be made part of this
feedback system:
 What is the nature of the existing public transport systems? Volume, routes, timing,
conceptualisations, definitions, user and provider perspectives.
 Reasons for the various facets of existing public transport systems? Market effects,
public policies, funding structures, service provision, capacities and constraints of
providers and users.
 Who is affected or at risk? Demographic breakdowns, distribution across different
income groups, behavioural analyses.
 Where is it happening? Geographies, spatial distributions, affected areas; settlement

types.
 How can it be addressed? Action pathways, strategies and timescales, tools,
resources and capacities, institutional arrangements, delivery agencies, existing
good practices.
In the beginning, attempts will definitely increase the overall complexity of addressing
the entire gamut of players involved with public transport in the developing cities. But
as long as their dynamics are dependent on one another, they can be combined to create
a feedback system on ‘the dynamics of how to increase public transport ridership while
curbing shifts to automobility’ to inform future planning decisions.
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Engineers. Princeton University Press.
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Energy Saving Devices and their
Beneficial Effects on Reduction
of Carbon Emissions
K. Ravi*, Sara Kunnath and T.V. Mohandas
Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Rural Energy and Development,
Srirampura Cross, Jakkur, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Climate change is one of the major concerns that the humanity is
facing in the 21st century. Many scientific studies reveal that overall carbon dioxide
levels have increased 31% in the past 200 years. (Panwar et al., 2011) Renewable
energy resources will play an important role in the world’s future as an exponent-
tial population growth of 8 billion is predicted by 2030. The energy needs will be
increasing every year. Renewable Energy Sources (RES) presently supply only
14% of the total world energy demand. The global community now recognizes the
need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change. Globally,
there is a growing awareness that increased deployment of renewable energy and
energy efficient devices are critical in addressing climate change.
This paper evaluates the cost and benefit of the installed equipments in Mahatma
Gandhi Institute of Rural Energy and Development and the amount of carbon
mitigation from the incorporation of these devices. There is a gap between the
demand and supply of electricity and a huge threat to climate change. The solution
lies in search of alternate energy sources and meeting the energy requirement in a
decentralized manner, which may solve the local energy requirements to a great
extent in a sustainable manner.
Keywords: Renewable Energy, Sustainable Development, Energy Conservation,
Energy Efficiency, Climate Change
INTRODUCTION
I ndia is the fastest growing major economy in the world. There will be a great
demand for energy in future. In order to achieve average 8 percent annual GDP
growth in India, to power its vast population’s energy needs, infrastructural develop-
ments and for automobile and allied industries, the country needs a large amount of
electricity. India has pledged under the Copenhagen Accord to reduce its carbon
dioxide intensity (emissions per GDP) by 20 to 25 percent by 2020 compared to 2005
levels (India’s Climate and Energy Policies, 2015). In June 2008, the Prime Minister
released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change, which identified eight
200
Energy Saving Devices and their Beneficial Effects on Reduction of Carbon Emissions 201
core “National Missions” running through 2017 which lay great emphasis on renewable
energy (NAPCC, 2008).
In order to achieve the growth target through alternative energy, which is environment-
friendly and renewable is a definite challenge. The diversification of a country’s
energy, to green energy supply facilitates energy security, creates flexibility, and allows
for an increase in installed capacity and reduces greenhouse gases and prevents climate
change. Growth in this direction has to be driven by several factors, including renew-
able energy support policies and the increasing cost-competitiveness of energy from
renewable sources. (REN21, 2015) In many countries, renewables are broadly
competitive with conventional energy sources. At the same time, growth continues to
be tempered by subsidies, particularly in developing countries.
MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF RURAL ENERGY

AND DEVELOPMENT (MGIRED)
MGIRED is a Southern Regional Institute established in the year 2000 with the
assistance of MNRE, Government of India, and Department of Rural Development
and Panchayat Raj, Government of Karnataka. In the year 2004, the Institute was
brought under the control of State Government, governed by Governing Council and
Executive Committee headed by Additional Chief Secretary and Development
Commissioner, Government of Karnataka and Principal Secretary, Rural Development
and Panchayat Raj respectively. The vision of MGIRED is to be a lead knowledge and
resource center of excellence in renewable energy, energy conservation, natural
resource management, environment protection, forestry, rural development and also to
create awareness in the latest development in Rural Energy, Rainwater Harvesting,
Groundwater conservation to the rural masses to make them self sustainable. MGIRED
is thriving to provide energy solutions by way of creating awareness to have a clean
pollution free environment by reducing greenhouse gases in their surroundings and
cater to marginalized people especially in rural areas to take up developmental
activities in order to promote sustainability.
MGIRED conducts training for Gram Panchayat members on renewable energy and
energy conservation and helps them to convert their villages into energy efficient
villages. Training is also done in solar photovoltaic for ITI and Diploma students which
is a resident programme called Suryamitra skill development programme which spans
three months. Various one day two days and five-day training programmes are
conducted for school and college students.
ENERGY GENERATING SYSTEMS AT MGIRED

MGIRED as an institution educating and creating awareness in the renewable energy
field leads by example.
20 kW Solar Photovoltaic System
This system is Grid connected with Net Metering with an installed capacity 20 kW and
produces 80 units/day. The Institute uses the renewable energy to power its
administrative complex. The 20 kW system powers the seminar hall, common area
lighting, auditorium, etc. As this system is grid-tied and has net metering, the excess
power that the institution produces is exported to the grid after its use, and about an
average of ` 12,000 is being payed back by the Bescom, and is credited to the
institution’s account every month, for the exported power at the rate of ` 9.56/unit.
5 kW Solar and 2.25 kW Solar Photovoltaic System

5 kW Solar Photovoltaic system produces 20 units/day and 2.25 kW Solar Photovoltaic
produces 8 units/day. This powers Gram Panchayat seminar hall and Suryamitra
classes. All the lights, fans and computers in all these halls are powered solely by
renewable energy. This system also powers the faculty rooms and computers, fans and
lights.
The rooftop system provides clean energy. The 5 kW and 2.25 kW systems are not
grid-tied. So maximum appliances are connected to this as to draw the total energy
produced each day. The institution works from nine in the morning to six in the
evening. This coincides with the sun window and is able to use all the energy produced
during the day. Both the 5 kW and 2.25 kW system has battery back up.
Wind and Solar Hybrid System

Wind and solar hybrid is a 1.15 kW PV-wind hybrid system with 500 WP SPV system
hybridized with 650 WP vertical wind hybrid system, which brings in more reliability.
On an average, it can produce 4–5 units, which is stored in the batteries and is being
exclusively used in Executive Director’s chamber for lighting, fans and computer.
Solar Water Pump

The solar pump installed in the campus produces 3.5 units per day. The pump is being
operated by solar power by which water is pumped out of the well and is stored in
sumps and overhead water tanks for further use.
Table 1: Energy Generating Systems in MGIRED

Units/ Units/ Units/ CO2
System
Day Month Year Mitigation
20 kW Solar roof top system 80 2400 28800 23040
5 kW Solar roof top system 20 600 7200 5760
2.25 kW Solar roof top system 8 240 2880 2304
Wind and Solar hybrid system 1.15 kW 3 90 1080 864
Solar water pump-960 W 3.5 105 1260 1008
Total 114.5 3435 41220 32974
20 kW system was installed at an expense of 18 lakhs. The system produces 80 units of

power in a day and 2400 units in a month and 28800 units a year. The 5 kW system
produces 20 units of electricity per day and 600 units in a month and 7200 units in a
year.
Fig. 1: Generation of Renewable Energy (units/month) by Type of Devices
The 2.25 kW system installed at a cost of ` 2.4 lakhs, produces 8 units in a day,
240 units in a month and 2880 units in a year. The solar water pump installed at a cost
of ` 1 lakh produces 3.5 units a day 105 units a month and 1260 units a year.
Fig. 2: Generation of Renewable Energy (units/year) by Type of Devices
The wind and solar hybrid system produce 3 units of power per day and 90 units in a
month and 1080 in a year.
The carbon mitigation is calculated at 0.8 kg per unit of power generated. Hence the
carbon mitigation by the 20 kW system for one year is 23040 kgs. The carbon
mitigation for a 5 kW system for one year is calculated at 5760 kgs. The 2.25 mitigates
2304 kg of CO2 in a year. Solar pump and wind and solar hybrid mitigate 1008 kg
and 864 kg respectively. For a total of 41220 units of power produced, MGIRED is
able to mitigate a sizable 32 tonnes of carbon dioxide in a year.
Fig. 3: Mitigation of Carbon Dioxide
ENERGY EFFICIENT DEVICES AT MGIRED

The energy saving devices in MGIRED are streetlights, super fans and LED lights.
There are 12 solar street lights. The regular street lights take up 60 W of electricity but
the solar street lights take up only 12 W, so there is a saving of 48 W per street light.
There are 12 street lights which are used for 10 hours a day this provides a saving of
5.7 units a day and 171 units a month and 2052 units a year.
Table 2: Energy Efficient Devices

Units Units Units
New Hrs
Regular Savings Numbers Saved Saved/ Saved/
Devices Used
/Day Month Year
Street light 60 W 12 W 48 W 12 10 hrs 5.7 171 2052
Super fans 70 W 35 W 35 W 9 4 hrs 1.26 37 453
LED bulb 60 W 9W 51 W 39 8 hrs 15.9 477 5728
Total 22.8 685 8233
Superfan uses 35 W/hr while ordinary fans use 75 W/hr. It reduces the use of energy
into half of that of regular fans. This helps in bringing down the energy use on a daily
basis by using 1.26 units per day and 36 units per month and it amounts to 432 units
per year.
Fig. 4: Energy Conservation through Energy Efficient Devices
LED Tube lights and bulb are the most efficient energy savers as the incandescent light
takes up 60 W of electricity, and the LED lights utilize only 9 W of electricity. The
savings for every LED light used is 51 W and there are 39 of them in number, which
burns for 8 hours during the day. Hence there is a saving of 15.9 units a day which
amounted to 477 units a month and 5728 units a year which is a commendable saving.
The efficient use of Led tube lights and bulbs has brought down the energy consumed.
Fig. 5: Energy Conservation through Energy Efficient Devices
The total unit of power saved by using energy saving devices in a year is 8233 units.
The tariff rate of the Institute is around ` 4.50. Hence the total amount of money saved
in a year amounts to ` 37,049.
RENEWABLE ENERGY PLANTS USED FOR DEMONSTRATION

Biogas Plant
The Institute has a biogas plant, functioning as a demonstration unit. Kitchen Waste
Biogas Plant—The resident programme of Suryamitra students and gram panchayat
training programmes develops kitchen and food waste, which is fed to the biogas plant
which generates methane which is used for cooking.
2.4 kW Wind Energy Generator

In this system, the turbine is coupled to the alternator to generate power from wind
energy.
 Rate capacity : 2.4 kW
 Cut in wind speed : 3.5 m/s
 Rated wind speed : 9.4 m/s
 Pole height : 24 m.
Electric Scooter
The Institute has an electric scooter for local use. Commuting to the local bank and all
other small errands are being done using the electric scooter which uses 1.5 units to
charge its batteries. Once fully charged it can run upto 60 Kms. At ` 4.50 per unit of
electricity, the scooter takes only ` 6.75 a day. Compared to petrol, it saves around ` 70
a day. This is a sizable amount when calculated for a year.
Solar Water Heater

As the Surysmitra skill development training is a resident programme, the hostel is
provided with 3 solar water heaters, to fulfil the hot water needs during Suryamitra,
gram panchayats and other residential training. Annual energy saving is about 30,000
units and hence mitigation of CO2 is 24 tons per year.
RO Plant
RO plant in the institution is also powered by solar power.
Given the recent trend of rising cost of grid-supplied electricity and the falling costs of
Solar Photovoltaic, there are great cost savings and other benefits of installed solar
energy systems if incorporated by educational institutions. This opportunity is generally
underutilized. Offsetting energy consumption with increasingly cost-competitive solar
electricity and other electricity conservation and energy efficiency models can deliver
significant cost savings to schools and other similar institutions and will also provide
deep reductions in greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions, helping to protect
human health and the environment. Perhaps most importantly, renewable energy
installations, energy efficiency and conservation methods, can provide teachers with a
unique opportunity to teach concepts in Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) and pique the interest of students in these critical subjects. World
over institutions are coming forward to make their campuses carbon neutral or as a
zero-carbon facility.
REFERENCES
[1] Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. and Palutikof, J.P. eds. (2008). Climate Change
and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC
Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp.
[2] Brighter Future: A Study on Solar in U.S. Schools Report, SEIA. Available at http://
www.seia.org/research-resources/brighter-future-study-solar-us-schools-report.
[3] India’s Climate and Energy Policies, Center for Climate and Energy Solution, October
2015, Available at https://www.c2es.org/docUploads/india-factsheet-formatted-10-2015.
pdf.
[4] Kumar, A. et al. (2010). Renewable Energy in India: Current Status and Future Potentials.
Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(8): 2434–2442.
[5] NAPCC: India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change. Available at http://www.
civilsdaily.com/story/napcc-indias-national-action-plan-on-climate-change
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tion: A Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15: 1513–1524.
[7] REN 21. Renewable Energy Policy Net Work for the 21st Century. Available at http://
www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/e-paper/GSR2015/index.html#/46.
Paris Agreement on Climate Change:
A Critical Analysis of the
Indian Legal Framework
Vidya Ann Jacob
National Law School of India University, Bengaluru, Karnataka
ABSTRACT: Climate change has become a great threat and is much debated
globally. Human activities and industrial development have brought about massive
disruptions in the climatic conditions. There is a need to attend to this growing
threat at the global level on climate change by adopting green technologies.
At the domestic level, the Indian government has introduced various measures
including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in 2008 to meet
the challenges of climate change. In spite of all these measures initiated by India,
the matter continues to be of grave concern. Hence it calls for a strong need-based
action plan. This paper aims at looking into the various legislative frameworks
governing climate change in India and the challenges faced with respect to
implementing the various policies relating to climate change. The paper will also
analyze the various provisions relating to the Paris Agreement on climate change
and the steps to be undertaken by India to meet the challenges. The Agreement
requires the member countries to take steps to compact climate change and also
intensify the action needed for a sustainable low carbon future. Being the fourth
major contributor to global carbon emissions (after China, USA and EU), the
commitments are undertaken by India towards climate change mitigation will
have a pivotal implication over the international community. This paper aims at
formulating suggestions, which will help the various policies and missions of the
government in reducing greenhouse gas emissions with the help of other stake-
holders.
Keywords: Climate Change, Greenhouse Gases, Green Technology, India, Paris
Agreement
“Climate change does not respect border; it does not respect who you are:
rich and poor, small and big. Therefore, this is what we call ‘global
challenges,’ which require global solidarity.”
—Ban Ki-Moon
209
INTRODUCTION
A ny long-term change in Earth’s climate or in the climate of a region or city is

referred to as climate change [1]. There are two factors that cause this pheno-
menon, namely human activities and natural causes. Human activities that contribute
to climate change mainly comprise of the burning of fossil fuels and conversion of
forestland to agricultural land or for industrial usage, etc. Natural causes may be due to
earthquakes, solar activity or volcanic eruptions [2]. In addition, there are also
internal climate systems like the ocean currents or atmospheric circulation, which can
bring about climate change. There is a need to attend to this growing threat at the
global level on climate change by adopting environment-friendly development. The
world needs to take corrective measures on greenhouse emissions, initiate afforestation
and alter the government policies [3].
It is considered by the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
scientists that the Earth’s climate is likely to become warmer if the carbon dioxide
(CO2) concentration in the atmosphere increases due to human activities [4]. The fifth
report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that there
will be an increase of 4 degree Celsius or more by the end of the 21st century if there
is no immediate action taken to reduce industrial activities [5]. Studies show that due
to the rise in sea levels caused by global warming, cities like New York, Mumbai,
and Shanghai will be at the risk of submerging by the end of the century [6]. Kiribati
Island in the Pacific is already bearing the brunt of rising sea level. The Islanders are
experiencing extensive coastal erosion, not just of the beaches, but also of the land.
This is threatening their livelihood and ecology [7]. The situation is increasingly
alarming as there could be much more such instances like the Kiribati Island if the
causes of the rise in sea level are not adequately addressed. Hence there is a need to
reduce the global average temperature. As a step in that direction, the United Nations
Climate Change Conference 2015 that took place from November 30th to December
12th at Paris has recently seen 195 nations coming to a consensus to reduce the
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to below 2 degree Celsius.

The study is primarily doctrinal. The researcher also has employed historical,
descriptive and analytical methods. Historical method has been employed to study the
evolution of climate change conventions. The descriptive method has been employed
to explain the legal principles governing climate change. An analytical method has
been employed to analyze how the legal principle has had an impact on the environ-
mental jurisprudence.
Primary sources used by the researcher include the International Conventions on
Climate Change and the Indian legal framework pertaining to climate change. The
Paris Agreement on Climate Change: A Critical Analysis of the Indian Legal Framework 211
researcher has also analyzed the decisions of the National Green Tribunal and the
Supreme Court of India. Secondary sources like books, articles and commentaries
have been relied on to get a further understanding of the subject.
International Regime on Climate Change

The earliest evidence for the need of a collective action on climate change emerged
from the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972. It established the
principle that the use of the Earth’s resources has to be regulated in line with the aim
of maintaining developmental opportunities. The way in which this was to be achieved
was not made clear at that stage. The conference mainly adopted a non-binding Dec-
laration of Principles for the preservation and enhancement of the human environment,
which was designed to inspire, and guides the people of the world in the preservation
and enhancement of the human environment [8]. Following the Stockholm Conference
on the Human Environment, many conventions and conferences of parties were held.
In the 2009 Climate Summit held in Copenhagen, countries brought about plans to
achieve emission reduction targets. They tried to strike a balance between the contri-
bution of developed and developing countries. However, all the member countries did
not reach consensus on the same. The Cancun Summit in 2010 was considered a widely
accepted conference on climate change where Green Climate Fund, Technology
Mechanism and Consultancy were to be formulated in their respective countries by the
members. The ‘Lima Call for Climate Action’ in 2014 at Conference of Parties
20 paved way for the Paris Agreement on Climate change wherein both the developed
and developing nations made pledges, which contributed to the capitalization of the
‘Green Climate Fund.’ Moreover, Multilateral Assessment was carried out to evaluate
the implementation of the previous Conference of Parties decisions, whereby many
developed nations came forward to submit their emission targets. India, in this respect,
has been able to show progress in establishing funds, forestry initiatives and adaptation
on issues relating to climate change [9].
The Paris Agreement on Climate Change

The Paris Agreement is a Convention within the United Nations Framework Con-
vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which has universal participation. At the
conclusion of the 21st meeting of the Conference of the Parties, which guides the
Conference (COP 21), on 12 December 2015, the final wording of the Paris Agreement
was adopted by consensus by all of the 196 UNFCCC participating member states and
the European Union to reduce emissions as part of the method for reducing greenhouse
gas. The Agreement required at least 55 countries that cumulatively account for 55% of
the world’s greenhouse emission to ratify, accept, approve or assent to it before it
becomes effective and binding. The Agreement came into force on 4th November 2016.
As of today, there are 125 parties that have ratified, accepted, approved or assented to
it and deposited such acceptance with the UN General Secretary [10]. The negotiating
parties agreed that all the party states must bear common but differentiated
responsibility in mitigating climate change [11]. This entails that developed nations
must drastically reduce their emissions in the future and must also assist the poorer
and developing nations financially and technologically in transitioning to climate
change friendly resources.
The background of the Convention stems from the fact that climate change towards
the end of this century is projected to be a 3.5 degree Celsius increase, which would
have disastrous consequences including heat waves, rises in sea level, species
extinction and diseases [12]. The main contributor towards temperature increase is
carbon emissions, which is why the Paris Agreements fundamental objective is to
secure commitments from states that emissions will be cut down. The convention is
structured in a bottom-up approach, contrary to most international agreements, which
follow a top-down approach—it is left to the states to independently decide on plans to
minimize carbon footprint and cut emissions.
The Paris Agreement stands apart from its predecessor efforts due to the existence of
certain notable features such as collective liability, individual contribution, review
mechanism, progression, mobilization of funds, loss and damage mechanism, transfer
of mitigation outcome and greater participation.
Legislative Framework Governing Climate Change in India

India had engaged itself in understanding the norms formulated in the various inter-
national conventions such as the UNFCCC (1993), Kyoto Protocol (1997) and Paris
Agreement (2015). Along these lines at the domestic level, the Indian government
introduced the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in 2008 [13].
The Indian government has initiated steps to reduce the greenhouse gas emission
without any pressure or compulsion under international treaties and obligations. The
measures taken up by the Government of India (GOI) includes promotion of renewable
energy and investment in clean development technology [14].
The National Action Plan on Climate Change has brought about policies relating to:
Wind energy—the twelfth five-year plan looks into boosting the wind energy
production from 50,000 to 60,000 MW by 2022 [15], Renewable energy, with two
major renewable energy-related policies: the Strategic Plan for New and Renewable
Energy.
The National Solar Mission, which lays down capacity targets for renewable [16],
energy efficiency and conservation with a mechanism to implement the Perform,
Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme covering the largest industrial and power generation
facilities in India [17], New standard for vehicles on fuel-economy called Indian
Corporation Average Fuel Consumption standard and [18] more than 100 smart cities
to promote efficient transportation, urban amenities and energy networks to ensure
the challenges forced by Urbanization.
In spite of all these measures initiated by the government, the change continues to be
a grave concern, as per the ‘Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database (updated
2016)’ [19] released by the World Health Organization (WHO), 22 cities in India
figured in the most polluted hundred cities in the world [20]. The drastic effect of this
has affected the young and the aged alike causing health hazards like stroke, heart
disease, lung cancer, and chronic and acute respiratory diseases. The emission of
greenhouse gases has caused lasting and sometimes irreversible damages to the
ecology. Hence this calls for a strong, need-based action plan. The World Development
Report states that the agricultural production may reduce by 4.5 to 9 percent due to
climate change in the next three decades [21].
Another important impact of climate change is by the indigenous groups of people
living in the forest areas. There is a need to look into their means of livelihood but at
the same time protect the forest reserve, minimizing the detrimental impacts to the
environment [22].
One of the reasons why India adopted the National Climate Change Policy was to
ensure clean and sustainable energy supply to all its citizens with minimal impact on
the environment and (sustainable development are a means through which this can be
achieved). India aims at elevating the standard of living of the people and is also
trying to promote clean energy. Individual states have also taken several initiatives in
this regard. Delhi was the first State in India to launch a State Action Plan (2009) [23].
As a measure of curbing vehicular pollution, Delhi government had introduced an
odd-even policy for vehicles in addition to restrictions in registering diesel cars with an
engine capacity greater than 2000cc. The Other States like Kerala have introduced bio-
diesel pumps for vehicles. Bio-diesel helps in reducing carbon monoxide in the
atmosphere. The Karnataka government introduced State Action plan on Climate
change to help reduce greenhouse effects at the state level.
The Indian Constitution casts a duty on the State as well as on the citizens to protect
the environment [24]. It focuses on not just the rights of the people, but also India’s
commitment on the international stage.
The various legislations such as the Air Act [25], Water Act [26] and Forest
Conservation Act [27] were the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment held at Stockholm in 1972. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
came in the aftermath of the Bhopal gas tragedy. The Judiciary has played a very
important role in laying down important environmental jurisprudence such as the

polluter’s pay principle [28], the precautionary principle and sustainable development
principle to protect the environment. There are various laws and rules governing
environmental protection in India, however, a comprehensive legislation is necessary
to address problems pertaining to climate change. The approach for formulation and
timely revision of the environmental laws must be proactive than reactive.
The Position of India Post-Paris Agreement

Being the fourth major contributor to global carbon emissions (after China, USA and
EU), the commitments are undertaken by India towards climate change mitigation
will have a pivotal implication over the international community [29].
India became a signatory to the Paris Agreement on April 19, 2016, and ratified the
same on October 2, 2016. During the negotiations, India had come up with her
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions for the period 2021–2030. India is
responsible for 4.5% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. At the Paris Conference,
India promised that by 2030, at least 40% of its electricity will be generated by non-
fossil fuels [30]. India has estimated its financial requirements to be at 2.5 trillion
dollars. Compared to such requirements, the 100 billion dollars that other developed
nations have agreed to raise seems relatively small. Also, this is a voluntary effort.
There is no instrument that binds such nations to donate the agreed amount to these
developing nations and there is no mandate on the developed nations to participating
in Carbon Mitigation. Thus, if they defer from their agreements, developing nations
will be at a further disadvantage.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

The World Bank Report “Turn Down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts,
and the Case for Resilience” published in June 2013, projects that a scenario of
4 degree Celsius rise in global temperature would result in increased climate extreme
events such as heat waves, sea level rise, storm surges, droughts and flooding in the
South Asian region including India. The coastal and deltaic regions of India are
reported to be particularly vulnerable to the risks of flooding which includes two Indian
cities of Mumbai and Kolkata. The rivers Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra are also
vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to the melting of glaciers.
The existing legal framework governs laws to protect the environment but there are
no specific laws or sanctions against the greenhouse gas emitters. Though effects and
impacts of climate change are acknowledged under the various governmental policies,
there is a need to bring about a mechanism to validate the various missions undertaken
by the government to move towards clean technology. The existing legal framework
has a limitation in addressing and regulating all the sources of pollution.
India needs to work towards becoming a carbon neutral country like Bhutan and for
this, the government needs to make an attempt at the grass root level to curb effects of
climate change caused by human activities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to the organizers of the national
seminar on Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions 2017, for giving me this
platform to discuss the importance and challenges of climate change.
I also extend my sincere thanks to the chairperson of the session on “Climate Change
Law and Policy”, Prof. (Dr.) M.K. Ramesh, NLSIU, Bengaluru for his valuable
suggestions and guidance. I would also like to thank the management Christ University
and National Law School of India University, Bengaluru for their constant support
and help provided for the research.
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Awareness on Impact of Climate Change
in Agriculture, a Study of Chidambaram
Agricultural Area by Using Educational
Global Climate Model Software and
Weather Research and Forecasting Model
Atun Roychoudhury* and V. Arutchelvan
Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University,
Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT: Chidambaram, a semiarid region is subjected to high climate

variability and sensitivity. In Chidambaram, 1376 people comprising 5 percent
were involved in agricultural sector activities. In spite of the environmental con-
frontation primary agricultural sector consists of local and regional marketing,
with paddy being the primary traded product, accompanied by cereals, black
gram, pulses and sugarcane. Interdisciplinary study has been undertaken as
climate and agriculture are interrelated processes; both take place on a global
scale. The study area has been explored at the local scale, by means of interview-
ing several farmers and interpreted by using the advanced weathering station
established by Annamalai University. In order of broad-scale understanding,
advanced meteorological Metadata have been collected from the National
atmospheric research lab, which relates the study to the national scale. At last, all
the processed climate data comprises using, Anemometer, Sunshine recorder and
sophisticated equipments are used as a feed data in Educational global climate
model software. The turnout presents a substantial rise in carbon dioxide and a
noticeable amount of temperature change over a certain period. Even carbon
dioxide levels would also have effects both detrimental and beneficial, on crop
yields. This study aims to examine the impact of climate variables on agriculture
and bring out the awareness of the farmers who are quitting from their agricultural
activities due to this correspondence of ill effects and helps to sustain their life of
human beings for present and future generations too.
Keywords: Climate Change, Crop Yield, Educational Global Climate Model,
High-Performance Computing, Weather Research and Forecast Model
218
Awareness on Impact of Climate Change in Agriculture… 219
INTRODUCTION
T he climate is one of the main determinants of agricultural production. There is

significant apprehension about the effects of climate change and its variability in
agricultural production throughout the world. The Climate Change is any change in
climate over time that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity which
alters the composition of the global atmosphere. In addition to natural climate vari-
ability observed over comparable time periods (IPCC, 2007). Since climatic factors
serve as direct inputs to agriculture, any change in climatic factors is bound to have a
significant impact on crop yields and production. Of course, the industrial revolution
in western countries rapidly utilized the fossil fuels, forests were destroyed indiscri-
minately for fuel, fodder and timber in the developing countries. These factors were
intensified by the human activities in the past 250 years, which had a tremendous
impact on the climate system (Ashalatha et al., 2013). According to the IPCC, the
greenhouse gas emission could cause the mean global temperature to rise by another
1.4°C to 5.8°C. Already the symptoms of climate change were observed at a faster
rate in the Arctic and its regions through melting of the frozen ice which has the
danger of submergence of the coastal zones. In the case of the inland water source,
there is a tremendous change in both surfaces as well as groundwater due to erratic
rainfall and occurrence of frequent droughts (Upadhyaya and Agrawal, 2014). Anthro-
pogenic activities are the main reasons for Climate Change. Industries, transportation,
generation of power are the main reasons for the increase in temperature. Agriculture,
forestry and fisheries are sensitive to climate change impacts and on the other hand
contributes to the emission. Agriculture accounts for 13.5 percent of global greenhouse
gas emissions from fertilized soils, biomass burning, rice production as well as manure
and fertilizer production (www.insightsonindia.com). According to Casarejos et al.,
2016 (IPCC), mitigation is defined as an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the
sources of the Greenhouse Gases (Phan et al., 2016). On other hand climate adaptation
refers to the ability of a system to adjust to Climate Change, including climate
variability and extremes, to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of
opportunities or to cope with the consequences (Raymond et al., 2013]. To meet the
challenges posed by Climate Change on the agricultural system, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) has accorded high priority in understanding the impact
of Climate Change and developing adaptation and mitigation strategies through its
network research program, National Project on Climate Change (NPCC). Its main
objectives are to identify the region experiencing extreme Climate Changes, developing
methodologies for assessing the impact of Climate Change on agricultural productivity
and suggesting suitable intervention for reducing the impact of Climate Change.
Climate change may exacerbate the impacts and thus limit agricultural production.
Notwithstanding the challenges in the agriculture sector, animal Husbandry, including
fisheries sector, which together accounts for a quarter of total agriculture and allied
activities GSDP, provides opportunities for livelihood diversification in this sector. Any
impact on agriculture and allied sectors will exert cascading effect on secondary and
tertiary sectors. At present, though there is no systematic study to assess the direct and
indirect effects of climate change on agriculture and allied sectors, this sectoral plan
will enable the State to assess the vulnerability of the State to climate risks,
prioritization of research and development issues and effective decision making to
reduce risks through adaptation (docslide.us/documents/tamil-nadu-climate-change-
action-plan.html).
STUDY AREA
Chidambaram, known as a temple town of Tamilnadu was chosen as the study area to
perform the analysis. The town nearly lies at 11.3982°N, 79.6954°E latitude and
longitude (Figure 1), with a geographical area of 4.8 km2. It is situated in the southern-
most part of the Indian peninsula. Agriculture, a predominant sector for the people’s
livelihood, contributes to about 7 percent of the state’s Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). Currently, the gross cropped area is 217331 hectares, accounting for nearly
59 percent of the total geographical area of the district. Food crops account for 70
percent of the gross cropped area, of which nearly half is rice (docslide.us/documents/
tamil-nadu-climate-change-action-plan.html).
Fig. 1: Location of the Study Area

METHODOLOGY
Temperature Projections
Maximum Temperature: The study shows maximum temperature over Tamilnadu
is projected to increase by 1.1°C, in the years 2040 respectively, with reference to the
baseline 1970–2000. District wise changes indicate a general maximum increase of
about 1.3°C over the North western districts of Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Tiruppur and
western parts of Dindigul District. The minimum increase of about 0.7°C is seen along
the eastern parts of coastal districts, particularly over Kanyakumari, Nagapattinam,
Tirunelvelli and Ramanathapuram (Figure 2) docslide.us/documents/tamil-nadu-
climate-change-action-plan.html.
Minimum Temperature: Projection of minimum temperature over Tamil Nadu as a
whole for 2040 with reference to baseline 1970–2000 is likely to increase by 1.10°C.
District wise changes indicate lesser changes over the western parts and close to the
coast. A general rise in temperature is seen ranging from 1° to 1.50°C for the period
2010 to 2040. The southern districts Kanyakumari and Tirunelvelli show minimum
increase, while the central interior districts Karur, Tiruppur, and Namakkal show the
maximum increase in the minimum Temperature (Figure 2) docslide.us/documents/
tamil-nadu-climate-change-action-plan.html.
Fig. 2: Change in Maximum and Minimum Temperature (°C)

Projections of 2040
Instruments Used to Interpret

Primary Instruments: A sophisticated weather station established by Annamalai
University was utilized to explore the weather phenomenon at the micro scale. Various
primary instruments like rain gauge, soil thermometer, sunshine recorder, wind vane,
anemometer, etc., were used to set up the preliminary study (Figure 3).
Fig. 3: Various Instruments of Analysis and Location of Station in AU
Advanced Instruments: Weather Observational Instruments enacted predominately

viable for the accomplishment of the above study are such as Surface Flux Tower,
Microwave Radiometer, Lightening detector, Electric Field Mill, Net Radiometer,
Rayleigh lidar, High-Performance Supercomputer, 50 m automatic weather tower etc.
(Figures 4 and 5).
Fig. 4: The Instruments were used Cordially to Prepare the Feed Data for the HPC
Fig. 5: Observational Facility for Modelling Activity
Comparative Studies by Educational Global Climate

Modelling Software (EdGCM)
EdGCM is an integrated software suite designed to simplify the process of setting up,
running, analyzing and reporting on global climate model simulations (Figure 6) [11].
Fig. 6: Software Output Sight

Weather Research and Forecast Model Application

Various meteorological data were collected and analyzed through a high-performance-
supercomputer using Linux system by means of WRF model for better understanding
of the effect of meteorological parameters on climate change and finally on crop yield
(Figure 7).
Fig. 7: Workflow of WRF Model

A complex study was performed by HPC supercomputers through weather research
and forecast model which shows the following outputs (Figures 8–13).
Fig. 8: Surface Temperature and Rainfall Data

Fig. 9: Meteograms for Bangalore
Fig. 10: Tephigrams for Pondicherry

Fig. 11: Mixing Rate of CO, RH and PM10 Analysis
Fig. 12: Relative Humidity, Sea Level Pressure, Wind Speed

Fig. 13: Change in Various Meteorological Parameters with Respect to Height
Table 1: Analyzed Weather Data Show the Significant Change

Temperature (˚C)
Month Wind Velocity Rainfall
Maximum Minimum
Year 2012
January 29.3 21.0 3.0 011.7
February 30.5 21.3 3.4 000.0
March 33.4 23.3 3.5 010.0
April 34.9 26.1 4.0 006.4
May 38.3 27.4 8.6 002.8
June 37.9 27.3 9.5 000.6
July 35.7 25.7 6.3 078.0
August 35.2 25.3 6.4 079.4
September 34.9 24.9 5.8 113.3
October 31.0 24.0 3.9 640.2
November 30.4 23.1 4.5 098.4
December 29.2 22.3 5.0 045.5
Total 400.7 291.7 63.9 1086.3
Mean 33.3 24.3 5.3 –
(Contd...)
(Table 1 contd.)
Temperature (˚C)
Maximum Minimum
Year 2013
January 33.4 23.6 4.5 004.2
February 30.4 21.8 4.1 060.1
March 32.4 22.4 3.5 030.6
April 35.8 25.6 4.7 000.0
May 38.2 27.0 6.5 043.8
June 36.1 26.5 7.3 021.4
July 35.6 25.8 6.6 042.8
August 33.7 24.3 5.2 201.6
September 33.0 24.4 4.7 144.9
October 32.9 24.5 3.3 120.4
November 29.1 22.9 3.9 298.9
December 28.0 21.1 4.0 222.8
Total 398.6 298.9 58.3 1188.5
Mean 33.2 24.1 4.8 –
Year 2014
January 28.4 20.9 4.4 007.2
February 29.6 20.3 2.7 025.8
March 31.6 21.9 2.9 000.0
April 34.9 24.5 3.4 000.0
May 33.8 25.8 5.0 183.2
June 37.2 26.8 5.8 067.2
July 35.3 25.6 6.3 092.4
August 33.9 24.8 4.7 171.0
September 34.1 24.7 4.0 034.5
October 31.6 24.1 2.5 528.9
November 28.9 23.1 3.5 341.8
December 28.0 22.6 04.8 227.9
Total 387.3 285.1 50 1679.7
Mean 32.2 237 4.1 –
(Contd...)
(Table 1 contd.)
Temperature (˚C)
Maximum Minimum
Year 2015
January 28.7 21.2 2.5 022.8
February 29.6 20.8 2.5 000.0
March 32.3 22.9 1.9 000.0
April 34.1 24.8 2.8 067.5
May 33.9 26.2 4.3 100.8
June 34.9 25.5 5.1 073.2
July 36.7 27.5 4.5 107.6
August 35.1 25.6 3.5 125.0
September 35.0 24.6 4.6 028.6
October 32.8 24.1 3.0 118.0
November 29.1 23.5 3.9 950.0
December 29.2 23.2 3.1 459.0
Total 391.4 289.9 41.7 2025.5
Mean 32.6 24.1 3.4 –
Year 2016
January 29.8 21.2 2.9 007.0
February 31.5 22.0 2.4 000.0
March 33.8 23.3 3.0 000.0
April 36.5 26.1 4.7 000.0
May 36.1 26.4 5.0 124.8
June 35.1 25.8 5.1 055.0
July 35.3 25.4 4.5 041.8
August 35.8 24.8 5.1 167.2
September 34.3 24.9 5.8 086.6
October 34.2 25.2 2.5 052.5
The Education Global Model software performs the analysis by taking the above data
as a feed and represents them in the form of digital output, which includes the
temperature rise and differential CO2 emission rates (Figures 14 and 15).
Fig. 14: CO2 Emissions during 2015–2016 Concerning with Various Other Parameters
Fig. 15: Global Warming during 2015–2016

Impact on Crop Production

Tamil Nadu is one of the most urbanized and industrialized states in India and only
22 percent of its income comes from the agriculture and allied sectors, and the share
is indicating a declining trend over the years. The sector, which grew at 15.28 percent
during 2006–’07 declined to –4.46 percent in 2007–’08 due to the crop damages
caused by natural calamities. However, still, about 40 percent of the state population
is dependent on this sector for livelihood. Hence the growth in agriculture is
important not only to ensure food security but also for higher living standards as well.
In addition to the frequent and recurrent hydrometeorological events such as
droughts, extreme rainfall events and cyclones impacting agriculture in the state, the
growth of the sector is constrained by a number of other factors such as reduced
availability of water and declining crop area which has declined from 33% of
available land area in 2000–01 to 31% of total land area in 2010–11. Further, small
land holdings, deterioration in soil health due to depletion of topsoil and decline in
organic content, decrease in cropping intensity and shortage of labour force besides
reluctance to work on the farms and poor adoption of crop management practices etc.
adds to the existing pressure on agriculture. In the last decade between 2001–02 and
2010–11, the net sown area was at its peak during 2001–02 in Tamilnadu, but due to
the extreme drought in 2002–2003, the net sown area, as well as the total production,
dipped significantly and has not recovered. However, with the increase in area under
assured irrigation from 54% of gross sown area in 2001–02 to 58% in 2010–11, the
production of cereals, pulses, oil seeds etc. are on the path of recovery and
productivity of a majority of the crops are on the rise except for a nominal decline in
rice and pulses. In 2011–12, the total irrigated area was 2,91,2000 ha of which 56%
was irrigated by groundwater and the rest by canals, tanks and other modes of
irrigation. In case of rice, 93 percent of the gross sown area is irrigated. Six percent of
the gross sown area under pulses is irrigated. In the case of oilseeds, 38 percent of the
gross sown area is irrigated. Tamil Nadu is the highest producer of oilseeds in the
country (Table 2).
Table 2: Change in Crop Yields during Past Decade Due to Climate Change
Net Change
Crop Varieties 2001–2002 (kg/ha) 2010–2011 (kg/ha)
(%)
Rice 3196 3039 –4.9
Cholum 866 1014 +17.1
Cumbu 1223 1564 +27.9
Ragi 1883 2262 +20.1
Maize 1950 2468 +26.6
Groundnut 1885 2323 +23.2
Pulses 395 386 –2.5
CONCLUSION
In order to achieve the objective of this work and to develop a monitoring-based
meteorological model for maximum crop yield, several important issues are essential
and has to be taken into consideration, to provide satisfactory results like, proper
planning and study of the region of interest, meteorological data collection and
processing etc., The study found that increase in temperature by about 20°C will reduce
potential grain yields in most places. Region with higher potential productivity, such
as northern India were relatively less impacted by Climate Change than areas with
lower potential. Climate Change will also lead to boundary change in areas suitable for
growing certain crops. Reduction in yields as a result of Climate Change is predicted
to be more pronounced for rain fed crops as opposed to irrigated crops because of no
coping mechanism for rainfall variability. The difference in yield is influenced by
baseline climate. In subtropical environment the decrease in potential wheat yield range
from 1.5 to 5.8 percent, while in tropical regions the decrease is relatively higher,
suggesting that warmer regions can expect greater crop. Climate Change and agri-
culture are inseparably linked globally, both affecting and influencing each other.
Climate Change influences the crop yield and quality, fertility status of soil and may
pose a serious threat to food and nutritional security. The challenge for Indian
agriculture is to adopt to potential changes in temperature and precipitation and to
extreme events without compromising productivity and food security. Our study
shows a potential temperature rise of 5.6°F within 2060 and uncertainty in precipitation
is over various climatic zones. The consequences of these changes may result in a
need to adopt existing regulation with respect to environmental policy goals. Though
the efforts are going on to develop strategies to mitigate the negative impact of
Climate Change and research in new directions are being carried out, more emphasis
is required to make sufficient investments to support Climate Change adaptation and
mitigation policies, technology development and dissemination of information.
Making possible of interlinking rivers from northern to the southern India region to
solve the problems of drought. Now, after taking all the probable reasons under con-
sideration of the above study, a conclusion has been arrived that the greenhouse effect
and global warming could be the most appropriate reason of climate change, which is
accelerated due to anthropogenic activities. But in this regard, a practical remedial
strategy of raising mangrove forest is suggested along the salt wetlands of coastal
southern districts to offer protection for agricultural crops against the fiery effect of
natural calamities like cyclone, and also to remove carbon dioxide from the air much
more efficiently as well reducing the atmospheric temperature, thereby mitigating the
growing threat of climate change. Several pilot scale mangrove forestation came into
the scenario through the shoreline of the Cuddalore coastal region during the last few
years, which shows a significant lapse in CO2 level.
Fig. 16: Artificially Developed Mangrove by Marine

Engg. Department of Annamalai University
FUTURE SCOPE
In order to improve the understanding of all the meteorological parameters effect on
crop yield, individual parameters can be monitored and analyzed. Study on water and
nutrition management also could be undertaken for a better understanding of the
growth pattern of crops.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We sincerely express the gratitude to the technical team of Dr. Amit P. Kesarkar,
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory, for providing us such handy information
and enabled us to complete the research work by letting us use their advanced
technologies and equipment. We are also grateful to Dr. Kathiresan, Former Dean,
Director and Syndicate Member, Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology,
Annamalai University for sharing his pearls of wisdom with us during the course of this
research.
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[1] Ashalatha, K.V., Gopinath, M. and Bhat, A.R.S. (2013). Impact of Climate Change on
Rainfed Agriculture in India: A Case Study of Dharwad. International Journal of
Environmental Science and Development, 3(4): 368–371.
[2] Casarejos, F., Rocha, M.N.F.J.E., Silva, W.R.D. and Barreto Jr, J.T. (2016). Corporate
Sustainability Strategies: A Case Study in Brazil Focused on High Consumers of Electri-
city. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute Open Access Journals (Sustainability),
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insightsonindia.com/2015/01/21/1.
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weather/pdf/new/20161101/meteograms.html.
Impact of Climate Change on
Incidence of Dengue and
Chikungunya in Karnataka
P. Chitra*, O.K. Remadevi, Ritu Kakkar,
Saswati Mishra and K.H. Vinaya Kumar
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI),
ABSTRACT: The spread of vector-borne diseases into new areas is favoured by

the population build-up of the vectors in relation to the climatic conditions. It has
been observed recently that diseases like Dengue, Chikungunya, etc. are emerging
as threats to human health. The survival, reproduction rates, the intensity and
temporal patterns are affected by the change in climate. Climate change can alter
the distribution of the vectors and can spread the disease into new regions. The
focus of this study is to understand the likely influence of climate change on the
incidence of 2 major vector-borne diseases (Dengue and Chikungunya) in
Karnataka. Methodology involved collection of data on the incidence of vector-
borne diseases from Health department and on climatic parameters from
meteorological department. Yearly and monthly analysis for the occurrence of
dengue and chikungunya for 2011–2015 is done for all 30 districts of Karnataka
and trends of disease occurrence were plotted. The data revealed that dengue
and chikungunya recorded increased incidences over the years in most of the
districts. Month-wise occurrences of the diseases were also analyzed and it showed
that incidence of both of these diseases was higher during monsoon and post-
monsoon seasons. Dengue and chikungunya appear to be highly prevalent in
Bangalore Urban in comparison to the other districts. Correlation of climatic
parameters to the disease incidence is also computed to ascertain the reason for
the vulnerability of different districts in Karnataka to vector-borne diseases.
Keywords: Climate Change, Temperature, Karnataka, Vectors, Vector-borne
Diseases, Dengue, Chikungunya
INTRODUCTION
T he issue of climate change has surfaced as a new threat which challenges the
ongoing efforts to contain many diseases including vector-borne diseases. India
235
is endemic to six major Vector-Borne Diseases (VBD) namely Malaria, Dengue,

Chikungunya, Lymphatic filariasis, Kala-azar and Japanese Encephalitis (JE).
Mosquito species such as the Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles stephensi, Anopheledar-
lingi, Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Culexpipiens quinquefasciatus and Anopheles
funestus are responsible for transmission of many diseases.
Mosquitoes are sensitive to temperature changes as their immature stages live in the
aquatic environment. In warmer climates, adult female mosquitoes digest blood faster
and feed more frequently, thus increasing transmission intensity.
It is evident that with climate change, there has been a shift in the geographical
distribution of several vector-borne diseases. Over the years, there has been a reduction
in the incidence of nearly all the diseases except Dengue and Chikungunya which have
re-emerged since 2005, probably due to many factors including the change in the
weather parameters. The temporal and spatial changes in temperature, precipitation and
humidity that are expected to occur under different climate change scenarios will affect
the biological and ecological aspects of vectors and intermediate hosts and con-
sequently increase the risk of disease outbreaks. The prevalence and abundance of the
vector-borne diseases are particularly sensitive to changes in mean ambient temperature
since their transmission relies principally on the survival and reproduction of their
invertebrate vector or intermediate host, and the parasite’s incubation and survival rates
therein [WHO, 2000].
Dengue and Chikungunya, previously known as urban-diseases, are the fastest re-
emerging viral diseases worldwide imposing a heavy economic and health burden.
Inspite of the efforts by government and private authorities, some of the deadly
diseases are re-emerging and outbreaks of new diseases are noticed and the major
reasons attributed point to the changes in climatic conditions. The recurrent epidemics
with increased frequency in last few years in Karnataka especially in certain climatic
zones prompted us to take-up a detailed investigation of incidence, seasonal prevalence
and severity of vector-borne diseases in relation to climatic parameters in different
districts of Karnataka.
Some of the key studies related to climate change and its impact on vector-borne
diseases across the world are reviewed and presented here. (Martens, 1995) looked
into the extent of climate change effects on the distribution of vector-borne diseases.
The study has found that this linkage depends on climate scenario and specific
characteristics of the vector-borne disease concerned. The equilibrium climate change
scenario with high climate sensitivity shows a worldwide increase in transmission
potential of the malarial mosquito and Schistosoma. It transpires that in the case of both
vector-borne diseases, as climate changes the most vulnerable populations are those
that live in the less economically developed temperate regions. Given that there are
Impact of Climate Change on Incidence of Dengue and Chikungunya in Karnataka 237
insufficient resources to take the adaptive and preventive measures which are required
to deal with Malaria and schistosomiasis adequately, the potential effects of anthro-
pogenic climate change must be taken seriously.
Climate change is likely to expand the geographical distribution of several vector-borne
diseases, including Malaria and Dengue, etc. to higher altitudes and latitudes (Dhiman,
2010). Studies undertaken by him in India on Malaria in the context of climate change
impact revealed that transmission windows in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir
and north-eastern states are likely to extend temporally by 2–3 months and in Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu there may be a reduction in transmission windows.
Using PRECIS model (driven by HadRM2) at the resolution of 50 × 50 Km for daily
temperature and relative humidity for the year 2050, he has found that Orissa, West
Bengal and southern parts of Assam will still remain malarious and transmission
windows will open up in Himachal Pradesh and north-eastern states, etc. In this
study, it was also seen that impact of climate change on Dengue also revealed an
increase in transmission with 2°C rise in temperature in northern India. His study
concludes that reflect on urbanization and heat island effect leading to the greater threat
of a positive lead can be negated that with the better preparedness of climate change
on vector-borne diseases.
GIS technology has proven to be efficient in data collection and presentation of disease
incidence for charting immediate corrective and preventive actions. (Rai, 2011)
mapped vector-borne diseases density in Varanasi district, U.P. areas using GIS
techniques. Here remote sensing data were used to identify the favourable indicators of
Malaria breeding like ponds, streams, tanks etc. Climatic data i.e. rainfall and
temperature data were also used for this study. District boundary maps, as well as block
and village boundary maps, were digitized with the help of ARC GIS-9.3 software.
Disease incidence report from different years was used in this study. He found that
maximum cases (188) of Malaria were found in Varanasi city in comparison to rural
side of Varanasi district which was due to poor sanitation facilities, pathetic condition
of ponds and tanks and improper disposal and management of solid waste in the city
area. Data analysis has also shown that many cases of vector-borne diseases were
identified in the study area from 2005–2009. The study concludes that there is a need
to strengthen surveillance and control vector-borne diseases especially Malaria, Dengue
cases in the study areas and special attention to these pockets were required.
METHODOLOGY
The main objective is to study and correlate the occurrence of Vector-borne diseases in
relation to climatic parameters in Karnataka. This study aims to find an association
between climatic variables (temperature) and incidence of two major vector-borne
diseases namely, dengue and Chikungunya in all districts of Karnataka. Another
objective is the mapping of climatic variables and disease incidences in Karnataka to

indicate districts affected by vector-borne diseases. Preparation of maps for dengue
positive cases and Chikungunya positive cases using GIS tools like ArcGIS and QGIS.
Study Area
The State of Karnataka is located within 11.5 degrees North and 18.5 degrees North
latitude and 74 degrees East and 78.5 degrees east longitude. It is situated on a
tableland where the Western and Eastern Ghats ranges converge into the Nilgiri hill
complex, in the Western part of the Deccan Peninsular region of India. The State is
bounded by Maharashtra and Goa in the North and North-West; by the Arabian Sea
in the West; by Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the South and by Andhra Pradesh in the
East. Karnataka extends to about 750 Km from North to South and about 400 km
from East to West [7].
Fig. 1: Study Area—Karnataka on India Map
Monthly data on the incidence of 2 major vector-borne diseases (Dengue and

Chikungunya) for past 5 years (2011–2015) recorded at Public Health Centres (PHCs)
were collected from secondary sources like National Vector Borne Diseases Control
Programme (NVBDCP), Directorate of Health, and Government of Karnataka. District
wise monthly temperature (maximum and minimum) and relative humidity (maximum
and minimum) for Karnataka was collected from sources viz., www.waterportal.org and
Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre (KSNDMC), Bangalore. Month-
wise, season-wise and year-wise analysis and correlation of the climatic parameters
with disease occurrence was computed and plotted using Microsoft Excel 2013 to find
out the significant association between climatic variations and occurrence of vector-
borne diseases.
Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), disease vulnerability mapping of all the
districts in Karnataka was created. Mapping by using ArcGIS and QGIS software
allows better visual presentations and understanding of the risks and vulnerabilities so
that decision makers can plan for protection of these areas. Time series maps for
Dengue positive cases and Chikungunya positive cases were created to visualize the
relative incidence of diseases in different districts during the past 5 years (2011–2015).
RESULTS
Trend Analysis for Annual Average Temperature for Karnataka (1902–2015)
Fig. 2: Annual Average Temperature for Karnataka 1902–2015
Fig. 3: Annual Average Temperature for Bangalore Urban 1902–2015

Data Source: IMD, KSNDMC.
District-wise temperature data for the last 113 years (1902–2015) for Karnataka were
obtained from Meteorological Department and Karnataka State Natural Disaster
Monitoring Centre (KSNDMC). Trend graph for annual average temperature for
Karnataka is found to vary from year to year with a general trend of increase over the
years. The above plot clearly indicates annual average temperature for Karnataka has
increased from 25.13°C to 26.44°C from 1902 to 2015°C (113 years) for Karnataka.
Discussing Bangalore urban, the annual average temperature in 1902 has increased
from 24.60°C to 26.62°C in 2015. Around 25.10°C was recorded in the year 1990
which has increased to 26.44°C in the year 2015, showing an overall increase of
1.3°C in the past 25 years as shown in Figure 2.
Dengue Incidence in Karnataka

District-wise analysis of Dengue disease in the year 2015 as shown in Figure 4 showed
that Bangalore Urban recorded 8072 cases contributing around 54% of the state’s
total Dengue cases followed by 1631 cases in Udupi (11%), 1279 cases in Kolar (9%),
769 cases in Mysore (5%) and 627 cases in Dakshin Kannada (4%). Other districts
like Bagalkot, Davangere, Dharwad, Bellary, Chitradurga, Chikmangalur, Belgaum and
Tumkur also contributed to dengue.
Fig. 4: District-wise Dengue Occurrence in Karnataka in 2015

Remaining 11% of State’s Dengue Cases in the Year 2015
Dengue incidence was analyzed season-wise for the years 2011–15. Figure 5 shows
that monsoon season recorded the highest number of dengue cases in all the five
years. Monsoon season provides a breeding habitat for the mosquito, A. aegypti
which is the vector for the dengue pathogens. Only 629 dengue positive cases were
observed during monsoon in the year, 2011 which has risen to 9601 cases in the year,
2015. A total of 26,853 cases were recorded during the monsoon of last 5 years, and
only 5457 cases were recorded during pre-monsoon and 12,073 cases during post-
monsoon. The Figure 5 shows that the dengue disease occurrence is highest during
monsoon.
Fig. 5: Season-wise Dengue Incidence during 2011–15
The district-wise occurrence of dengue disease in Karnataka during 2015 was also
documented and was depicted in Figure 6. Sequential data classes are logically
arranged from high to low and this stepped sequence of categories was represented by
sequential lightness steps. Low data values are usually represented by light colours and
high values represented by dark colours. Transitions between hues are also used in a
sequential scheme. Figure 6 is a disease map for the year 2015 which indicates that
Bangalore Urban is the most affected district. Bellary, Mysore, Dakshin Kannada,
Udupi, Kolar and Davangere are also found to be affected by Dengue in varying
degrees. Though the number of cases is almost similar, the spread of disease was
different in the recent years.
Fig. 6: Mapping of Dengue Disease Incidence in Different Districts during 2015
Chikungunya Incidence in Karnataka
Fig. 7: District-wise Chikungunya Incidence in Karnataka during 2015

Bangalore urban contributes around 24% of the total cases in Karnataka during the
year 2015 followed by Tumkur (17%) and Chitradurga (9%). Districts like Davangere
and Mysore contributes around 7% each and Kolar and Bagalkot contributes around
5% of total cases of Dengue cases in Karnataka. Bangalore rural recorded the least
number of Dengue positive cases with less than 1% occurrence.
Fig. 8: Season-wise Chikungunya Incidence during 2011–15 in Karnataka
Season-wise trend analysis shows that the disease is more prominent during monsoon
when the optimum climatic condition occurs for mosquito breeding and larval develop-
ment. Monsoon season recorded a total number of 16,332 cases and post-monsoon
season recorded 9957 cases during 2011–15. The year 2015 alone recorded around
6321 Chikungunya cases during monsoon season.
The year 2015 recorded the highest number of Chikungunya cases of around 12,520
in Karnataka with 2982 cases alone in Bangalore Urban and 1507 cases in Tumkur.
The most vulnerable districts for Chikungunya are Bangalore Urban, Tumkur, Kolar,
Mysore, Udupi and Chitradurga. However, the exact reason for the vulnerability
cannot be attributed to temperature or any other single parameter.
Fig. 9: Chikungunya Incidence in Karnataka during 2015
CONCLUSIONS
This study is purely based on the secondary data collected by government departments.
We have not accounted the disease occurrence treated at private hospitals, nursing
homes and clinics. However as the data used for study is from the same source for all
the years, it will be indicative of the relative incidence of the different diseases in
Karnataka. The study has helped to ascertain the occurrence of the diseases in the
different districts of Karnataka across the years. Presuming that the precautionary/
preventive and remedial measures are on the same scale across all the years/districts,
the fluctuations in the incidence of disease can be due to changes in climatic conditions
especially which favours mosquito breeding. Though the vulnerability maps clearly
depict the chances of occurrence of the different diseases with reference to the
favourable climatic conditions (temperature and humidity), the realistic incidence of
all 3 diseases in different seasons/year show a varying pattern, not matching with the
vulnerability indication. Vulnerability maps are only indicative and the uncertainties
of adaptive behaviour of these vectors, the control and awareness measures adopted
by Government and non-Government organizations, the degree of socio-economic
development, general hygiene, etc. are important factors that limit the validity of
predictions.
This study helped us to analyse disease incidence and relate it to the climate factors.
There are some limitations because of which we could not arrive at concrete con-
clusions. Since transmission dynamics of VBDs are multi-factorial, projections based
on climatic parameters might get altered. Intervention measures, developmental
activities (urbanization, irrigation, water scarcity, etc.) and socioeconomic conditions
also play role in transmission dynamics. Mosquito vector’s adaptation to increased
temperatures and resistance to insecticides may also alter the disease prevalence and
disease outbreaks. Adaptation and mitigation measures employed to combat climate
change shall help to maintain the vector population under check, thereby containing
the outbreak of vector-borne diseases.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was carried out as a research project in Centre for Climate Change, Environ-
mental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), Bangalore. Thanks are
due to IMD, KSNDMC and NVBDCP for providing climate and disease data for
Karnataka to execute this study successfully.
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Simulation of Carbon Dynamics of
Tectona grandis Forest in Western Ghats
of Kerala, India, Using Century Model
M. Manjunatha*, M. Niveditha, A.V. Santhoshkumar,
T.K. Kunhamu, Sandeep and Sunil
College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala
ABSTRACT: Forest ecosystems play an important role in regulating atmospheric

carbon through the photosynthesis process. Many studies have measured the
carbon stocks of Tectona grandis but those studies only captured a static view
without taking into account the role of other components of the ecosystem. Century
is one of the ecological models that can be used to simulate carbon dynamics and
the effects of other components in ecosystems. This research has simulated the
carbon dynamics of Tectona grandis in Western Ghats of Kerala using Century
model. The research stages included model parameterisation, validation, and
analysis of the pattern of carbon accumulation in a Tectona grandis stand grown
in a reforestation setting. The parameterisation was done by adjusting the model
parameters to the characteristics of Tectona grandis and the environmental
condition of the study area. The validation was conducted by comparing the
simulation results to analyzed statistical data from the field measurements of
carbon stocks in Tectona grandis stands 0–5, 06–10, 11–20, 21–30 and above
30 years old. The validation process demonstrated that the output of simulation
approaches analyzed statistical data. The pattern of the simulated dynamics in
50 years shows that the carbon accumulated in the forest system, Tectona grandis
biomass, and necromass increase as the age of stand increases. However, the
accumulation of soil carbon initially decreases until it reaches a relatively
constant value.
Keywords: Carbon Dynamics, Tea Plantations, Century Model, Carbon
Sequestration
INTRODUCTION
I ncrease in atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2) concentration has been suggested to

raise the mean global temperature and perhaps disturb climates in unforeseen
ways (IPCC, 2007). While the effort to reduce the increasing emission rate of
247
atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases has mainly been based on emission
reductions, the interest in using soils and vegetation as Carbon (C) sinks is
increasingly becoming popular (Lal, 2001; Olsson et al., 2001; Byrne, 2011).
Soil Organic Matter (SOM) is the key indicator to measure the potential of soil to
increase the carbon sequestration. Measurements of SOM or SOC in an ecosystem
alone reveal little about how C has changed in the past or will change in the future.
The use of simulation model that incorporates an understanding of basic ecosystem
processes and which have been validated across a range of climate, soil and manage-
ment condition provides a means of investigating the interaction between components
of the ecosystem (Smith et al., 1997). Well-designed modelling studies can suggest
which components and processes are most sensitive to climate and what kind of
management practices may be most successful in ameliorating negative effects due to
perturbation in the ecosystem. Modeling has been used as an effective methodology
for analyzing and predicting the effect of land-management practices on the levels of
soil carbon.
Century model developed by Parton et al. (1987, 1988 in Metherell et al., 1993) can
be used to simulate the carbon dynamics in an ecosystem. The model can be applied
to assess the effect of different environmental conditions on the pattern of dynamics
of carbon accumulation. In this research, the simulation of carbon dynamics has been
done to Tectona grandis plantations in the Western Ghats of Kerala. The simulations
carried out by using the Century model that has been widely used in various
ecosystems. However, it has never been applied to Tectona grandis so it is necessarily
parameterized and validated before. Therefore, this study will focus on the parameter-
ization, model validation, and analysis of carbon accumulation dynamics through
simulations of Tectona grandis using Century model.

The study was carried out in the state of Kerala which lies between 8°18′ and 12°48′
N latitude and 74°52′ and 77°22′ E longitude. The undulating topography ranges from
below the Mean Sea Level (MSL) to 2694 m above MSL. The sample measurement
had been taken in Tectona grandis plantation forest in the south-western part of India,
bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west and the Western Ghats in the east.
The existing teak plantations of different age classes and natural forests were selected
for studying the soil carbon dynamics of teak monoculture in the forest divisions.
Teak plantations were divided into 5 age classes for sampling. The age classes were
0–5, 06–10, 11–20, 21–30 and above 30 years.
Simulation of Carbon Dynamics of Tectona grandis Forest… 249
Century Model
Century model simulates key processes of nutrient cycling of an ecosystem. This
model consists of several submodels i.e. plant production, climate, soil organic matters,
dead plant materials. These submodels represent pools that exist in real systems.
Flows of nutrient between the pools are mainly regulated by functions of climate and
plant nutrient/characteristics and parameters. Pools representation as submodels can be
viewed in Figure 1. This model has been used to simulate ecosystem dynamics for
most of the world’s ecosystems, such as grasslands, agriculture, forests, and savanna
(Metherell et al., 1993). It has been used to simulate the response of these ecosystems
to changes in an environmental variable (i.e. temperature, rainfall, and atmospheric
CO2 levels). Main model inputs are monthly precipitation, maximum and minimum
air temperatures, soil texture, and plant chemistry (Metherell et al., 1994). Those main
inputs are subsequently used to derive other variables such as soil temperature, which
is calculated as a function of air temperature and precipitation.
Fig. 1: The Pools and Flows of Carbon in the Century Model.

The Diagram Shows the Major Factors which Control the Flows
Model Parameterization
The model was parameterized to simulate soil organic matter dynamics in the top
20 cm of the soil. The model does not simulate organic matter in the deeper soil layers
and increasing the soil depth parameter (fix.100) does not have much impact on the
model. To simulate a deeper soil depth (0–30 or 0–40 cm depth) the soil organic
matter pools must be initialized appropriately. As a general rule, deeper soil depths
have older soil carbon dates (Jenkinson et al., 1992) and lower decomposition rates
(lower temperature at deeper depths). Thus, it would be assumed that the fraction of
total SOM in the passive SOM would be greater. The major change for initializing
the model for deep soil depths is adjusting the fraction of SOM in the different pools
(more C in passive SOM). The initial soil C levels should reflect the observed soil C
levels over that depth and the decomposition rates should be decreased for all of the
SOM pools. To increase the soil depth from 20 cm to 30 cm, the decomposition rates
should be decreased by 15%. The other adjustment would be to increase the rate of
formation of passive SOM; the recommended way is to increase the flow of C from
active and slow SOM to passive SOM.
Model Validation
The century model output was compared with field data of SOC (0–20 cm) to evaluate
the performance of the century model. Visual examination of graphics output allows
qualitative evaluation. The measured and modelled datasets were compared qualitati-
vely through graphs and quantitatively by numbers of statistical tests were used to
evaluate the CENTURY model performance. The selected parameters selected were:
the sample correlation coefficient (r), the Coefficient of Determination (CD), the Root
Mean Square (RMSE), and EF (Modeling efficiency) which is modelling efficiency
(Smith et al., 1996).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Model Parameterization
Parameterizing was conducted by reviewing all the existing parameters, changing, and
comparing the options parameters in the Century model (Metherell et al., 1993). Some
parameters in the site.100 and tree.100 files were changed. The other parameters were
set according to default values which describes the condition of ecosystems that
similar to the simulated object (condition in tropical climates). For forest systems
conducted in this study, parameterization is mainly done in the group parameters of
tree.100. There are two parameters in this model, prdx (3) and prdx (4) which arrange
the plant production. Parameter prdx (3) provides the value of maximum gross primary
production stated in biomass increment every month. The value of prdx (3) for Tectona
grandis which simulated in this study was set maximum, therefore, the production
was only controlled by prdx (4). Parameter prdx (4) regulates the amount of maximum
Net Primary Production (NPP) expressed in the number of carbon added every month.
Plant production is limited by temperature, rainfall, and light intensity, and the presence
of nutrients (Campbell et al., 2004). The restrictions in this model are arranged by
some parameters as ppdf and precip, tmn2m, tmx2m in the site.100 file.
The amount of total plant primary production will be allocated to each part of the plant.
In Century, the proportion of net primary production allocated into five components of
stands (leaves, fine roots, branches, stems and coarse roots). Some parameters that
govern this allocation are fcfrac, cerfor and wdlig. Parameter fcfrac indicates the value
of carbon from net primary production allocated to parts of stands due to characteristics
of the simulated species. Parameter cerfor shows the ratio of C to N, P, and S that
contained in the components of stands. Parameter cerfor used in this study only for
C/N ratio, while the value of P and S are not simulated. Lignin content determines the
speed of decomposition rate for litter from each piece stands. The parameters used are
wdlig (1) – wdlig (5) indicate the fraction of lignin in the components of stands.
Century enters parameter leaf dr as the rate of leaf death for each month from January
to December. India is a tropical country so it was assumed that the death rate of leaves
for each month is the same.
Simulation of Carbon Dynamics in Teak (Tectona grandis) Plantation Forest.
A Linear relationship (r2 = 0.915) was found between measured and simulated total
SOC values and a t-test was used to ascertain whether the difference between measured
and simulated values of total SOC was significant (Figure 2). The tests revealed that the
century model is reliable in simulating the carbon dynamics in teak plantations.
Fig. 2: Measured and Century Simulated Soil Organic Carbon Stocks

in Teak Plantations of Kerala
This scenario assumes that teak plantations were raised after clearing the natural
forests, adopting normal silvicultural thinning schedules that take place at each growth
stage. The century model simulated results of the dynamics of total SOC in different
carbon pools such as active, slow, and passive carbon during the establishment of the
equilibrium state of the teak plantation.
Results of the modelling using Century for Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) pool for teak
plantation in Kerala is presented in Figure 3.
As per simulation, the total SOC in teak plantation declined to about 50 percent from
the initial value of 6168 g cm–2 to 3371 g cm–2 in 30 years (Figure 2). Thereafter SOC
pool declined at a slower rate (43 gC m–2 yr–1) till 45 years of age (2717 g cm–2) and
reached a stable level by 80 years (2710 g cm–2). From the results, it is clear that the
conversion of natural forest to teak plantation resulted in significant loss of SOC. About
half of SOC was lost by conversion of natural forest to teak plantation. The loss of
SOC can be attributed to many reasons. The most important among these would be the
lower rate addition of organic matter in the soil. Raising of the teak plantation is about
half of SOC was lost by conversion of natural forest to teak plantation. The loss of SOC
can be attributed to many reasons. The most important among these would be the lower
rate addition of organic matter in the soil. Raising of the teak plantation is preceded by
the clearing of natural vegetation in an area. Generally, all vegetation including herbs
and shrubs are removed and cleared. Teak saplings are then planted at 2 × 2 m spacing.
Weeding is recommended during the first 1–3 years after establishment. Teak being an
early fast grower, canopy generally closes in about four years. Subsequently, thinning
is undertaken in order to prevent crowding (Koegh, 1987 and Kadambi, 1992). While
weeding keeps ground vegetation under check in initial years (Boley et al., 2009), the
closed canopy prevents it in later stages. In short, the miscellaneous vegetation under
teak plantation is controlled to a very low level through management intervention.
Fig. 3: Simulation and Measured Results of Century Model

for Individual SOM Pools at Teak Plantation, Kerala
This reduction in understory vegetation could also be due to excessive light reduction
and or allelopathic effect of teak leaf and root exudates on the germination of plants.
Healey and Gara (2003), reported considerable concentrations of phenolic acids in
teak foliage. Phenolics have been implicated in regeneration failure in many forest
types (de Moral et al., 1978; Li et al., 1993). Teak plantations have cover litter
production compared to natural forests (Janson et al., 1992). Disruption of organic
matter addition in the soil due to these reasons could be a major reason for lowering of
SOC under the teak plantation. The active fraction of soil organic carbon consists
mainly of microbial biomass and its metabolites (Paul and Voroney, 1980). Microbial
biomass is of particular importance, acting alternatively as a source or sink for
nutrients (Duxbury et al., 1989; Singh et al., 1989). The soil microbial biomass forms a
labile pool of organic carbon comprising 1–3% of total soil organic carbon (Jenkinson
and Ladd, 1981). In effect, the active carbon doubled by 80 in the year of establishment
of the plantation. During first two years, the above and belowground biomass are
low, resulting in decreased active carbon pool. Because of the beginning of the
establishment of teak plantations, the soil is exposed to the environment and erosion is
widespread. This would result in loss of topsoil along with the organic carbon in it.
However, as the plantations mature addition of litter to soil and its decomposition
increases soil organic matter. As teak grows, it provides cover to the soil. The slow
pool contains physically-protected forms of plant material and soil stabilized
microbial products; these pools have an intermediate turnover time of 20–50 years. In
the present study, slow carbon reduced from 3700 g C m –2 to 1224 g C m–2 (Figure 3)
at the age of 22, and finally stabilized at 920 g C m–2 at an age of 80 years. Passive
pools comprise the fraction of SOM, which is most resistant to mineralization and
decomposition. It includes physically and chemically stabilized SOC with a turnover
time of 400–2000 years. Hence, this forms an important part of the sequestered carbon
in soils. Passive carbons more or less remain stable. It decreased from 2150 g C m–2
to 1912 g C m–2 at the age of 50 years (Figure 3) and marginally declining to 1757 g
C m–2 at the end of 80 years. The initial rapid decline in soil carbon over a few weeks
represents the rapid decomposition of the active fraction and fine roots (Hendriksen and
Robinson, 1984). Then the rate decreases, reflecting carbon losses from the slow
fraction, and becomes asymptotic to the residual carbon in passive SOM. Stevenson
(1982) lists seven studies in tropical forests where carbon losses (which will include
fine root mass) range from 7–54% in one to three years.
REFERENCES
[1] Boley, J.D., Drew, A.P. and Andrus, R.E. (2009). Effects of Active Pasture, Teak
(Tectona grandis) and Mixed Native Plantations on Soil Chemistry in Costa Rica.
Forest-Ecology-and-Management, 22: 936–942.
[2] Byrne, C. (2011). Turning Land from an Emission Source to a Carbon Sink. In Fleeing
Vesuvius: Overcoming the Risks of Economic and Environmental Collapse, R. Douth-
waite and G. Fallon (eds.). New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada.
[3] Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B. and Mitchell, L.G. (2002). Biology Jakarta: Erlangga.
[4] Del Moral, R., Willis, R.J. and Ashton, D.H. (1978). Suppression of Coastal Heath
Vegetation by Eucaliptusbaxteri. Aust J. Bot, 26: 203–219.
[5] Duxbury, J.M., Smith, M.S. and Doran, J.W. (1989). Soil Organic Matter as a Source
and Sink of Plant Nutrients. Plenum Press. In Coleman, D.C. Oades. J.M. and Uehara,
G. (eds) Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in Tropical Ecnsystenis. Honolulu. Hawaii.
USA: University of Hawaii Press.
[6] Healey, S.P. and Gara, R.I. (2003). The Effect of a Teak (Tectona grandis) Plantation on
the Establishment of Native Species in an Abandoned Pasture in Costa Rica. For. Ecol.
Manag, 176: 497–507.
[7] Hendrickson, O.Q. and Robinson, J.B. (1984). Effects of Roots and Litter on Minerali-
zation Processes in Forest Soil. Plant Soil, 80: 391–405.
[8] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2000: The
Scientific Basis. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
[9] Jenkinson, D.S., Harkness, D.D., Vance, E.D., Adams, D.E. and Harrison, A.F. (1992).
Calculating Net Primary Production and Annual Input of Organic Matter to Soil from
the Amount and Radiocarbon Content of Soil Organic Matter. Soil Biol. Biochem, 24(4):
295.
[10] Kadambi, K. (1992). Silviculture and Management of Teak. Stephen F. Austin State
Univ. Bulletin 24, Wacogdoches, Texas, 137pp.
[11] Lal, R. (2001). Potential of Desertification Control to Sequester Carbon and Mitigate the
Greenhouse Effect. Clim. Change, 51: 35–72
[12] Li, H., Nishimura, H., Hassegawa, K. and Mizutani, J. (1993). Allelopathy of Sasa
Cernua, Journal of Chemical Ecology, 18: 1785–1796.
[13] Metherell, A.K., Harding, L.A., Cole, C.V. and Parton, W.J. (1993). Century Soil
Organic Matter Model Environment. Technical Documentation, Agroecosystem Version
4.0. Great Plains System Research Unit Technical Report No. 4. USDA-ARS, Fort
Collins, Colorado.
[14] Metherell, A.K., Harding, L.A., Cole, C.V. and Parton, W.J. (1993). Century Soil
Organic Matter Model Environment. Technical Documentation, Agroecosystem Version
4.0. Great Plains System Research Unit Technical Report No. 4. USDA-ARS, Fort
Collins, Colorado.
[15] Olsson, L., Warren, A. and Ardo, J. (2001). The Potential Benefits of Carbon Sink in
Dryland Agricultural Soils. Arid Lands Newsletter, 49.
[16] Parton, W.J., Schimel, D.S., Cole, C.V. and Ojima, D.S. (1987). Analysis of Factors
Controlling Soil Organic Matter Levels in Great Plain Grasslands. Soil Sci. Soc. Am J.,
51: 1173–1179.
[17] Paul, E.A. and Voroney, R.P. (1980). Nutrient and Energy Flows Through Soil Microbial
Biomass. Pages 215–237, In: Ellwood, D.C., Hedger, J.N., Latham, M.I., Lynch, J.M.
and Slater, J.H. (Editors) Contemporary Microbial Ecology, Academic Press, London.
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Biomass Acts as a Source of Plant Nutrients in Dry Tropical Forest and Savanna. Nmrre
338 (6215): 499–500.
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Komam, A.S., Li, C., Molina, J.A.E., Mueller, T., Parton, W.J., Thornley, J.H.M. and
Whitmore, A.P. (1997). A Comparison of the Performance of Nine Soil Organic Matter
Models Using Datasets from Seven Long-Term Experiments, Geodema, 81: 113–222.
[20] Stevenson, F.J. (1982). Humus Chemistry: Genesis, Composition Reactions. John Wiley
and Sons. Netherlands 443 pp.
Studies on the Impact of a Malathion
Insecticide on Certain Biochemical
Constituents of a Fish, Labeo rohita
K. Anusiya Devi, M. Lekeshmanaswamy* and C.A. Vasuki
Department of Zoology, Kongunadu Arts and Science College (Autonomous),
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT: Malathion is commonly used insecticide for agricultural and non-

agricultural purpose in India. Malathion is suited for the control of sucking and
chewing insects on fruits and vegetables and is also used to control mosquitoes,
flies, household insects, animal parasites (ectoparasites), head and body lice.
Malathion is found to be highly toxic to various non-targeted aquatic organisms
including fish. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of insecticide
Malathion on oxygen consumption and some biochemical characteristics (total
protein, carbohydrate and cholesterol in gills, liver, muscle and kidney) of the
fish, Labeo rohita. Toxicity evaluation tests were conducted to determine LC50
values. The 1/10th of 96 hrs, LC50 value was selected as sublethal concentrations.
The data shows that the rate of oxygen consumption was declined during all the
exposure periods. On the other hand, all biochemical parameters were found to
be decreased in all tissues on comparison with control. The changes and decrease
in protein level might also be due to inhibition of metabolizing enzymes by
administration of toxicants. The changes and decrease in carbohydrate level
might also be due to the stress induced by the insecticide as physiology of
organism with the help of corticosteroids. The changes and decrease in cholesterol
level might also be due to utilization of fatty deposits instead of glucose for
energy purpose. The results indicated the toxic nature of the insecticide Malathion.
Keywords: Malathion, Labeo rohita, Biochemical and Sublethal Study
INTRODUCTION
P esticides are widely used in modern agriculture to aid in the production of high-
quality food. However, some pesticides have the potential to cause serious health
and/or environmental damage. Repeated exposure to sub-lethal doses of some
pesticides can cause physiological and behavioural changes in fish that reduce popula-
tions, such as the abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease, and
256
Studies on the Impact of a Malathion Insecticide on Certain Biochemical… 257
increased failure to avoid predators (Helfrich, et al., 1996). Malathion is a non-syste-

mic, wide-spectrum organophosphate insecticide. It was one of the earliest organo-
phosphate insecticides developed (introduced in 1950). The extensive use of Malathion
on land may be washed into surface water and can adversely influence or kill the life of
aquatic organisms and other higher animals. Aquatic organisms, particularly fishes are
highly sensitive to Malathion (Ural et al., 2005). The biochemical changes occurring
in the body of the organisms give the first indication of stress. Several investigators
have reported a number of changes in biochemical parameters of aquatic organisms due
to pesticidal exposure (Remia et al., 2008; Patil and David, 2007 and Vijakumar et al.,
2009).

A commercial formulation of Malathion (Agrothion 57% EC 500 gl–1) was purchased
from a local market in Coimbatore and was used in this study. The bulk of sample of
fishes (Labeo rohita) ranging in weight from 3–4 g measuring 3–5 cm in length was
procured from Aliyar reservoir. They were carried to the laboratory in suitable
polythene bags containing oxygenated water. The fishes were acclimatized to the
laboratory conditions for two weeks in glass aquaria. The period of acclimation lasted
for 2 weeks. Batches of ten healthy fishes were exposed to different concentrations of
insecticide Malathion to calculate the median lethal concentration LC 50 value using
Probit Analysis Method (Finney, 1971). The fishes (four groups) were exposed to the
sublethal concentration (0.5 ppm) of Malathion for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h respectively.
Evaluation of Median Lethal Concentration (LC50)

The concentration of the pollutant at which 50 percent of the test animals die during a
specific test period of the concentration lethal to one half of the test population is
referred to as median lethal concentration (LC50) or median reference limit in aquatic
toxicology the traditional LC50 test is often used to measure the potential risk of a
chemicals (Jack de Bruijin et al., 1991).
Killing of Animals
The fish was caught very gently using a small dip net, one at a time with least distur-
bance. At the end of each exposure time, fishes were decapitated. Fishes were
dissected and stored at 4°C until the analyses were performed. The tissues (10 mg)
were homogenized in 80% methanol centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 15 min and the
clear supernatant was used for the analysis of different parameters.

Proteins can be expected to be involved in the compensatory mechanism of stressed
organisms. The result of the present study showed that when the fish were exposed to
malathion (0.5 ppm) the protein content was found to have decreased (Table 1). The
present study revealed the reduction in protein levels in the tissues of Labeo rohita by
following acute exposure of toxicant Malathion. Aruna Khare et al. (2000) observed
that the sublethal concentrations of Malathion showed a significant increase in total
protein content in the kidney of exposed fish, Clarias batrachus during the first week
and thereafter a gradual decrease in protein content was observed in the later periods of
exposure. A similar change was observed in Channa punctatus exposed to technical
grade Malathion by Agrhari et al. (2006). The reduction of protein may be due to
proteolysis and increased metabolism under toxicant stress (Remia et al., 2008).
Thirumurugan et al. (2011) revealed depletion in biochemical parameters like protein
and glycogen in Labeo rohita during various periods of exposure to Malathion.
The results of the present findings showed a significant decrease in carbohydrate
content in all the tissues studied (Table 2). The decrease in carbohydrates contents may
result in impairment of carbohydrate metabolism due to toxic effect (Logaswamy and
Remia, 2009). Arun Kumar and Jawahar Ali (2013) reported a decrease in carbohydrate
content in shrimp Streptocephalus dichotomus on exposure to a sublethal concentration
of Malathion and glyphosate. The results presented in Table 3 show a significant
decrease in cholesterol content in the studied tissues of fish Labeo rohita. Generally,
the decrease in cholesterol contents in all tissues was found to be increased with the
hours of exposure. The reduced cholesterol level may be due to the inhibition of
cholesterol biosynthesis in the liver or due to reduced absorption of dietary cholesterol
(Kanagaraj, 1993). Various authors studied the similar reduction of lipids in various
tissues. Gradual depletion in lipid content of liver and muscle, when exposed to
Malathion, was analyzed by Mishra et al., 2004. Generally, the present results indicated
the toxic nature of the insecticide Malathion.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The data of this work were presented as means ± standard deviations.
Table 1: Changes in the Protein Content in the Tissues of Labeo rohita on Short-term Exposure
Sample Exposure Periods
(mg/g wet tissue) Control 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 96 hrs
Gill % change 2.46 ± 0.38 1.98 ± 0.43 1.64 ± 0.04 1.32 ± 0.04 1.21 ± 0.08
Liver % change 1.76 ± 0.07 1.65 ± 0.07 1.18 ± 0.09 1.12 ± 0.11 0.98 ± 0.04
Kidney % change 2.01 ± 0.07 1.98 ± 0.04 1.47 ± 0.21 1.32 ± 0.10 1.00 ± 0.12
Muscle % change 3.60 ± 0.31 3.21 ± 0.16 3.04 ± 0.15 2.94 ± 0.06 2.71 ± 0.10
Values are mean ± SD, Figures in Parenthesis are percentage decrease over control.
Studies on the Impact of a Malathion Insecticide on Certain Biochemical… 259
Table 2: Changes in the Carbohydrate Content in the Tissues of

Labeo rohitaon Short-term Exposure
(mg/g wet
tissue) Control 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 96 hrs
Gill
% change 12.42 ± 0.09 9.58 ± 0.05 7.84 ± 0.41 6.74 ± 0.37 4.98 ± 0.28
Liver
% change 18.62 ± 0.08 15.12 ± 0.22 11.42 ± 0.31 11.20 ± 0.24 10.45 ± 0.33
Kidney
% change 31.00 ± 4.03 26.42 ± 0.27 20.00 ± 3.27 12.40 ± 0.29 10.82 ± 0.13
Muscle
% change 30.41 ± 0.79 24.58 ± 0.45 19.68 ± 0.39 15.54 ± 0.29 13.42 ± 0.25
Table 3: Changes in the Lipid Content in the Tissues of

Labeo rohitaon Short-term Exposure
(mg/g wet tissue) Control 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 96 hrs
Gill
% change 21.54 ± 0.35 15.38 ± 0.38 10.25 ± 0.36 9.40 ± 0.21 7.54 ± 0.39
Liver
% change 20.05 ± 2.13 16.45 ± 0.25 16.12 ± 0.17 14.00 ± 0.69 13.14 ± 0.22
Kidney
% change 37.12 ± 0.42 31.00 ± 3.45 26.24 ± 0.38 19.50 ± 0.37 11.00 ± 0.57
Muscle
% change 64.65 ± 0.20 56.75 ± 0.36 41.00 ± 4.53 34.10 ± 3.97 25.45 ± 0.37
SUMMARY
There is an alteration in biochemical reserves of gill, liver, kidney and muscle of the
freshwater fish, Labeo rohita. Depletion of Protein, Carbohydrate and Lipid occur after
pesticidal exposure shows a greater tendency for accumulation of pesticide Malathion
in the body of the freshwater fish, Labeo rohita.
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S ECTION 4
Selected Abstracts
Climate Change and Impact Assessment
Jagmohan Sharma
Water Resources Department, Bengaluru, Karnataka
W e are well into the world warmer by about 1°C compared to the preindustrial
times. Anthropogenic activities are a major cause of this warming, and the
influence of warming on the Earth’s climate system as well as other natural and man-
made systems is visible (IPCC, 2014). An earlier study on climate change has reported
the impact of anthropogenic climate change on global biodiversity indicating that, 82%
of the 94 ecological processes considered (32 terrestrial and 31 each for marine and
freshwater ecosystems) have already been impacted. It was reported that the impacts
“go beyond well-established shifts in species ranges and changes to phenology and
population dynamics to include disruptions that scale from the gene to the ecosystem”.
The Paris Agreement (2015) under the Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UN FCCC) articulates the need for limiting the impacts of climate change by making
efforts to hold the global warming below 2°C. Assuming full implementation of the
Paris Agreement, information about the impacts of warming up to 2°C is necessary to
build our preparedness to deal with the escalating risks.
Climate projection models and sectoral impact models are used to understand the likely
future climate and the type and magnitude of its impact on the natural (rivers, forests,
etc.) and semi-natural (agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, etc.) systems,
developmental infrastructure, and the society as a whole. High capability and complex
computer-based models are now available for assessment of climate change impacts. In
order to enhance the consistency of impact data by coordinating the model-based
assessment efforts, global synergistic platforms such as CMIP5 (Coupled Model
Intercomparison Project) for providing future climate projection data and ISI-MIP
(Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project) for projecting the impacts of
climate change across sectors and Ag-MIP (Agriculture Model Intercomparison and
Improvement Project) for impact assessment in agriculture sector are available.
Reliable impact assessments and consistency in the climate change impact data is vital
for decision-making by governments. The institutional capability for climate change
impact assessment in different sectors is limited in India. Collaborative working can
help in developing reliable assessments at national and sub-national levels.
Keywords: Climate Change, Impact Assessment, Climate Projection Models, Sectoral
Impact Models
261
Effects of Water-Stress on Growth and
Physicochemical Changes in Onion
(Allium cepa L.)
Pritee Singh1 and Jai Gopal2
1ICAR—Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka
2ICAR—Directorate of Onion and Garlic Research,
Rajgurunagar, Pune, Maharashtra
D rought, one of the environmental stresses, is the most significant factor restricting
production of major crops throughout the world. Being a shallow rooted crop,
drought causes serious problems in onion production. A pot experiment was carried
out in the greenhouse to evaluate the response of two contrasting onion genotypes
during the bulbing stage. Water stress was imposed to both the genotypes for thirty
days after transplanting to pots. Desired stress levels were achieved gradually by the
gravimetric approach. Plants were maintained at five different levels of stresses that
are 100%, 80%, 60%, 40% and 20%. For each treatment, the following parameters
were analysed and compared: fresh weight, dry weight, relative water content,
chlorophyll content, lipid peroxidation, membrane stability and antioxidant activities.
Imposition of water stress significantly reduced membrane stability, relative water
content and total chlorophyll and carotenoid content in both the cultivars. Oxidative
stress was measured in terms of increased lipid peroxidation under water deficit
stress, especially in susceptible cultivars. Radical scavenging ability was enhanced in
response to the water restriction as compared to the control. The research findings
indicated that chlorophyll content, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant activities showed
differences between resistant and susceptible genotypes. To differentiate the responses
to varying level of soil moisture stress, canopy temperature was also captured by the
thermal imager. The imager was operated in the wavebands 8–14 µm with a thermal
resolution of 0.01°C. Images clearly indicated that the tolerant type could keep its
canopy cooler relative to the susceptible one. Thus, these attributes can be used as
screening tool for drought tolerance in onion.
Keywords: Onion, Drought, Lipid Peroxidation, Membrane Stability, Thermal
Imaging
262
Assessment of Impact of Climate Change
on Vector-Borne Diseases in India
Neera Kapoor
Department of Life Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
A s human health is greatly influenced by dynamics of earth’s climate change, its

changing pattern has brought more dire consequences than expected on human
lives. The objectives of the study were to determine transmission windows of Malaria
and Dengue in terms of climate and socio-economic parameters, GIS-based outputs
indicating the extent of disease spread under current conditions and based on climate
change. Monthly temperature, RH and rainfall data (January 1961 to December 1990)
extracted from PRECIS (Providing Regional Climate for Impact Studies) were used
as a baseline. Projected scenario (A2 scenario) of PRECIS for the year 2071, 2081,
2091 and 2100 were used for future projection. For the development of Malaria
parasite in the mosquito, the temperature of 18C and 33C and RH of 55–90% were
taken as lower and upper limits. For Dengue the temperature limit was 12C–40C.
Maps of monthly open Transmission Windows (TWs) for Malaria were prepared for
baseline and projected scenario. Based on the number of months TW is open, pixels
were grouped into 5 classes i.e. class-1 closed for 12 months, class 2 open for 1–3
months, class-3 open for 4–6 months, class 4 open for 7–9 months and class 5 open for
10–12 months. The increase of TW in northern states and N-E states by 1–3 months
and reduction of TW in Orissa, AP and TN is expected by the year 2080. In 3–9
months, TW open categories, an appreciable increase in months of TWs is expected
to lead towards stable Malaria. In the baseline, 128 pixels showed no transmission
which may reduce to 90 pixels by 2091. Baseline TWs in 10–12 months are likely to
be reduced by the year 2091. Increase towards the stability of transmission of Malaria
is expected. The increase in transmission windows towards hilly area is predicted.
The increase in ‘no transmission’ in high desert districts is predicted. Climate change
is affecting health in general and would influence the spatial and temporal distribution
of Vector-Borne Diseases (VBDs). Major VBDs are already endemic in most parts of
India.
Keywords: Climate Change, Vector-Borne Disease, Transmission Dynamics
263
A Comparative Study on the Air
Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI)
of Plants at Various Sites as
an Indicator of Air Pollution
Merin Johny and Jisha Jacob*
Department of Zoology, Nirmala College, Muvattupuzha, Kerala
S creening of plants for their sensitivity or tolerance level to air pollutants is

important because the sensitive plants can serve as bioindicator and the tolerant
plants act as a sink for controlling air pollution in urban and industrial areas. In order
to evaluate the susceptibility level of plants to air pollutants, four parameters namely
ascorbic acid, chlorophyll, relative water content and leaf extract pH were determined
and computed together in a formulation signifying the Air Pollution Tolerance Index
(APTI) of plants. Air Pollution Tolerance Index is used to select plant species tolerant
to air pollution. Five common trees were selected for this study, namely: Ailanthus
triphysa, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Macaranga peltata, Mangifera indica and Tectona
grandis. Five sample sites were selected, among which four were at the roadside and
one was near a quarry site. The samples were collected during summer and monsoon
season. Among the five trees, Mangifera indica and Macaranga peltata had higher
APTI value compared to other trees. The other trees Ailanthus triphysa, Artocarpus
heterophyllus and Tectona grandis can be considered as sensitive species as they have
a lower APTI value in sample sites than control site. APTI value was higher during the
rainy season than summer. The study also concluded that APTI value is dependent on
the traffic density. As traffic density increased the APTI value decreased. Both these
tolerant and sensitive species can be considered as bioindicators of pollution and can
be used to reduce the effect of pollution.
Keywords: APTI, Bioindicator, Air Pollution
264
Environmental Pollution and
Monitoring in East Antarctica
Pawan Kumar Bharti
Antarctica Laboratory, R&D Division, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi
L arsemann Hills is an ice-free coastal oasis in east Antarctica with exposed rock
and low rolling hills and contains hundreds of freshwater lakes of varying sizes,
depth and biodiversity. An environmental study was conducted at Larsemann Hills to
evaluate the ambient air quality, lake and sea water quality, soil and sediment
characteristics, noise level, solid waste generation, handling and disposal practices,
etc. Geographically, the core study area (Bharti Island) is situated on Latitude 69°24′
00.0′′ S and 76°10′ 00.0′′ E on the southern part of the Earth. Air, water, soil and
sediment samples were collected from various locations of different islands/peninsulas
like Bharti Island, Fisher Island, McLeod Island, Broknes peninsula and Stornes
peninsula. This assessment and monitoring work was carried out to formulate a
strategy for the conservation of natural resources of Antarctica continent. The aim of
this study was to assess the general characteristics, metal content, pesticide, radiation
contamination and bacteriological analysis of water, soil and sediment. The air quality
of different islands was also studied to assess the level of particulate matter, oxides of
nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and volatile compounds in air. The
present work was aimed towards developing baseline data for the local environmental
settings and to evaluate the impacts of various activities on the environmental
components during the construction work of third Indian station, ‘Bharti’ in east
Antarctica.
Keywords: Antarctica, Environmental Monitoring, Water Quality, Environmental
Components
265
Vulnerability of Food Security
to Climate Variability
Bhargavi Nagendra
Public Affairs Centre, Bommasandra Jigani Link Road, Jigani, Bengaluru, Karnataka
F ood Security Climate Vulnerability Index (FSVCI) is a tool, to understand the

relative vulnerability of food security to climate change of marginal farmers at a
community level. There was a pressing need for a baseline study of the food security
of these marginal farmers. Collecting the required data in the data-scarce region, aids
in initiating appropriate adaptation actions in the future. Data regarding the impact of
climate variability on availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability of food were
collected using the most relevant indicators. The indicators were aggregated using the
composite index, allowing for a comparison of relative vulnerabilities. Frequent studies
are carried out on the impact of climate change on crop production but this study
provides a multidimensional analysis of the vulnerability of food security. This paper
takes into account the direct and indirect impacts of climate variability. Vulnerability
assessment was carried out in Dodderi Gram Panchayat (GP), Madhugiri Taluka. Fifty
households were sampled from eight villages of Dodderi Gram Panchayat. Overall
index value suggests that Dodderi village is very vulnerable to climate variability.
This particular approach and index can be used in the future to assess the baseline
vulnerability at sub-national levels.
Keywords: Food Security, Climate Change, Vulnerability, Adaptation, Livelihood
266
Ecological Research on Soil Carbon
Storage in Karnataka
Sumanta Bagchi*, H.C. Manjunatha and Karthik Murthy
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka
C limate change refers to directional shifts in the distribution of weather patterns

across different regions of the Earth. These include changes in temperature,
precipitation, wind flow and other factors governing overall climate of any region.
Changes in the global Carbon cycle and the global hydrological cycle are two inter-
related aspects of climate change. The Carbon cycle, due to increased atmospheric
concentrations of the radiatively active CO2 gas, is of particularly high importance in
the global effort to mitigate climate change. India, as part of the UNFCCC, is a major
player in this global effort. One key aspect of climate mitigation and adaptation is C
sequestration. Since soils are the largest pool of stored C, it is important to investigate
options for soil C-sequestration.
Status and stability of soil C is determined by land use but is constrained within
biophysical conditions determined by precipitation, altitude, and other features. The
present study assessed the status of soil C and related variables (soil N, N-minerali-
zation rates, total organic matter, and soil texture) across key land use categories in
Karnataka state. The report highlighted the trends on how soil C, and related
parameters, varied with altitude (hills to plains), precipitation (wet to dry) and soil
texture (sandy, loamy, etc.). The study also reported trends in how soil C varied with
land use (primary forest, secondary or disturbed forest, agricultural and forestry
plantations, agriculture, and grazing lands). Overall, total soil C and soil organic matter
were higher in the primary forest than other land use. But, other land use, especially
grazing lands, was also revealed high levels of ecosystem functions and services (N-
mineralization, etc.). These data can provide a baseline for comparing different land use
and help remove gaps in knowledge over the status of soils and their intended roles in
climate mitigation. These data also offer ways to test scientific hypotheses over the
causal interactions between independent factors and how they collectively determine
the degree to which soils can sequester C. Differentiating alternative hypotheses could
offer a platform to influence policies that can promote stability of soil C pools.
Keywords: Soil Carbon, Land Use, C Sequestration, Biophysical Conditions
267
A Baseline Study on the Impacts of
Climate Change on Nesting Sea Turtles
of Honnavar Forest Division
Gayathri Venkataramanan*, M. Muralidharan,
Kartik Shanker and Naveen Namboothri
Dakshin Foundation, Byatarayanapura, Indra Nagar, Park View Layout,
T he 65 Km coast of Honnavar forest division is a sporadic nesting site for Olive

ridley sea turtles. Seven nesting beaches were identified namely Gangavali,
Dhareshwara, Haldipur, Kasarkod, Talmakki, Bailoor (Bhatkal) and Bengre (Bhatkal).
Since 1984, sea turtle conservation activities and hatcheries management were carried
out by the Forest Department and over 80,852 eggs have been collected from the
three ranges Honnavar, Manki and Kumta of which 35,579 hatchlings were released.
The average hatchling success rate was 44% and average clutch size was 106 and a
maximum clutch observed was 175. The nesting season begins as early as October
and lasts till April, peaks from December– February. Nesting frequency was observed
in the order of Honnavar>Kumta>Manki. Average nesting intensity was estimated as
2.88. The nesting density of Honnavar region was estimated to be 0.99 nests/km/year.
During January–June 2016, a baseline study was conducted to assess the impact of
climate change on the turtles intensively in three beaches namely, Honnavar, Manki
and Haldipur. The beach width measured from the Low Tide Line (LTL) till the
Vegetation Line (VL) and gradually decreased as the monsoon advanced. During the
survey, ten turtle mortalities were recorded measuring over 60 cm. Turtle carcasses of
DT1, DT3, DT6 and DT7 were identified as female and DT9 as a male turtle. DT1
found on Manki was a gravid female and had a deep cut above the rear flipper,
exposing several eggs. The incubation temperature was measured using HOBO
pendant Data logger with an accuracy of ± 0.53°C, kept at nest depth adjacent to nest.
In Kasarkod, Haldipur and Manki with an incubation temperature of 31°C in January,
31–32°C in February and 32°C in March, all the hatchlings emerged from nests
(T84–T91; 8 nests) were predicted to be female. Studies showed a correlation between
the AT and the sand temperature. A prediction model was used to understand trends in
future sand temperature. Meteorological AT data were obtained from the Karnataka
268
State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre and the average air temperature for Honnavar
was 28°C. AT and the sand temperature were correlated using the regression model
(Pearson correlation value = 47.3) before subjecting it to further analysis. Linear
regression model was used to find the variation of air temperature based on the
depended variable-sand temperature. Sand temperature is directly proportional to the
AT (r2 value = 0.213, P < 0.0001). The predicted sand temperature in 2046–2065
would be 32.03–32.34°C and 2081–2100 would be 32.03–32.86°C.
Keywords: Climate Change, Nesting Sites, Hatchling Rate, Sand Temperature
269
Does Floristic Structure and Composition
Change with Climate Change? A Case
Study from the Tropical Wet Evergreen
Forests of Central Western Ghats
B.N. Sathish*, Syam Viswanath, C.G. Kushalappa,
M.N. Ramesh and M.L. Karthik
College of Forestry, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences,
Ponnampet, Karnataka
T he present study was carried out in the two permanent preservation plots located
in tropical wet evergreen forests of Central Western Ghats. The main objective
of the study was to explore the changes in floristic structure and composition in the
evergreen forests by using the long-term data from permanent preservation plots.
Findings from the present study, clearly indicated that the floristic structure and
composition was changing over time i.e. richness of species decreased from 69 to 63
(1937 to 2008) in permanent preservation plot in Makutta and 74 to 67 (1939–1954)
in permanent preservation plot in Malemane and again the richness increased in 2008.
Similarly, the richness of endemic and threatened species had also changed over time
scale. Girth class distribution of stems and species composition of the stands had also
changed over time scale. It was also noted that some deciduous species were coming
up at the evergreen forests. This change could be attributed to the change in the
microclimatic condition. Hence, the study was very important to take conservative
steps to minimise such unprecedented changes in the fragile ecosystems for the future.
Keywords: Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests, Permanent Preservation Plots, Floristic
Composition
270
Comprehensive Documentation
Climate-Termites, ITK Indian Context
G.K. Mahapatro* and Debajyoti Chatterjee
Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
I ndigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) refers to the age-old collection of percep-

tions and application of locally available knowledge which passes on from genera-
tion to generation. In India, climate change is closely associated with termite life
cycle, thus holds good importance in the life of different aborigines who use them in
their livelihood.
In the present research communication, a comprehensive documentation has been done.
A map has been constructed based on different ITKs reported relevant to termites vis-
a-vis climate change/interference. The occurrence of termite mounds and their height
helps the farmers in forest areas to select land for cultivating tuber and seed crops. In
many states like Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan, the appearance of termite serves as
an indicator of rainfall and good climate. Swarming of termites is deeply related to a
special climatic condition where the heating unit raises up to an optimum level. Many
tribal communities use termite-alates as food (in Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh,
North Eastern states). Agricultural practices also see necessary modification with
respect to practised ITKs on termite management. Upland rice suffers termite problem,
shifting to short duration varieties of crops thus necessitates shifting the cultivation in
uplands which are more prone to vagaries of weather and climate. In Indo-Gangetic
plain, late sown wheat varieties suffer more termite problem, which is, again influenced
by climate change. Despite such importance, ITKs in termite management remain
lesser known aspect and yet to be scientifically validated. In the present era of green
management of pests with environment safety, this study is an attempt to lay emphasis
on a compilation of ITKs related to termites and their management in the light of
climate-interference.
Keywords: Aborigines, Alates, Swarming, Termite Mound, Weather
271
Urbanisation and Its Effects on Lizards:
A Study from a Climate
Change Perspective
Maria Thaker* and Madhura Amdekar
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka
A s ectotherms, lizards are dependent on suitable environmental temperatures for

critical physiological processes. Altered and unpredictable patterns of temperature
as well as precipitation, caused by climate change, can adversely affect their distri-
bution and survival. The effects of climate change are compounded by urbanisation,
which leads to higher temperatures in the city as compared to less developed surround-
ing areas (i.e. urban heat island effect).
With support of a research grant from EMPRI, we extensively surveyed the city of
Bangalore and its neighbouring areas for the presence, distribution and microhabitat
preferences of two agamid lizards, Indian Rock agama (Psammophilus dorsalis) and
the common garden lizard (Calotes versicolor), in order to understand the impact of
urbanization on these lizards. Using a combination of data on current distribution
(measured in the field) and of physiological thermal limits (measured in the laboratory),
we determined environmental niche requirements and projected future distribution
patterns under prevalent climate models. Microhabitat preferences indicated that the
presence of boulders, low vegetation height and suitable soil compaction were
important determinants of the high density of lizards. Urban parks that are highly
vegetated and lack large boulders and bare soil were not suitable habitats for these
species. The temperature tolerance limits of lizards from within the city and those from
rural areas differed but were still within the predicted environmental temperature range
under prevalent climate change scenarios. Hence at this point, rapid habitat destruction
from urbanisation is a more pressing concern for the survival of agamid lizards and not
global warming. A concerted effort to provide suitable microhabitats that are well
connected will significantly improve the survival probability of this important
mesopredator reptile species in and around the city of Bangalore.
Keywords: Urbanisation, Lizard, Distribution, Physiological Thermal Limits, Density
272
Overview of Mitigation and Adaptation
Policies in India’s INDCs
S.S. Krishnan
Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy, Bengaluru, Karnataka
I ndia’s priority of rural development and poverty alleviation necessitates rapid

economic development. It has been recognised that sustainable and inclusive
development is key to this goal. In addition, energy access and affordability, rural
livelihoods, food, water and energy security are cornerstones of India and are planning
process at the national and state levels. India is vulnerable to climate change due to the
potential impacts on agriculture, forests, coastal zones, biodiversity and the energy
supply and distribution infrastructure. This paper will provide an overview of the
various mitigation and adaptation policies in India in the context of the INDCs,
underscoring the urgent need to have robust assessment and analyses leading to robust
policy implementation with credible M&V protocols.
Keywords: Sustainable and Inclusive Development, Energy Access, Affordability
273
Enteric Methane Emission from Indian
Livestock: Quantification and Mitigation
P.K. Malik*, A.P. Kolte, K.T. Poornachandra and R. Bhatta
ICAR—National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bengaluru, Karnataka
R umen methanogenesis is an obligatory mechanism to remove the fermentation

fatal by-products such as H2 and CO2 away from the rumen, but at the same time,
this hydrogenotrophic pathway due to the energy loss (55.6 MJ/kg) in the form of
methane appears wasteful process. Thus, there is an urgent need to ameliorate enteric
methane emission to significant and achievable levels to protect the environment from
the ubiquitous threat of global warming and conserve biological energy for the use of
host animals. The evaluation of any approach for efficacy in reducing the methane
emission is extremely difficult until the previous emission at farm/region/national
level is not known. There is a huge disparity in various estimates for predicting annual
enteric methane emission from Indian livestock. Most of the earlier estimates are based
on IPCC tier systems to predict methane emission using variables such as dry matter
intake and methane emission coefficients. IPCC tier system revealed higher enteric
methane emission from Indian livestock.
NIANP has developed an inventory for estimating the state wise enteric methane
emission from Indian livestock and also identified the hotspots where urgent intervene-
tions are required for minimising the emission at regional and National levels. Our
estimate revealed comparatively less enteric than that predicted by other agencies
using coefficients based methodologies. Many ameliorative approaches have been
developed and evaluated both in vitro and in vivo for methane reduction efficiency.
Results from the studies conducted in a series revealed 20–25% reduction in enteric
methane emission on the incorporation of plant secondary metabolites containing
phyto-sources in animal’s diet at the appropriate level.
Keywords: Enteric Methane Emission, Inventory, Methane Reduction Efficiency, Plant
Secondary Metabolites
274
Plants bioactive Compounds in
Counteracting Oxidative Stress
in Poultry Birds
Adarshvijay*, K.T. Poornachandra, H.B. Veeresh,
A. Geethika and Minu R. Varghese
Animal Nutrition Division, ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh
P lant Secondary Metabolites (PSM) or plant bioactive compounds are specialised

compounds that do not aid in the growth and development of plants directly but
are required for them to survive in its environment. Four major classes of these plant
secondary metabolites are alkaloids, glycosides, phenolics and terpenoids. In recent
times, these PSMs are gaining attention due to their beneficial effects especially in
counteracting oxidative stress. The imbalance of pro-oxidants and the endogenous
antioxidant mechanisms in living tissues leads to uncontrolled oxidative damage to
cellular components, known as oxidative stress which is detrimental to the body
because it can cause damage to the cell constituents thus leading to tissue damage. It
can also occur due to dietary factors, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids or oxidised
fatty acids representing an oxidative burden to the body through the formation of lipid
peroxidation products and also increased consumption of endogenous antioxidants, in
particularly vitamin E. In order to counteract this stress various plant secondary
metabolites are incorporated in poultry ration. Polyphenolic compounds are one among
the plant secondary metabolites that occur in almost all plants, but their distribution at
the tissue level and the cellular or subcellular level is not uniform. Recent reports
suggest that incorporating these polyphenols can counteract oxidative stress either by
increasing plasma and liver concentrations of alpha-tocopherol and directly scavenge
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) or Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS) by induction of
vitagenes, thereby improving gut health, reduced translocation of pro-inflammatory
and pro-oxidative stimuli into the circulation.
Keywords: Plant Bioactive Compounds, Polyphenols, Vitagenes, ROS, RNS
275
Probiotics for Combating Production
and Health Stress in Animals
N. Aderao Ganesh*, Adarshvijay, A. Geethika and A.M. Khan
Division of Animal Nutrition, ICAR—Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh
P robiotics are being used significantly over the last few decades as a substitute for
antibiotics due to the beneficial effects of improved health status, growth rate, feed
conversion efficiency, reduced pathogenic microbial burden and reduction in morbidity
and mortality. WHO/FAO have recently defined ‘Probiotics’ as the live microorganisms
which when administered regularly inadequate amount confers a health benefit on the
host. Although the mechanisms of probiotics action are not well defined but the activity
to achieve their role include alteration in intestinal flora, enhancement of growth of
non-pathogenic bacteria, suppressing the growth of intestinal pathogens, forming anti-
microbial compounds like lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide and bacteriocins, enhancing
digestion and utilisation of nutrients. All these beneficial effects are due to advanta-
geous alteration of GI tract microbial ecosystem. Probiotics which shows considerable
health benefits both on humans and animals have reduced the use of antibiotics since
the use of later as feed additive is being responsible for major risk i.e. development of
antimicrobial resistance. Recent studies carried out by different authors indicates that
probiotics feeding in animals will be a very good strategy to reduce the physiological
stress (i.e. weaning), production stress (i.e. acidosis due to increased concentrate
feeding for higher production) on animals and to reduce production cost, it also contri-
butes to sustainable livestock industry by green consumerism. So, using probiotics as a
feed additive is an easy approach for achieving higher animal production and improve-
ing animal health leading to increased profit of livestock farmers.
Keywords: Probiotics, Bacteriocins, Antimicrobial Resistance, Green Consumerism
276
Soil-Plant-Animal Health in
Changing Climate Situation
H.B. Veeresh*, K.T. Poornachandra, R. Dhinesh Kumar,
Animal Nutrition Division, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal, Haryana
T here are many opportunities to improve the quality of agricultural soils, leading
to higher productivity and better response. Maintaining soil quality is one area
with high potential for addressing both mitigation and adaptation needs. There are
efforts to reduce the global warming potential of agriculture by improving nitrogen-
use efficiency and increasing carbon storage in soil and plants. Agricultural practices
will have to become more efficient in order to reduce the rate of greenhouse gas
emissions in meeting rapidly raising future food needs. Agriculture is one of the most
vulnerable sectors to climate variability, particularly in dry land, rain-fed areas. Long-
term risks to agriculture from climate change are due to extreme weather events
combined with an acceleration of warming, glacier retreat sea-level rise, regional
changes in mean spring and summer precipitation and increased risk of land degrade-
ation. Crop loss from agricultural pests significantly reduces the crop yields. Promoting
water conservation in lowland irrigation systems as an adaptation measure requires
careful attention to reducing net greenhouse gas emissions. In water-scarce regions,
due to reduced fresh water supplies, irrigated agricultural lands would be compelled
to utilise marginal water sources, switch cropping patterns towards salt-tolerant crops,
conserve water through drip irrigation system and land-based practices that reduce the
volume of poor quality water applied to arable land. Effective management in the
livestock sector in the changing climate scenario is linked to sustainable land manage-
ment. Adaptation strategies in the livestock sector include those that reduce heat stress,
such as genetic modification, natural and manmade shade structures, and modified
feeding strategies. Therefore, proper steps should be taken to restore the climatic
conditions towards normalcy thereby protecting soil-plant-animal health.
Keywords: Animal, Soil, Adaptation, Modification
277
Enhancing Livestock Fertility under
Climate Change Scenario
Sukanta Mondal*, A. Mor, I.J. Reddy, S. Nandi,
P.S.P. Gupta and A. Mishra
ICAR—National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology,
Adugodi, Bengaluru, Karnataka
C limate change has been recognised as the foremost environmental problem of the
twenty-first century and has far-reaching consequences for livestock production,
especially in vulnerable parts of the world. Global climate change, with predicted
1.5–5.8°C increases in temperatures by 2100 is likely to cause heat stress which is a
threat to animal productivity. Temperature and humidity stress can have significant
impacts on animal growth, milk production, estrus expression, oocyte maturation,
fertilisation and embryo development. Decreased development of oocytes has been
found in cows, sheep and buffaloes which could be caused by heat shock-induced
apoptosis and alterations of the chromatin and spindle microtubules. Exposure to heat
(39.5–41°C) during the first 48 hr of IVC of bovine zygotes significantly reduced the
rate of development to the 8-cell stage at 72 hr of IVC and morular/blastocyst stage at
144 hr of Individually Ventilated Cages (IVC). Early embryos (<8– to 16–cell stage)
were more susceptible to heat shock because these embryos are transcriptionally
quiescent and are unable to produce protective molecules such as Heat Shock Protein
70 (HSP70) which may enable embryos to tolerate the stress of an abnormal uterine
environment. The elevated temperature for the first 12 hr of maturation reduced de
novo protein synthesis in bovine oocytes by approximately 40% as compared to
controls. The unfavourable effects of heat stress can be mitigated by enhancing thermo-
tolerance of oocytes and embryos, using genetic approaches, modifications in physical
environment and in nutrition, changes in livestock practices such as diversification and
integration of pasture management, livestock and crop production.
Keywords: Climate Change, Heat Stress, Livestock, Heat Shock Protein, Thermo-
Tolerance
278
Agroforestry as a Climate Change
Mitigation and Adaptation
Strategy for Karnataka
Indu K. Murthy*, M.H. Swaminath, H.B. Darshan,
G.T. Hegde and Shridhar Patgar
Aranya Climate Change Services, Bengaluru, Karnataka
C limate change is a global environmental and developmental problem. There are

several ways to reduce emissions and enhance carbon accumulation of biomass.
Agroforestry is one such option that provides a unique opportunity to combine the
twin objectives of climate change adaptation and mitigation. In the context of climate
variability and long-term climate change projected for the state of Karnataka, there is
a need for better understanding of the existing agroforestry systems in Karnataka. A
study was conducted with the following objectives: to document agroforestry systems
in four agro-climatic regions of Karnataka and the biodiversity of species in agro-
forestry systems, estimate the carbon mitigation potential of identified agroforestry
systems and assess the role of agroforestry in adaptation to climate variability and risks.
The study was conducted in four agro-climatic zones of Karnataka. Field ecological
and soil studies were conducted on selected farms to assess and estimate the bio-
diversity, biomass and carbon, considering farm as the unit of study. Further, socio-
economic studies were conducted to assess the patterns of adoption of agroforestry,
the reasons for adoption and the barriers to agroforestry. The study establishes that
agroforestry farms support significant biodiversity and that biomass and carbon are
significant across both bund and block plantations. The potential for expanding
agroforestry is limited by barriers such as availability of quality seedlings, water
availability and lack of awareness and markets. This study thus provides an evidence
base that agroforestry systems can sequester significant carbon thereby contributing
to climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Keywords: Agroforestry, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Carbon Sequestration, Adapta-
tion, Mitigation
279
Beat the Heat-Healthy Hospitals, Healthy
Planet How Hospitals can Contribute to a
Reduction in Global Warming
C.N. Shalini
Department of Community Medicine, M.S. Ramaiah Medical College,
P hilosophies connecting health to nature go back to the times of Charaka, Sushruta

and Hippocrates, where ideas stressed the importance of harmony with nature and
imitation of nature, to promote health. Over the past few decades, the practice of
medical care, particularly in large hospitals is energy and resource intensive enterprises,
in the process of advanced treatment. Procurement and use of resources, buildings,
transportation and waste disposal, substantially contribute to climate change while
inadvertently contributing to respiratory and other diseases. Health care enterprises
generate waste, which is toxic and hazardous to health such as persistent organic
pollutants (dioxins and furans) and heavy metals such as silver and mercury, etc., The
Stockholm Convention and the Minamata Convention are efforts to address these
environmental issues. In the interest of a liveable environment, it is the responsibility
of the health sector to take steps to reduce its carbon footprint in the form of creating
climate-friendly hospitals, the elements of which could be: to reduce hospital energy
consumption through efficiency and conservation measures, build “green” hospitals
that are responsive to local climate conditions, production of renewable energy onsite,
alternative fuels for hospital vehicles, provide sustainably grown local food for staff
and patients, waste management by composting, incineration and water conservation
by rainwater harvesting, avoid bottled water when safe alternatives exist.
Keywords: Hospitals, Medical Care, Global Warming, Conservation, Carbon
Footprint
280
Larval Source Management—Best Way
to Counter Climate Change Effects on
Mosquito-Borne Diseases
S.K. Ghosh*, S.N. Tiwari, U. Sreehari and V.P. Ojha
National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Bengaluru, Karnataka
M ost of the insect-borne diseases are governed by local ecological and climate-
logical conditions, and mosquitoes are one of them. In recent years, Larval
Source Management (LSM) has gained momentum for its possible role in controlling
the mosquito abundance at the larval stage. Now, Malaria elimination programme has
been launched in India, and LSM needs to be implemented for long term sustenance.
It is important to enumerate breeding diversities of all local vector species before
launching LSM. The basic structure of LSM lies within the framework of the
bioenvironmental control strategy. Among all the bio-control methods, larvivorous
fish is widely used. Based on this strategy the present work demonstrated the
effectiveness of fish-based Malaria control in Karnataka. Now, there is a need to
release fishes in all the potential breeding habitats so that it can play a supportive role
in the elimination programme. All such breeding habitats can be enumerated applying
digital systems. For the effective management of climate change on mosquito-borne
diseases, co-operation and support from the other departments are a pre-requisite to
achieving successful implementation.
Keywords: Larval Source Management, Mosquitoes, Malaria, Fish, Bio-Control
281
Feeding Value of Hydroponics
Green Fodder
Animal Nutrition Division, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal, Haryana
F or sustainable dairy farming quality, green fodder plays an important role in the
productive and reproductive performance of dairy animals. For sustainable dairy
farming quality, green fodder should be fed regularly to the animals. Non-availability
of land for fodder production and scarcity of water aggravates the constraints of the
sustainable dairy farming. So, in the current situation, using the unused and largely
available coastal area for fodder production will ease the pressure on animal feed
availability.
Hydroponics is defined as the cultivation of plants with water only without soil.
Hydroponics green fodders are known to be nutritionally superior to conventional
green fodders for animal feeding. This technology requires no soil and requires very
less water. Hydroponics green fodder has the potential health benefits as they are a
rich source of antioxidants in the form of β-carotene, vitamin C, E and related trace
minerals such as Selenium and Zinc. In addition, sprouted grains which are rich in
enzyme and are generally alkaline in nature improves the animal productivity by
neutralising acidic conditions. Further, it is a superior source of protein and other
nutrients. This method of producing green fodder has many benefits for the farmer,
such as low maintenance and less manpower requirement, round the year high-quality
green fodder supply and the feed is highly palatable and digestible. The conventionally
harvested green fodders consist of cut grass but the hydroponics feed consists of grass
along with grain and root. Thus hydroponics fodder production technology can be an
alternative to the conventional method of green fodder production.
Keywords: Hydroponics, Nutrient, Animal Feed, Sustainable Dairy Farming
282
Application of Green Technology
in Agricultural Sector, a Paradigm
over Combating the Global
Threat-Climate Change
B.N. Chaitanya1 and R. Asokan2
1Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka
2Division of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Hesaraghatta Lake (PO), Bengaluru, Karnataka
S everal pesticides include Ozone Depleting Chemicals (ODC’s), of which bromide

containing chemicals such as Methyl Bromide (MB), used as fumigation agent
against various agricultural pests pose a potential threat to the Ozone layer. Also,
application of some of the pesticides such as Organophosphates, Pyrethroids, Endo-
sulphon etc., harms beneficial organisms such as honeybees, butterflies and earth-
worms. The exploited application of these chemicals created innumerable deleterious
effects on human health and also on the environment with loss of biodiversity Upon the
forecast of global warming, there is a necessity of implementing Green Technology
(GT) viz. RNA interference (RNAi) for sustainable agriculture which facilitates sound
agro-ecology without imparting ill effects on nature.
RNAi, also termed as the reverse genetic tool is a sequence and species-specific gene
silencing technology elicited by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Off target minimised
unique dsRNA region is the gold standard for this technology. Target gene silencing
is prompted by the administration of custom designed dsRNA to the insect pests
through various methods like artificial diet, microinjection, plant transgenic, spray
formulations, etc. The efficacy of this technology is reliant on insect species, target
genes, mode of delivery, concentrations of dsRNA and frequency of application. We
silenced some of the genes and observed that the relative expression was proportional
to the concentration of dsRNA resulting in mortality. Implementation of this eco-
friendly technology aids in minimising the usage of chemically synthesised pesticides,
thus combating global climate change.
Keywords: Ozone Depleting Chemicals, Climate Change, Green Technology, RNAi
283
Solar-Powered Eco-Rickshaws and
Gadgets for Environment-
Friendly Lifestyle
Georgekutty Karianappally
Lifeway Solar Private Limited, Kochi, Kerala
E -bikes and E-rickshaws are already popular in seven states in India and will be the
mode of transport in the near future, as it is environment-friendly and economical.
Solar-powered three-wheelers were released in Kerala on August 15, 2016. The three-
wheeler has been conceptualised and assembled by Lifeway Solar Private Limited, a
Kochi-based enterprise owned by Georgekutty Karianappally. The three-wheeler has a
roof which is fitted with solar panels that are 1.5 metres long and 1 metre wide. The
vehicle can attain a speed of 40 Km and can run a minimum of 80 Km with a six-hour
charging from solar light. The solar roof can get charged while the vehicle is idle in the
stand. Promotion of solar auto rickshaw is with the vision to inculcate a culture among
people to use renewable energy for day-to-day use so as to reduce carbon dioxide/
monoxide emissions and thereby reducing the carbon footprint on the earth. This
project has been cleared by the Transport Commissioner of Kerala. Efforts are also
being done to launch e-bikes in Kerala by a company based in Delhi which has
obtained clearance from the Transport authorities. A number of innovations in solar
power products were made which includes Solar Poultry Incubator, Solar Cow Milking
Machine and Solar country Boat and now Solar Hybrid Rickshaws. We are associated
with conducting solar energy classes in schools, colleges and NGOs all over India.
We also impart training for Self Help Group (SHG) women to assemble and repair
gadgets like Solar Lanterns, Solar Poultry Incubators and Home lighting systems and
give guidance to individuals planning to power their home/office/factory/godown with
solar energy.
Keywords: Solar Energy, Eco-Rickshaw, Carbon Dioxide, Emission, Solar Gadgets
284
E-bikes for Reducing
Air Pollution in Cities
Mahesha Siddegowda*, Chiranth Shivakumar
and H.A. Harish Kumar
Green Wheel Ride, Mysuru, Karnataka
T he increase in India’s population and income levels has increased the demand for
mobility across the length and breadth of the country. The massive growth in
road transportation and an increase in the vehicular population have created serious
problems of congestion, poor air quality and a range of other problems which require
the development of alternatives to solve the issue of air pollution. E-bikes are
amongst the most sustainable modes of mobility which has zero dependence on fossil
fuels and zero emissions. In the current situation, where we are concerned about the
growing energy, carbon and environmental footprint of transport, it presents a
mitigation option that addresses all these concerns. Electric bikes are extremely
efficient and emit near zero emissions at the point of use. This could be considered a
positive development in most of the cities to battle poor urban air quality as the
contribution of transportation-related pollution is steadily increasing. E-bikes or
Electric bikes can be defined as two-wheeled vehicles equipped with a traditional
bicycle drivetrain but enhanced with an electric motor capable of propelling a bike as
fast as 25 Kmph. E-bikes are the most efficient and economical mode of transportation.
They are non-polluting and the battery can be charged from solar power also. The
following are some of the important features of e-bikes. E-bikes can be charged in
less than 3 hours and have a range of 60 Kms per charge. The cost of electricity to
charge the battery is less than 2 rupees. The rider can also pedal e-bike to increase the
range and achieve better physical fitness. Using lithium-ion battery technology is
environmentally friendlier than traditional lead acid battery packs. They also have
superior cycle life and occupy less space and are of light weight.
Keywords: E-bikes, Transportation, Urban Air Quality, Zero Emissions
285
Impacts of Climate Change on Vulnerable
Communities: A Case Study of Karnataka
M. Balasubramanian*¹, M. Deekshith¹,
M. Manjunatha² and O.K. Remadevi²
¹Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bengaluru, Karnataka
²Centre for Climate Change, Environmental Management and
Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), Bengaluru, Karnataka
V ulnerability to climate change differs significantly across regions, communities

and even households in many developing countries like India. Vulnerable
communities affected by climate change also face poverty, health disparities and other
social inequalities. At the global level, vulnerable communities are highly affected by
climate change through effects on food, water and income security. A case study was
conducted in Karnataka to assess the impact of climate change on vulnerable
communities. The study was based on household surveys in two villages in Karnataka.
The methodology is based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2014 frame-
work for assessing vulnerability to climate change. 122 households were surveyed
using structured questionnaires. This study pointed out that in both the study villages;
climate change has affected food production, water supply, health and income sources.
The details of parameters evaluated are discussed in the paper. It has also been found
that there is a lack of climate change adaption mechanism prevalent in both the
villages. There is a dire necessity to improve the equitable and efficient distribution of
resources to all the affected households.
Keywords: Climate Change, Vulnerable Communities, Assessment, Karnataka
286
People Participation in Climate Change:
Challenges and Scope with
Respect to India
H. Sree Krishna Bharadwaj
National Law School of India University, Nagarbhavi, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Email: [email protected]
T he ancient Indian Vedic philosophy identifies five basic natural elements as

panchmahabhut for stavan, meaning worship. These five basic elements are
water, earth, sun, air and sky. Environmental protection is seen as a fundamental duty
of every citizen of this country under Article 51-A (g) of our Constitution which
reads as follows: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve
the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have
compassion for living creatures”. Article 21 of the Indian Constitution states: ‘No
person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedures
established by law.’ The Supreme Court through various cases has guaranteed the right
to clean environment. The need for energy for various human activities ranging from
factories to cooking has been the cause of problems. While other problems include lack
of participation in green consumerism, illiteracy, ignorance and lack of understanding
over the effects of climate change in the long run.
The paper will explore and analyse the role of human values with respect to the
correlation between the right to clean environment and duty to protect the environment
along the lines of culture. Public engagement with respect to traditional values and
ethos will be inspected. Will self-enhancing values or duty based laws drive people
towards the path of greener world is a testable element.
Keywords: Environment Protection, Article 51(A), Clean Environment, Public
Engagement
287
A Low Carbon Scenario for India and
Its Implications for India’s Climate
Pledge and the Global Goal of
Limiting Warming to Safe Levels
Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka
I n this presentation, I would like to introduce a new energy security and climate
policy tool for India called India Energy Security Scenarios-2047 (IESS-2047)
tool. The IESS-2047 tool was developed by the erstwhile Planning Commission and
later refined by its successor NITI Aayog. A calculator is essentially a tool that can be
used to explore the implications of different levels of “effort” or ambitious targets
deemed feasible that can be made in selected sectors to move towards more energy
efficient outcomes and towards different levels of supply of alternative energy sources.
The tool further helps in assessing the implications of these “efforts” in terms of
GHG emissions, energy security, land requirements and budgetary implications. In this
presentation, we employ the tool to answer some of the crucial climate policy questions
for India. We explore an alternative energy and low carbon scenario for India up to
2047 in comparison to business as usual projections. We further explore the implication
of the low carbon scenario for meeting India’s INDC targets and India’s role in the
global goal of limiting warming to safe levels.
Keywords: Climate, GHG Emissions, IESS-2047, Planning Commission, NITI Aayog
288
Behavioural Insights for Scaling Up
Renewable Energy Technologies in India
Ulka Kelkar
Climate Change Mitigation and Development, Ashoka Trust for Research
in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Bengaluru, Karnataka
R enewable energy technologies offer tremendous potential to transition to sustain-

able energy pathways in Indian cities. Scaling up renewable energy technologies
is usually encouraged by incentives like subsidies to manufacturers and net metering
tariffs to consumers. But households do not always respond rationally to such
incentives. Instead, they try to make decisions regarding renewable energy based on
cost perceptions, liquidity constraints, technical complexity and policy uncertainty.
This paper investigates how fundamental biases in human decision-making affect the
adoption of renewable energy by urban Indian households.
This paper presents the findings of a household survey in Ramanagara, a small city in
southern India. It reveals significant penetration of solar thermal technology, but very
low penetration of rooftop solar photovoltaic due to regulatory uncertainty, high
capital costs, and information barriers among households and government agencies.
Instead of an energy ladder, households display energy stacking behaviour, with co-
existence of biomass-based fuels, fossil fuel-based electricity, and renewable energy.
This is because affordability is not the only determinant of fuel choice—access,
seasonality, convenience, and cultural factors also play roles. This is significant for
climate policy because the greenhouse gas mitigation impact of solar energy could be
less than anticipated. Moreover, growing urbanisation may reduce access to biomass
and increase fossil fuel use as a back-up.
Based on these behavioural insights, the paper presents policy recommendations to
maximise the adoption of renewable energy technologies in Indian cities.
Keywords: Biomass-Based Fuels, Fossil Fuel-Based Electricity, Renewable Energy
Technology, Solar Thermal Technology, Urban Indian Households
289
Green Algae (Anabaena flos-aquae)
Toxicity Study for Industrial Wastewater
Pollution in the Freshwater Systems
Jaswant Ray1, Amit Kumar2, Pawan K. Bharti3 and B.K. Aggarwal4
1Department of Zoology, Mewar University, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan
2Department of Toxicology, Institute for Industrial Research and Toxicology, Delhi NCR
3Society for Environment Health Awareness of Nutrition and Toxicology, Delhi
4Department of Zoology, SSN College, University of Delhi, Alipur, Delhi
T he present study is on the effects of industrial wastes (chemicals and pesticides) on

the yield and growth rate of green algae (Anabaena flos-aquae) from the
freshwater system. The industrial wastewater contains pesticides and chemical
formulations belonging to the various class and functional groups: organophosphate,
pyrethroid-based insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, arsenic, benzene, polymers, etc.
The toxicity endpoints of yield (EyC50: 0–72 h) and growth rate (ErC50: 0–72 h) of
Anabaena flos-aquae for industrial wastes (both pesticide and chemicals) were
determined statistically. The results pointed out that some pesticide and chemicals
exhibited higher toxicity to tested algal species, as compared to the corresponding
control group. These data thus stress the need for greater care and treatment of
wastewater which is to be disposed of water bodies, so as to avoid the effects and
contamination of freshwater systems and aquatic ecospecies.
Keywords: Industrial Chemicals, Pesticides, Freshwater, Pollutants, Toxicity,
Anabaena flos-aqua
290
Checklist of Butterflies Occurring in
Green Spaces of Bangalore City
Roshan D. Puranik, S. Sooraj, Deepak Naik, Chaturved Shet,
O.K. Remadevi, Ritu Kakkar, Saswati Mishra and K.H. Vinaya Kumar
Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI),
B angalore also known as the Garden City of India has a unique characteristic of
having many parks and gardens across the city. Since it is uniquely located on
the fringes of the Western and the Eastern Ghats of the southern peninsula, it is home
to multiple species of plants and experiences unique weather characteristics. Many
exotic flowering and fruiting plants were also planted in large areas in gardens and
avenues by the earlier rulers. Due to these special features, it is home to multiple
species of butterflies dependent on diverse host plants. The objective of this study was
to document the occurrence of butterflies in the green spaces of the city and make a
family-wisechecklist of their diversity. Forests, garden and open areas in Gandhi Krishi
Vignan Kendra Campus (GKVK), Indian Institute of Science Campus (IISc), Cubbon
Park, Lal Bagh Botanical Garden, Doresanipalya Forest Campus and at Bannerghatta
National Park and Biological Park were surveyed bimonthly during 2015–2016 to
document the diversity of butterflies. The butterflies were identified in the field itself
mainly by observing the wing colour and patterns. The photographs of most of the
butterflies were taken on site along with the natural habitat on which they were resting.
108 species of butterflies belonging to Hesperiidae (14), Papilionidae (10), Lycaenidae
(34), Pieridae (20), Riodinidae (1) and Nymphalidae (29) were documented. The list
of butterflies along with the photographs of important species is provided in the paper.
Keywords: Checklist, Butterflies, Green Spaces, Hesperidia, Papilionidae, Lycaenidae,
Pieridae, Riodinidae, Nymphalidae
291
Phytobiotics—For Organic
Designer Meat Production
N. Aderao Ganesh*1, M. Vispute Mayur2,
Aadil Majeed Khan1 and Adarshvijay1
1
2
Division of Poultry Science, ICAR—Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
I ncreasing awareness of consumers towards organic food has led livestock farmers
to restrict the use of antibiotics as growth promoters and encourage phytobiotics as
an alternative to antibiotics. Phytobiotics are organic bioactive compounds that are
naturally occurring in plants which may affect animal production and health but are not
yet established as essential nutrients e.g. oleoresins and essential oils. Use of
phytobiotics for high production from animals is becoming very popular nowadays
because of similar modes of actions of later (i.e. disruption of the bacterial
membrane, penetrate bacteria and reach the inner part of bacteria to kill them) but
will not lead to development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) which will indirectly
lead to improved production performance of animals. Several researchers have
studied the effect of phytobiotics on animal performance and suggested the use of the
same for higher production but data are scarce regarding the use of the same for
quality meat production. However, recent studies by several authors have suggested
that use of phytobiotics for quality meat (i.e. designer meat) production can be one
way for production of same through natural means (i.e. use of phyobiotics), since it
has been observed that besides its effect on pathogens, it also alters metabolic
pathways (e.g. inhibition of HMG–Co. A reductase—key regulatory enzyme in
cholesterol synthesis) and reduce lipid peroxidation (due to enhancement of antioxidant
system components) which will ultimately lead to production of high-quality meat.
Therefore, phytobiotics can replace antibiotics as a feed additive for organic designer
meat production.
Keywords: Designer Meat, Phytobiotics, Organic Meat
292
Impact of Climate Change on Livestock
Production and Adaptation Strategies
R. Dhinesh Kumar, H.B. Veeresh, K.T. Poornachandra,
Adarshvijay* and Ajay Singh
Division of Animal Nutrition, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal, Haryana
T he climate change impacts are visible all over the world, but India is categorised
among the most vulnerable areas. Almost 70% of the livestock in India is owned
by small and marginal farmers and the animals of these poor livestock owners are more
vulnerable to climate change and are at greater risk. The Indian livestock sector is
increasingly faced with problems relating to environmental or ecological impacts
including greenhouse gas emission. Livestock sector which is the backbone of the
agrarian economy is vulnerable to climate change. The sharp increase in climate
temperature is likely to have a negative impact on the milk production, egg production,
growth of broilers, reproduction, and disease of livestock production system in the
present as well as in future climate change scenarios. There is a very urgent need to
develop various adaptation strategies. The most important adaptation strategies include
microenvironment modification, animal feeding and nutritional modification, livestock
and poultry, breed improvement, genotype modification and improvement of animal
health services. The efforts have to be made not only to reduce emission from livestock
sector and industry but also to improve the efficiency of production processes. This will
enable us to earn carbon credits for trading in future as livestock, and poultry sector has
great potential for employment generation and substantially contributes towards food
and nutritional security.
Keywords: Livestock, Disease, Adaptation, Animal Feeding
293
Physical Processing of Crop Residue:
An Approach for Adaptation
Division of Animal Nutrition, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal, Haryana
L imiting the effect of climate change is necessary to achieve sustainable livestock

production. One of the ways is by modifications in feeding management that
reduce the internal heat load on the animals. The animals use more energy for digestion
of poor quality feed, like crop residues and proportionately higher amount of heat per
unit feed intake is produced. In some parts of the country, even the simple processing
technology like chaffing of fodder which improves the nutrient utilisation and reduces
the internal heat load is not practised. This suggests that there is a need to focus on
forage particle size when incorporated in complete diets or total mixed ration, as the
particle size influence the digestion process, feed intake, uniformity of diet and hence
affects the performance of animals. The effective way of utilising the low-grade crop
residues is by developing suitable processing technology like chopping, grinding and
incorporation of these residues in complete diets. The majority of the studies reported
that physical processing of the roughage had increased the dry matter intake and
improved the nutrient utilisation. In addition, optimum feed particle size provides a
better rumen fermentation medium resulting in more production of volatile fatty acids
which is a source of energy in case of ruminants. Another beneficial effect of grinding
or pelleting of roughage is that it reduces the methane losses when fed at higher
intakes. Hence, there is a need to create awareness among farmers about the simple
processing technology that improves the animal performance and reduces heat stress to
the animal.
Keywords: Livestock, Feed, Nutrient, Crop Residues
294
Effect of Protection of Intact Proteins
for Ameliorating Negative Balance
in Ruminants
Adarshvijay*, N. Aderao Ganesh, A. Geethika and A.M. Khan
R uminant animal derives their amino acid supply jointly from dietary protein source
which escapes rumen degradation and microbial protein that is synthesised in the
rumen. The amount of protein and amino acids that escape from rumen degradation
vary greatly among different feeds, depending on their solubility and the rate of
passage to the small intestine. To avoid loss of protein as ammonia due to microbial
degradation in the rumen, the proteins are protected from microbial degradation which
will lead to the undeviating availability of amino acids to animals with the minimum
loss as ammonia. Microbial protein synthesis, however, is regulated by the quantity
of plant organic matter fermented in the rumen. Rapid and extensive degradation of
valuable proteins in the rumen, lead research to develop the concept of protein protec-
tion from ruminal degradation with the main objective of enhancing the supply of
essential amino acids to the productive animal as well as reduction of nitrogen losses as
urea in the urine and thereby ameliorating negative balance of animals. However,
recent studies conducted by several authors indicate that use of protected protein will
not only help in ameliorating negative balance of ruminants but also contribute to
improving production potential, reducing feed cost due to better utilization of the
available proteins and reduction in methane (major greenhouse gas from livestock) will
ultimately contribute to sustainable livestock production. Therefore, use of protected
protein is a very good strategy for ameliorating negative balance in ruminants.
Keywords: Amino Acids, Rumen Degradation, Protein Protection, Ammonia, Methane
295
Effect of Climate Changes to the
Food and Beverage Sector
Rabin Chandra Paramanik*, B.K. Chikkaswamy,
Achinto Paramanik and Hossein Ramzan Nezhad
Department of Life Science, Sigma Bioscience Research Centre,
2nd Stage, Indiranagar, Bengaluru, Karnataka
T he effects of climate change on our ecosystems are already severe and widespread,
and ensuring food security in the face of climate change is among the most
daunting challenges facing humankind. End hunger, achieve food security and improve
nutrition is at the heart of the sustainable development goals. At the same time, climate
change is already impacting agriculture and food security and will make the challenge
of ending hunger and malnutrition even more difficult. While some of the problems
associated with climate change are emerging gradually, the action is urgently needed
now in order to allow enough time to build resilience into agricultural production
systems. Population and income increase, as well as urbanisation, are driving increased
and changing food and feed demand. FAO estimates that to satisfy the growing demand
driven by population growth and diet changes, food production will have to increase by
atleast 60% in the next decades. The present research paper explores the impact of
climate change on the production of wine grapes and wine. It includes a review of the
literature on the cause and effects of climate change, as well as illustrations of the
specific challenges global warming may bring to the production of wine grapes and
wine. More importantly, this research paper provides some of the vital essential
practical solutions that the present industry professionals can take to mitigate and adapt
to the coming change in both vineyards and wineries in the future course of time.
Keywords: Ecosystem, Nutrition, Food Security, Climate Change, Global Warming,
Vineyards, Wineries
296
Azolla (Azolla pinnata)—An Alternate
Protein Source in Duck Rearing Industry
Adarshvijay*, K.T. Poornachandra, H.B. Veeresh, N. Aderao Ganesh,
A.M. Khan, A. Geethika and Minu R. Varghese
I n poultry industry, ducks are among the most efficient in food production and
thereby facilitating better utilisation of water and feed resources for generating
food and income for the rural population. Basically to coastal areas, duck rearing ranks
next to chicken either for egg or for meat production. Non-availability of good quality
feed resources is the main constraint faced by duck rearers. With view of conventional
feed ingredients especially protein supplements which are all expensive, necessities
these rearers to procure an alternative protein source. Azolla (Azolla pinnata) mainly
used as a green manure, is an aquatic floating fern having a symbiotic relationship with
blue-green algae, can be easily grown in wild and controlled conditions. Azolla is
highly rich in protein (25–35%) when compared to other fodder sources and it is easy
and economical to grow which makes Azolla an ideal feed for poultry and to other
livestock species like cattle, pig, etc. In addition, Azolla is also rich in other compounds
like carotenoids, biopolymers, probiotics, etc. that contribute to the overall increase in
performance of birds. It is also having the value as a biofertilizer in wetland paddy
field. Azolla as a feed substitute has been worked out by many researchers and
suggested that incorporation of Azolla in duck ration helps in improving the growth
and production performance and helped in replacing conventional protein sources
without causing any deleterious effect in palatability.
Keywords: Azolla, Protein Source, Biopolymer, Duck
297
Study on Ecological Value of
Mulberry Development
B.K. Chikkaswamy and Rabin Chandra Paramanik
Sigma BioScience Research Center, Indira Nagar, Bengaluru, Karnataka
M ulberry could be a perennial and deciduous tracheophyte. Mulberry trees have

long been cultivated for silkworm rearing. In recent years, the roles of mulberry
trees within the interference and management of the geological process, water and
conservation, saline-land management and returning the grain plots to biological
science are known. Meanwhile, multi-usage of mulberry as forage for livestock, for
fruit and tea preparation has been bit by bit explored. Therefore, associate innovation
occurred within the mulberry trade. This text introduces the ecological and economic
values of mulberry trees, the applications of mulberry, and also the development of
mulberry trade.
Keywords: Mulberry Tree, Ecological Role, Economic Value, Ecological Mulberry
Trade
298
Impact of Plant-Derived Essential Oils
for Livestock Health and Production
N. Aderao Ganesh*, Adarshvijay, A. Geethika and A.M. Khan
T he essential oil is a complex mixture of concentrated hydrophobic liquid

containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known
as volatile oils, ethereal oils or simply the name of the plant from which they are
extracted (e.g. thymol). Here, essential means “essence”—the characteristic fragrance
of the plant from which it is derived and not the indispensable like essential amino
acids. Due to major threat of Global warming, significant work is being carried out by
agricultural scientists to reduce the Greenhouse gases like CH4 (Methane) emitted from
livestock which is a potent greenhouse gas and it has a global warming potential 25
times that of CO2. The well documented antimicrobial activity of essential oils has
shown that essential oils can be used to selectively inhibit rumen methanogenesis,
and can also be used as a substitute to antibiotics for higher production since it is
associated with antimicrobial resistance. Studies carried out by different authors
suggests that use of essential oils as a feed additive in monogastric animals and birds
leads to improved feed efficiency and health status through the reduced pathogenic
load, as essential oils have an adverse effect on E. coli O157: H7, Salmonella sp. and
S. aureus. However, use of essential oils as a feed additive in ruminants lead to a
reduction in methane production and thereby increased feed efficiency (as methane
production accounts for 2–16% of GE losses) which will ultimately lead to
sustainable higher production in animals and green consumerism in humans.
Keywords: Essential Oils, Methane, Feed Efficiency, Animal Production
299
Water Security Plan for Bengaluru City:
Climate Change Adaptation
B.S. Chandrakala, P. Jeya Prakash, V. Sreenivas,
Centre for Lake Conservation (CLC), EMPRI, Bengaluru, Karnataka
T he Bengaluru city is showing unpredicted disturbances in the hydrological cycle

in the last few years due to shifting in rainfall frequency, quantum and ground-
water recharge cycle. The study has shown that change in the pattern of the
hydrological cycle is very severe and would affect water availability in the coming
years. The study here also indicated a very rapid increase in the demand for water due
to expansion in urban population and related activities. The temperature, rainfall and
the RH (Relative Humidity) were compared to the year 2002 and 2016 and this has
revealed that the 0.40ºC of temperature and 7.02% of RH has been increased.
Reciprocally, the average rainfall has been reduced by 117.02 mm. The open space in
the Bengaluru City has been decreased and this, in turn, has resulted in the rise of the
temperature. The study conducted by Centre for Lake Conservation, EMPRI has
revealed that out of 280 water bodies in the Bengaluru North Taluk (BBMP
jurisdiction) only 74 water bodies are existing and remaining 206 water bodies have
changed in their land use pattern due to the urbanisation which has resulted in the
changes of Bengaluru microclimate by increasing the temperature. The strategies have
been derived from harvesting the high-intensity rainfall in the existing water bodies
to maintain the microclimate of Bengaluru City as well as to manage the groundwater
scarcity for climate change adaptation.
Keywords: BBMP, Lakes, Rainfall, Temperature, RH, Flood, Drought
300
Author Index
A Ghosh, S.K. ........................................... 281

Abhilash, R. ............................................. 84 Gopal, Jai ............................................... 262
Adarshvijay ........... 292, 275, 276, 277, 282, Gupta, P.S.P. ......................................... 278
293, 294, 295, 297, 299
Agarwal, Priyanka ................................. 103 H
Aggarwal, B.K. ...................................... 290 Hegde, G.T. ........................................... 279
Amdekar, Madhura ................................ 272 Hiremath, Prashanth ................................ 94
Arutchelvan, V. ...................................... 218
Ashwini, G. .............................................. 84 J
Asif, M. Muhammed ............................. 176 Jacob, Jisha ............................................ 264
Asokan, R. ............................................. 283 Jacob, Vidya Ann .................................. 209
Jailani, Mehboob ................................... 115
B Johny, Merin .......................................... 264
Bagchi, Sumanta .................................... 267
Bala, Govindasamy .................................. 16 K
Balasubramanian, M. ............................. 286 Kakkar, Ritu .......... 122, 135, 235, 291, 300
Bharadwaj, H. Sree Krishna .................. 287 Kapoor, Neera .......................................... 263
Bharti, Pawan K. .................................... 290 Karianappally, Georgekutty .................. 284
Bharti, Pawan Kumar ............................ 265 Karthik, M.L. ......................................... 270
Bhatta, R. ............................................... 274 Keerthi, N.G. ........................................... 94
Kelkar, Ulka ............................................. 289
C Khan, A.M. ............. 276, 292, 295, 297, 299
Chaitanya, B.N. ..................................... 283 Khaple, Anil .......................................... 163
Chakravarthy, A.K. .................................. 61 Kolte, A.P. ............................................. 274
Chandrakala, B.S. .................................. 300 Koti, Roopadevi ...................................... 84
Chatterjee, Debajyoti ............................. 271 Krishnan, S.S. ........................................ 273
Chaturvedi, Rajiv Kumar ....................... 288 Kumar, Amit .......................................... 290
Chikkaswamy, B.K. ....................... 296, 298 Kumar, H.A. Harish .............................. 285
Chitra, P. .......................................... 84, 235 Kumar, K.H. Vinaya....122, 135, 235, 291, 300
Kumar, R. Dhinesh ........ 277, 282, 293, 294
D Kunhamu, T.K. ...................................... 247
Dandin, S.B. ............................................ 20 Kunnath, Sara ........................................ 200
Darshan, H.B. ........................................ 279 Kushalappa, C.G. .................................. 270
Deekshith, M. ........................................ 286
Devakumar, A.S. ................................... 163 L
Devi, K. Anusiya ................................... 256 Lakshmikantha, B.P. ............................... 79
Lakshmisha, Arvind .............................. 103
G Lekeshmanaswamy, M. ......................... 256
Ganesh, N. Aderao ................ 276, 292, 295,
297, 299 M
Gavaskar, S.S.M. ..................................... 94 Mahapatro, G.K. .................................... 271
Geethika, A. ........... 275, 276, 295, 297, 299 Malik, P.K. ............................................ 274
301
Manjunatha, H.C. ................................... 267 Remadevi, O.K. ............. 135, 235, 286, 291
Manjunatha, M. ...................... 122, 247, 286 Roy, Papiya ........................................... 122
Manoj, Peter .......................................... 115 Roychoudhury, Atun ............................. 218
Mayur, M. Vispute ................................. 292
Mishra, A. .............................................. 278 S
Mishra, Saswati ..... 122, 135, 235, 291, 300 Sahay, Mridula ...................................... 181
Mishra, Vijay ......................................... 115 Sandeep ................................................. 247
Mohandas, T.V. ..................................... 200 Santhoshkumar, A.V. ............................ 247
Mondal, Sukanta .................................... 278 Sathish, B.N. .......................................... 270
Mor, A. .................................................. 278 Savale, Siddhartha ................................. 176
Morab, Kiranraddi ................................... 84 Shalini, C.N. .......................................... 280
Muralidharan, M. ................................... 268 Shanbhag, Rashmi R. ............................ 130
Murthy, Indu K. ..................................... 279 Shanker, Kartik ...................................... 268
Murthy, Karthik ..................................... 267 Sharma, Jagmohan ................................ 261
Sharma, Puneet ...................................... 115
N Shet, Chaturved ..................................... 291
Nagendra, Bhargavi ............................... 266 Shivakumar, Chiranth ............................ 285
Naik, Deepak ......................................... 291 Siddegowda, Mahesha ........................... 285
Namboothri, Naveen .............................. 268 Singh, Ajay ..................... 277, 282, 293, 294
Nandi, S. ................................................ 278 Singh, Pritee .......................................... 262
Nezhad, Hossein Ramzan ...................... 296 Sooraj, S. ....................................... 135, 291
Nitin, K.S. ................................................ 61 Sreehari, U. ............................................ 281
Niveditha, M. ......................................... 247 Sreenivas, V. ......................................... 300
Srikantiah, Somashekhar B. .................... 45
O Srinath, K. ............................................. 163
Ojha, V.P. .............................................. 281 Suman, Aastha ......................................... 37
Sundararaj, R. ........................................ 130
P Sunil ...................................................... 247
Paramanik, Achinto ............................... 296 Swaminath, M.H. .................................. 279
Paramanik, Rabin Chandra ............ 296, 298
Patgar, Shridhar ..................................... 279 T
Poornachandra, K.T. ..................... 274, 275, Thaker, Maria ........................................ 272
277, 282, 293, 294, 297 Tiwari, S.N. ........................................... 281
Prabha, Emily .......................................... 94
Prabhu, C.N. ............................................ 94 U
Prakash, P. Jeya ..................................... 300 Uteng, Tanu Priya ................................. 181
Puranik, Roshan D. ........................ 135, 291
V
R Varanashi, Sathya Prakash ...................... 24
Ramesh, M.K. .......................................... 29 Varghese, Minu R. ........................ 275, 297
Ramesh, M.N. ........................................ 270 Vasuki, C.A. .......................................... 256
Ravi, K. .................................................. 200 Veeresh, H.B. ....................... 275, 277, 282,
Ray, Jaswant .......................................... 290 293, 294, 297
Reddy, G.S. Srinivasa .............................. 94 Venkataramanan, Gayathri .................... 268
Reddy, I.J. .............................................. 278 Viswanath, Syam ................................... 270
S ECTION 5
Photo Gallery
INAUGURAL SESSION
Inaugurated by Shri. T.M. Vijay Bhaskar, I.A.S. Additional Chief Secretary, Department of
Forest, Ecology and Environment, GoK, Smt. Ritu Kakkar, I.F.S. Director General,
EMPRI and Prof. N.H. Ravindranath, Indian Institute of Science
Release of the book ‘Butterflies as Indicators of Climate Change:

Baseline Study in Bangalore City’
Key Note Speakers: Prof. N.H. Ravindranath, Indian Institute of Science,

Dr. Dandin, Liaison Officer, Bio-Varsity International and
261 Chief Conservator of Forests
Dr. K.N. Murthy, I.F.S. Additional Principal
303
PRESENTATION BY PARTICIPANTS
304
PANEL DISCUSSIONS
PRIZE DISTRIBUTION
305
POSTER PRESENTATION
EXHIBITION
306
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Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions

Book · June 2018

Remadevi O.K. Cruz Antony Joseph

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Butterflies as indicators of Climate change View project

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Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute

Strategic Programmes, Large Initiatives &

ALLIED PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD.

© EMPRI 2018, Climate Change: Challenges and Solutions

This book is not for sale.

Published and printed by Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Printing Division),

Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), functioning

Ms. Ritu Kakkar, IFS, Director General

E nvironmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), registered

Centre (KSNMDC) etc., participated in this conference to present their scientific

SECTION-1: Proceedings of the Seminar ..................................................................... 1

SECTION-2: Lead/Invited Talks

SECTION-3: Research Papers

12. Vehicular Emission Monitoring System (VEMS) .............................................. 115

24. Studies on the Impact of a Malathion Insecticide on Certain .............................. 256

SECTION-4: Selected Abstracts

38. Plants bioactive Compounds in Counteracting Oxidative Stress ........................ 275

SECTION-5: Photo Gallery ................................................................................... 303

Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI) is an

Technical Session I: Climate Change and Climatology

Technical Session II: Climate Change and Impact Assessment

Technical Session III: Climate Change and Biodiversity

preservation plot in Makutta (1937–2008) and Malemane (1939–1954). The study

Technical Session IV: Adaptation and Mitigation in any Sector

Technical Session V: Climate Concerns and Green Technology

Technical Session VI: Climate Change Law and Policy

Technical Session VII: Poster Session

climate change and the adaptation/mitigation programs/projects being undertaken by

Technical Session 2: Climate Change and Impact Assessment

Technical Session 3: Climate Change and Biodiversity

Technical Session 4: Adaptation and Mitigation in any Sector

 In sustenance of soil-plant-animal health, restoration of climatic situations by

Technical Session 5: Climate Concerns and Green Technology

Technical Session 6: Climate Change Law and Policy

Technical Session 7: Poster Session

Addressing the Climate Crisis:

C limate change is one of the many environmental challenges that humanity is

Fig. 1: Schematic Representation of SRM (Solar Radiation Management)

Fig. 2: Schematic Representation of CDR (Carbon Dioxide Removal) Geoengineering Methods

Biodiversity and Climate Change—

Exploration and Documentation of Genetic Variability

Documentation of Traditional Knowledge

Characterization, DUS Guidelines and GI Tags

Food, Nutritional Composition and Economic Benefit Analysis

Seeds System and Community Seed Banks

Conservation for Posterity

Architecture and Attitude—

Eco-Sensitive Ideas do not get Accepted only on Eco Criteria

Difficulty of Execution should not deter us from an Alternate Design

Contextual Designs can also be Contemporary Expressions

contemporary design approaches, suited to our contexts. Being rooted in a locality, it

Let the Buildings Breathe