ROAD DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS

AND BRIDGES

Part II: Drainage Design

April 2016
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009

PART 2 – DRAINAGE DESIGN

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 1 Draft Document – December 2009

DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009
Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 6
1 BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPT .................................................................. 7
2 PLANNING AND LOCATING OF ROADS AND HIGHWAYS........................... 8
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 8
2.2 COORDINATION WITH MINISTRIES AND AGENCIES ................................................. 9
2.3 LOCATION AND ALIGNMENT CONSIDERATIONS ................................................... 10
2.3.1 Horizontal Alignment ................................................................................ 10
2.3.2 Vertical Alignment ..................................................................................... 11
2.4 PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS............................................................................... 12
2.5 TIDAL AREAS..................................................................................................... 12
2.6 LAND USE CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 12
2.7 LOCATION OF UTILITIES ..................................................................................... 13
2.8 LOCATION OF STORM DRAINAGE FACILITIES ...................................................... 13
2.9 TYPE OF STRUCTURE .......................................................................................... 14
2.10 CONSTRUCTION-RELATED CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................... 14
3 DESIGN STANDARDS AND DESIGN FLOW RETURN PERIODS ................. 16
3.1 THE CONCEPT OF RETURN PERIOD AND DESIGN FREQUENCY .............................. 16
3.2 APPLICABLE DESIGN FLOW RETURN PERIODS ..................................................... 16
4 FLOOD ESTIMATION OF GAUGED RIVERS .................................................. 17
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 17
4.2 SOURCES OF RIVER FLOW DATA IN KENYA ......................................................... 17
4.3 PROCEDURE ....................................................................................................... 18
4.3.1 Data Preparation ...................................................................................... 18
4.3.2 Frequency Analysis Concepts .................................................................... 19
4.3.3 Plotting Formulas...................................................................................... 19
4.3.4 Distribution Function ................................................................................ 20
4.3.5 Application Example ................................................................................. 21
5 FLOOD ESTIMATION OF NON – GAUGED BASINS ...................................... 23
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 23
5.2 SPECIFIC DISCHARGE METHOD ........................................................................... 24
5.3 RATIONAL METHOD ........................................................................................... 24
5.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 24
5.3.2 Application ................................................................................................ 24
5.3.3 Characteristics .......................................................................................... 25
5.3.4 Equation .................................................................................................... 25
5.3.5 Time of Concentration, Tc ......................................................................... 25
5.3.5.1 Kirpich Formula ......................................................................................... 26
5.3.5.2 Hathaway Formula ..................................................................................... 26
5.3.6 Rainfall Intensity, I .................................................................................... 27
5.3.7 Runoff Coefficient, C ................................................................................. 27
5.3.7.1 Undeveloped Basins and Natural Catchments .............................................. 28
5.3.7.2 Urban Land Use .......................................................................................... 28
5.4 TRRL METHOD ................................................................................................. 29
5.4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 29
5.4.1 Initial Retention (Y) ................................................................................... 30
5.4.2 Contributing Area Coefficient (CA) ............................................................ 30
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5.4.3 Catchment lag Time (K)............................................................................. 31
5.4.4 Base Time .................................................................................................. 31
5.4.5 Area Reduction Factor .............................................................................. 32
5.4.6 Example (Adopted from TRRL Laboratory Report 706 (4)) ........................ 33
6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF CULVERTS .............................................................. 38
6.1 DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS ............................................................................... 38
6.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN ....................................................................................... 40
6.3 DESIGN CRITERIA .............................................................................................. 40
6.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 40
6.3.2 Site Criteria ............................................................................................... 40
6.3.2.1 Structure Type Selection .............................................................................. 40
6.3.2.2 Length and Slope ......................................................................................... 41
6.3.2.3 Debris Control............................................................................................. 41
6.3.3 Design Limitations .................................................................................... 42
6.3.3.1 Allowable Headwater................................................................................... 42
6.3.3.2 Tailwater Relationship of Channel ............................................................... 42
6.3.3.3 Maximum Velocity and Minimum Velocity ................................................... 42
6.3.4 Design Features ........................................................................................ 43
6.3.4.1 Culvert Sizes and Shape ............................................................................... 43
6.3.4.2 Multiple Barrels........................................................................................... 43
6.3.4.3 Material Selection........................................................................................ 43
6.3.4.4 Further Reference ........................................................................................ 44
6.4 CULVERT DESIGN HYDRAULICS.......................................................................... 44
6.4.1 Introduction and Calculation Principles........................................................... 44
6.4.2 Inlet and Outlet Control............................................................................. 44
6.4.2.1 Inlet Control ................................................................................................ 44
6.4.2.2 Outlet Control.............................................................................................. 47
6.5 DESIGN PROCEDURE .......................................................................................... 52
6.6 SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS FOR CULVERT DESIGN ............................................... 58
6.7 NOMOGRAPH DESIGN EXAMPLE ......................................................................... 59
7 DRIFTS AND LOW LEVEL CROSSINGS ............................................................... 76
7.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 76
7.2 DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGY ......................................................................... 76
7.2.1 Drifts ......................................................................................................... 76
7.2.2 Causeway .................................................................................................. 77
7.2.3 Submersible Bridges .................................................................................. 78
7.3 APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................................ 79
7.3.1 Basic Characteristics................................................................................. 79
7.3.2 Road Network Considerations ................................................................... 79
7.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................. 79
7.4.1 Site selection ............................................................................................. 79
7.4.2 Hydrological Considerations ..................................................................... 80
7.4.3 Hydraulic Design ...................................................................................... 80
7.5 WORKED EXAMPLE ............................................................................................ 85
8 BRIDGE DESIGN .................................................................................................. 88
8.1 PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN CRITERIA ..................................................................... 88
8.1.1 General Criteria ........................................................................................ 88
8.1.2 Specific Criteria ........................................................................................ 88
8.1.2.1 Inundation ................................................................................................... 88
8.1.2.2 Design Floods.............................................................................................. 88
8.1.2.3 Freeboard .................................................................................................... 89

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8.1.2.4 Flow Distribution ........................................................................................ 89
8.1.2.5 Relief Openings ........................................................................................... 89
8.1.2.6 Scour ........................................................................................................... 89
8.1.2.7 Environmental Considerations ..................................................................... 89
8.1.2.8 Construction/ Maintenance .......................................................................... 89
8.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE .......................................................................................... 91
8.2.1 Survey Accuracy and Data Collection........................................................ 91
8.2.2 Design Procedure Outline ......................................................................... 92
8.2.3 Hydraulic Performance of Bridges ............................................................ 93
8.2.4 Methodologies ........................................................................................... 96
8.2.4.1 HDS-1 Method ............................................................................................. 96
8.2.4.2 Advanced Computerized Methods, HEC 2, HEC RAS ................................... 96
8.3 BRIDGE SCOUR AND AGGRADATION ................................................................... 97
8.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 97
8.3.2 Scour Types ............................................................................................... 97
8.3.2.1 Long Term Profile Changes ......................................................................... 97
8.3.2.2 Plan Form Changes ..................................................................................... 98
8.3.2.3 Contraction ................................................................................................. 98
8.3.2.4 Local Scour ................................................................................................. 99
8.3.2.5 Natural Armoring ........................................................................................ 99
8.3.2.6 Naturally Occurring Scour Resistant Materials ............................................ 99
8.3.3 Scour Analysis Methods............................................................................. 99
8.3.3.1 Method 1 ................................................................................................... 100
8.3.3.2 Method 2 ................................................................................................... 101
8.3.4. Scour Assessment Procedure ................................................................... 101
8.3.4.1 Site Data.................................................................................................... 101
8.3.4.2 Design Procedure Step by Step .................................................................. 103
8.4 EXAMPLES ....................................................................................................... 105
8.4.1 Example 1: Backwater Calculation HDS-1 .............................................. 105
8.4.2 Example 2 : Riprap at Piers..................................................................... 111
9 RURAL ROADS: ROAD DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL ............... 114
9.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 114
9.2 TYPE OF DRAIN ................................................................................................ 114
9.2.1 Choice of Side Drain ............................................................................... 114
9.2.1.2 Discharge Channels................................................................................... 114
9.2.1.3 Collection of Water on Embankments......................................................... 114
9.2.1.4 Economic and Aesthetics............................................................................ 114
9.3 DIMENSIONING OF SIDE DRAINS ....................................................................... 115
9.3.1 Discharge Calculation ............................................................................. 115
9.3.2 Capacity of Side Ditches .......................................................................... 115
9.3.3 Protection of Ditches and Channels from Erosion ................................... 116
9.3.3.1 Critical Length Ditches .............................................................................. 116
9.3.3.2 Method of Protection ................................................................................. 117
9.3.4 Sedimentation Control ............................................................................. 118
9.4 EROSION CONTROL AT SLOPES AND EMBANKMENT........................................... 119
9.4.1 General ................................................................................................... 119
9.4.2 Protection of Slopes ................................................................................ 119
9.4.2.1 Topsoiling and Grassing ............................................................................ 119
9.4.2.2 Surface Treatment with Seeds and Fertilizers ............................................. 119
9.4.2.3 Gravel or Stone Blanketing ........................................................................ 119
9.4.2.4 Fascines .................................................................................................... 119
9.4.2.5 Serrated Slopes .......................................................................................... 120
9.4.2.6 Other Protection Works ............................................................................. 120
9.5 DRAINAGE OF GROUND WATER ........................................................................ 121
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9.5.1 General .................................................................................................. 121
9.5.2 Drainage Remedies ................................................................................ 121
9.5.2.1 Choice of Proper Alignment ....................................................................... 121
9.5.2.2 Subsoil Drains ........................................................................................... 121
9.5.2.3 Blanket Drains........................................................................................... 122
9.5.2.4 Seepage Remedies...................................................................................... 122
10 URBAN AREAS: ROAD DRAINAGE AND URBAN STORMWATER
DRAINAGE .................................................................................................................. 123
10.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 123
10.2 URBAN HYDROLOGY ....................................................................................... 123
10.2.1 Peak Discharge Calculation .................................................................... 124
10.3 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS ............................................................................ 124
10.3.1. Minimum Velocity .................................................................................. 125
10.3.2 Safety Issues ........................................................................................... 125
10.4 TYPES OF URBAN DRAINS ............................................................................ 125
10.4.1 Slotted Drains ....................................................................................... 125
10.4.2 Invert Block Drains (IBD) ....................................................................... 125
10.4.3 Kerbs ....................................................................................................... 125
10.5 INLET STRUCTURES ...................................................................................... 126
10.5.1 Grate Inlets ........................................................................................... 126
10.6 URBAN DRAINAGE NETWORKS ........................................................................ 128
10.6.1 General ........................................................................................................ 128
10.6.2 Design Procedure .................................................................................... 128
10.6.2.1 Summation of Flow Method ....................................................................... 128
10.6.2.2 Rational Method ........................................................................................ 128
10.7 WORKED EXAMPLE OF SEWER NETWORK ........................................................ 129

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DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009
Introduction
In the past context of Road Design in Kenya the aspects of Hydrology, Hydraulics and
Drainage Design – and the issue of water in general - were treated as cross cutting issues.
While the design and the hydraulic dimensioning of side drains was considered part of the
Geometric Road Design (Part I Rural Road Design Manual), the aspects of Pavement
Drainage and Erosion Control were dealt with in the Materials and Pavement Design
Manual (Part III Road Design Manual). Classic hydrological and hydraulic calculations
concerning catchment runoff and culvert and bridge hydraulics were discussed in the
Bridge Design Manual (Part IV Road Design Manual, Draft Version).

In addition to that the Road Design Guidelines (2. Draft Version) was used, which covered
certain aspects of urban road drainage.

This new Drainage Design Manual – as integral part of the updated Kenyan Road Design
Manual – aims at integrating all Hydrology and Drainage – related aspects of road and
drainage design into one comprehensive volume.

An effort was made to harmonise the currently contradictory design recommendations

concerning, for instance, the design periods of bridges and culverts in current urban and
rural design.

However, in cases where the existing established procedures have proven practical and
successful, every effort was made to retain established design procedures. As a
consequence rural and urban road drainage is still covered in two independent chapters,
taking into consideration the more complex nature of urban stormwater design, the larger
variety of drainage designs options und specifically urban issues, like scarcity of space,
interaction with urban waste water networks and solid waste management.

Compared to former drainage manuals environmental issues have been introduced

wherever possible. An effort was made to integrate the road drainage design procedure
into larger frameworks, like urban drainage master plans and the redefinition of stormwater
runoff as a resource – for instance for irrigation in water scarce areas – rather than a
problem, which has to be disposed of.

The Manual is structures in the following Chapters:

In the first Chapter the basic principles and concepts are presented. These principles and
concepts reflect the underlying design philosophy applied. The second Chapter
concentrates on hydraulic considerations during the planning stage for road design. The
third chapter deals with the definition of suitable design flows return periods for
hydrological and hydraulic design. Chapter four deals with the analysis of gauges
catchments. In Chapter five the most commonly applied methods in Kenya for estimating
design flow from ungauged catchments are discussed. Chapter six covers aspects of
culvert design, including worked examples based upon the AASHTO design procedures
for hand calculations. It also includes the presentation of commonly used hydraulic
software for culvert design. Chapter seven concentrates on hydraulic design procedures
for drifts and low level crossings.

Chapter nine addresses Pavement Drainage for rural roads, including side drainage and
subsurface drainage. Chapter ten deals with road pavement drainage. However, it focuses
on urban roads and the integration of road drainage into urban stormwater drainage
systems.

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DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009
1 Basic Principles and Concept
The principles and design considerations used in this Manual involve the basic concepts
highlighted below:

· Stormwater is a component of the total water resources of an area and should not
be casually discarded but rather, where feasible, should be used to replenish that
resource. For example, the use of road runoff for irrigation purposes is currently
common practice in many regions of Kenya and should be increased. There
should, therefore, be an increasing awareness for reiteration of approaches to
basin-wide water and drainage management.

· Drainage concepts of the past, allow upstream development to increase runoff. As

a consequence, downstream development might be unable to accommodate,
without significant additional cost, the upstream excess runoff. For design rainfall
frequencies (up to 10 years), the peak runoff should not be significantly higher after
development of an area than it would be if such development had not taken place.

· Improvement of the effectiveness of natural systems rather than replacing,

downgrading or ignoring them is an objective of current engineering design. In this
regards, the basic principles used in this Design Manual include the following:

· In areas, where soil and physical conditions permit, the road shall be drained
directly into the road reserve.
· Where natural watercourse and drainage channels exist the road reserve shall
be drained directly into them.
· Where conditions necessitate drainage beyond the reserve, additional land shall
be acquired for the necessary drainage channels, but this should be the
exception rather than the rule.

Two principal systems for handling surface water runoff are recognized. The one on which
engineering planning, design and operations have been almost wholly concentrated, the
"Minor System", (equally called the "Convenience System") and the larger major storm
drainage system, which includes all the natural and man-made drainage facilities in an
entire watershed.

The "Minor System" is the scheme of kerbs, gutters, inlets, pipes or other conveyances,
swales, and appurtenant facilities, all designed to minimize nuisance, inconvenience and
hazard from storm runoffs to persons and property.

Currently more detailed attention is also being given to the planning and design of the
supplementary aspects of the overall "major system", which carry the excess flow over and
above the hydraulic capacity of the various components of the minor system.

Since many communities and urban areas use less than a 10 years frequency value for
their storm drainage facilities, coordination of the highway drainage with that of the local
urban area is a primary factor requiring careful consideration. Location studies of a
highway through a built up area require close attention to how the proposed highway's
drainage requirements can be satisfactorily coordinated with those of the community.
Necessarily, both horizontal and vertical location of the proposed highway improvements
are of great significance, since most major city streets are likely to have existing storm
sewers and underground utilities.

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DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009
2 Planning and Locating of Roads and Highways
2.1 Introduction
The planning and locating of highway facilities are the first steps in a challenging process
of providing a safe and efficient transportation system. Hydrologic and hydraulic
requirements are among the facets, which must be considered during the early phases of
the design process.

Water and its related resources are important considerations in the planning and locating
of highways. Although historically only major drainage features such as large rivers and
environmentally sensitive areas have been considered during these early stages, the
overall drainage solution must be visualized and studied so that substantial design and
construction changes are not required later.

The possible effects that highway construction may have on existing drainage patterns,
river characteristics, potential flood hazards, and the environment in general, as well as the
effects the river and other water features may have on the highway, should be considered
at this time.

Hydrologic and hydraulic specialists must be actively involved during the initial project
phases to ensure that proper consideration is being given to drainage aspects. This
involvement should include participation during the highway location selection phase.

Early input from these specialists will result in a better design, both hydraulically and
economically. It must be emphasized that early studies are not comprehensive, detailed,
technical designs. Rather, most are cursory studies to consider obvious drainage related
problems that may be encountered or created and what type of data needs to be collected
for evaluation of possible impacts. The degree and extent of preliminary hydraulic studies
should be commensurate with the cost and scope of the project and the perceived flood
hazards that may be encountered.

This Chapter of the Design Manual presents a comprehensive overview of possible

considerations in the planning and locating of a highway.

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2.2 Coordination with Ministries and Agencies

The overall planning procedure for a new road or highway is a complex process, which
involves careful planning between local, regional and national agencies and bodies on all
levels and all specific aspects. In this chapter only water related aspects are mentioned,
bearing in mind, however, that the overall planning goes far beyond.

The hydraulic engineer should be involved in the coordination process with other agencies,
which may have water resource data. These national and local agencies have a wealth of
information useful to anyone involved in hydraulics or hydrology.

This coordination is necessary to find out about plans for water-related projects within the
project area, and to inform other agencies about the planned road project. It is important
for the hydraulic engineer, therefore, to not only coordinate with these agencies but also to
establish a good working relationship with them. In Kenya the agencies to coordinate with
are:
· Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Nairobi
· Water supply/waste water treatment utilities
· Regional Basin Management Authorities (TARDA etc..)
· Ministry of Energy, KenGen – re. hydropower projects and dams
· Ministry of Environment
· Ministry of Tourism
· Meteorological Department
· City Councils and City Engineers re. water or drainage master plans for urban
areas
· Ministry of Agriculture, or agricultural water user co-operations in the project area
· Supranational agencies like UNEP Nairobi
· Universities and other training agencies

References:

1) AASHTO Drainage Guideline, Volume I, Guidelines for Hydraulic Considerations in

Highway Planning and Location, 1999

2) Road Design Manual, Volume II, Drainage Design, Ministry of Works, Housing and
Communications. The Republic of Uganda, 2005

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2.3 Location and Alignment Considerations
2.3.1 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment of a highway determines where stream crossings will occur and
where there will be transverse or longitudinal encroachments. Two aspects of the
proposed alignment must be considered.

First, the hydraulic engineer must consider how the streams or storm drain systems may
affect the roadway, and second, how the roadway may affect the flow characteristics of
such streams or systems.

Slight changes in alignment can sometimes alter the flooding characteristics significantly.
Whether or not changes to the horizontal alignment can be made often depends on
whether the project is an improvement to an existing highway or the construction of a
highway in a new location. There is often little opportunity to change horizontal alignments
when the project is an improvement to an existing highway. The alignment should still be
reviewed though, to identify locations where:

· it is required to protect slopes against scour,

· abutments moved or skewed differently,
· drainage structures have to be protected against headcutting,
· meanders are endangering the highway.

Minor alignment improvements or roadway widening may cause slopes to encroach upon
streams. If unavoidable, the hydraulic engineer must be prepared to offer actions to
accommodate these encroachments. Changes to the horizontal alignment of the highway
at stream crossings can also result in hydraulic consequences.

Many older structures were constructed to cross the stream at a right angle to the flow.
This sometimes resulted in sharp curves in the roadway approaches to the bridges.
Replacement structures are often planned to correct this poor alignment by crossing the
stream at a skew. Proper abutment and pier alignment of the replacement structure must
be ensured. If the existing substructures are to be used as part of the replacement, their
alignment with the channel must be considered.

The construction of a highway on a new alignment affords the greatest opportunity for the
hydraulic engineer to influence the alignment during the location phase. During this phase,
changes can be recommended to locate the highway away from a stream or situate a
bridge at a more stable channel location. These recommendations should be made early in
the development of a project to avoid delays during the design or right-ofway acquisition
phase when the horizontal alignment is difficult to change.

During relocation there may also be constraints, which control the alignment. Topographic
and cultural features may have to be avoided, resulting in the use of the river environment
for the highway. In these cases, the constraints noted in the previous section will often
exist. Besides these constraints, there may be other alternatives that should be studied
because of other considerations, such as cost-effective designs or land development
plans.

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2.3.2 Vertical Alignment

The effect of the vertical alignment, commonly called the profile, on highway drainage
facilities is significant and must be assessed in comparing alternate locations. Although the
profile usually is of greater interest to the hydraulic engineer than the horizontal alignment,
it is normally easier to alter and is not firmly set as early in the project development.

The profile is the feature, along with the hydraulic opening, that determines when, as well
as where, the highway will be overtopped. By raising or lowering the profile, the frequency
of overtopping can be either decreased or increased.

Not only does the profile affect the frequency of overtopping, but it also determines the
level of upstream flooding. Depressed roadways act as drainage interceptors and may
require that upstream surface runoff be accommodated in storm drains or diversion
channels.

Fills on wide flat areas may intercept surface flows and require special drainage
treatments. These problems will be of special concern with large urban expressways and
deserve careful evaluation at the location phase. On streams where navigation exists,
clearances required for waterway vessels may become the factor controlling vertical
alignment. The profile not only affects the flow from streams either over the roadway or
through the structure opening, but it also affects the flow of the roadway runoff water.

Sag-vertical curves are critical profile areas, as they can serve to trap highway drainage
unless adequately sized and spaced outlets or catch basins are provided. Steepness of
the highway grade also determines the spacing of inlets in areas where the roadway has
kerbs.

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2.4 Physical Considerations
A highway crossing at or near to the confluence of two or more streams represents a
complex hydrologic and hydraulic location and should be avoided wherever possible. The
hydrology is complicated because several combinations of events should be considered.
Large peaks could occur simultaneously on both streams, though this probability is usually
small if one watershed is much larger or hydrologically different from the other.

Large peaks on one watershed should also be evaluated in combination with lesser events
on the other stream, because although headwaters may not be as high as with large runoff
events on both, velocities could be higher when only one stream is experiencing a flood
due to increased energy gradients caused by a low tailwater.

Such locations require an analysis involving the hydraulics of confluences. This includes
an analysis of the various combinations of flood events and how they may change flow
distributions, hydraulic gradients, headwaters, and velocities. Stream stability can also be
more critical at confluences due to middle and point bar formation, which can cause abrupt
changes in flow directions. Pier location and alignment and culvert alignment near
confluences will have to be carefully analyzed for these effects.

While these complexities do not have to be studied in detail during the early planning and
location stages, their effects on the location should be recognized and documented. The
future potential problems with such sites must be emphasized as well as the positive
factors of avoiding these locations. Minor alignment changes may eliminate the problems
of a crossing near a confluence.

2.5 Tidal Areas

Crossings of tidal waters present the hydraulic engineer with special considerations such
as regular changes in water level from astronomically induced tides, storm surges from
wind and high waves, or even seismic waves or tsunamis.

Tidal inlets and their related marshes may also be highly sensitive environmental areas
because of the different and often rare wildlife and biological systems they support.
Crossings should be planned which do not significantly alter or restrict the flow, either into
or out of these marshes. The altering of flows can affect the ecological nature of the area,
as well as the areawide hydraulics.

A possible reduction in interior tide heights because of the isolation of an inlet may cause
increased velocities, scour, or increased wave heights somewhere else, often along the
highway itself. Salinity may be changed, with stratified freshwaters and saltwaters flowing
in different directions. This could change the type and extent of vegetation, which in turn
could affect the wildlife of the marsh.

Again, although these problems might not be solved during the planning and location
phase, they will have been recognized and the need for special studies, if necessary,
realized. In special cases, extensive studies and specialists in tidal hydraulics might be
required to insure that an acceptable design is provided.

2.6 Land Use Considerations

The use of land adjacent to the stream must be considered. In rural areas, the most
significant consideration is how the crossing may affect property, both upstream and
downstream. Upstream, the concern is usually with increased flood stages. The degree
and duration of an increased flood stage could affect the present and future land use. In
Kenya agricultural land has to be evaluated for increased risks due to flooding. As an
example, crops may be impacted by inundation.
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Downstream, the hydraulic effects, which are of usual concern are related to increased
velocity through the structure. This higher velocity may increase scour immediately below
the crossing or increase aggradation downstream. Potential downstream effects are
usually more difficult to quantify than upstream effects.

In urban areas, the effects of increased flood stages or increased velocities become
important considerations. In addition to the impact on future land use, the existing property
may suffer extensive physical damage from an increased flood stage.

The impact on traffic safety and operation may extend well beyond the stream crossing, as
increased flooding may occur on the adjacent street network, inhibiting or obstructing
vehicular movement. This may result in extensive delays, more frequent accidents. Many
urban areas will have stream or watershed management regulations. These may dictate
the limits on the changes, which can be made to the flow characteristics of a watershed.

2.7 Location of Utilities

During the location phase, it is important for the hydraulic engineer to be aware of utility
locations and types as well as their relationship to the proposed highway project. Locations
of overhead power lines, and underwater water and sewer lines and utility facilities such as
pumping stations will be found by others.

The hydraulic engineer must then evaluate if and how these features may affect the
various hydraulic structures or, conversely, be affected by them. If power lines have to be
relocated on or buried within an encroachment, their relationship to the projected flood
levels must be considered.

The reconstruction of a pumping station that could either be flooded or an obstacle to flood
flows if not placed at a proper level is another example of what may need to be
considered. Even the maintenance of utility facilities may entail hydraulic considerations.
Excavating a utility for repairs buried within an encroachment could affect the stability of
the embankment or stream and thus expose, even temporarily, the highway to increased
erosion potential.

The construction of a storm drainage system or the improvement to an existing one can
interfere with utilities. Often, in older urban areas, types of utilities and their locations are
not accurately documented, if at all. In these cases the hydraulic engineer should
coordinate early with all appropriate utility personnel in order to locate as many of the lines
as possible to facilitate the later design process as well as provide input to the location
process.

2.8 Location of Storm Drainage Facilities

The location of storm drainage facilities is another item, which should be considered during
the early phases of a project. Collection systems, the main pipes, pumping stations, and
particularly the outfall alternatives should be tentatively located.

Collection points should be located early in the project development, especially for large
systems, chiefly for right-of-way considerations. Another reason, however, is the possibility
of combining the collection of storm water from several watersheds or for connecting to an
existing system. The capacity of existing systems to accept the flows from these collection
points as well as water quality considerations would be the main concerns at this point in
the project. If a project is an improvement to an existing highway, collection points will
have been in existence for several years. The possibility of altering, adding, or deleting
points should not be overlooked however, as a more cost-effective and hydraulically
efficient system may be possible. Storm drain collection pipes are commonly located
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parallel to the highway. However, consideration should be given to the terrain, and the
possibility of construction problems with this generally accepted solution. Sometimes, a
route with less excavation or other advantages may be available. The location of outfall
alternatives is the most important consideration for storm drainage systems made during
the planning and location phases. Drainage must be discharged into natural or constructed
drainage features capable of conveying this flow in a safe and efficient manner. Sinkholes
or other low-lying areas without a natural outlet must be avoided. With constructed
facilities, such as irrigation canals, it is advisable to obtain written agreements for the
discharge and assurance the facility will remain in perpetuity. Existing outfalls must be
checked for present as well as future adequacy and whether or not downstream problems
such as erosion or flooding could occur.

Proposed outlet locations should be checked for the same considerations, as well as
ensuring the legality of creating a flow where none, or very little, has previously existed.
Coordination with the local community will often be necessary when tying into existing
outfalls. New outfalls may also need to be coordinated as the community may have plans
in progress utilizing the outfall area for other purposes.

Highways on new locations in urban areas may significantly affect existing surface runoff
patterns and storm drainage systems. Depressed highways will most likely cut through
existing storm drains while highways on fills will isolate drainage areas. Early and careful
attention to these types of projects is needed or alternates suggested to ensure a feasible
system for accommodating disrupted drainage patterns can be designed.

2.9 Type of Structure

The location of a stream crossing may influence and limit the type of structure that can be
used. Decisions made during the preliminary phases of project development should not
constrain the final recommendations of the hydraulic engineer. Detailed surveys and
comprehensive hydrologic and hydraulic studies are needed to make conclusive
recommendations. Even then, the hydraulic engineer may recommend alternate types and
shapes, depending on the site. Sometimes there will be critical crossing sites, such as
those within a designated flood insurance area that may require detailed studies early in
the project development.

This may be because requirements for acquiring permits in these areas are such that
plans must be more specific than usual at earlier stages of the project. When this is the
case, a final structure type can be provided. There are many considerations to be made
before selecting a final design alternative. These include hydrologic, hydraulic,
environmental, economic, construction, and maintenance factors.

2.10 Construction-Related Considerations

Problems during construction will be minimized when important drainage or other water-
related factors are considered during the location and planning phases of the project. The
occurrence of erosion and sediment, and how to control it, must be considered, at least in
broad terms, during the early phases of location. The hydraulic engineer, along with other
specialists, may be involved in the identification of groundwater flows and potential
unstable slopes because of underground water so that proper measures can be taken to
prevent problems before they occur.

The time of the year and the total construction time should be taken into consideration in
considering impacts. Certain elements, such as embankments along a stream, should be
completed before the anticipated flood season. In some sections of the country, work
cannot be performed as the stream may serve as an irrigation supply requiring that flows

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not be interrupted and that pumping and distribution systems not be contaminated with
sediment.

The use of temporary structures must also be planned. Often a temporary crossing can be
smaller than normal if it is only going to be utilized during the months. If it will be used for
more than one year, perhaps it needs to be sized for a flood of greater magnitude. This
consideration may change the concept of the project or at least the type of structure
designed.

Many construction-related hydraulic problems are ones of scheduling. Although they will
be studied in more detail during the design phase, they should be initially considered, at
least in a preliminary manner, as early as possible.

References

1) AASHTO Drainage Guideline, Volume I, Guidelines for Hydraulic Considerations in

Highway Planning and Location, 1999

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3 Design Standards and Design Flow Return Periods

3.1 The Concept of Return Period and Design Frequency

A design frequency shall be selected to match the facility’s cost, amount of traffic, potential
flood hazard to property, expected level of service, political considerations, and budgetary
constraints, considering the magnitude and risk associated with damages from larger flood
events. With long highway routes having no practical detour, where many sites are subject
to independent flood events, it may be necessary to increase the design frequency at each
site to avoid frequent route interruptions from floods. In selecting a design frequency,
potential upstream land use that could reasonably occur over the anticipated life of the
drainage facility shall be considered.

Hydrologic analysis should include the determination of several design flood frequencies
for use in the hydraulic design. These frequencies are used to size different drainage
structures to allow for an optimum design, that considers both risk of damage and
construction cost. Consideration shall be given to what frequency flood was used to design
other structures along a highway corridor.

Since it is not economically feasible to design a structure for the maximum runoff a
catchment area is capable of producing, a design frequency must be established. The
frequency with which a given flood can be expected to occur is the reciprocal of the
probability or chance that the flood will be equalled or exceeded in a given year. If a flood
has a 20 percent chance of being equalled or exceeded each year, over a long period of
time, the flood will be equalled or exceeded on an average of once every five years. This is
called the return period or recurrence interval (RI).

The designer should note that the 5-year flood is not one that will necessarily be equaled
or exceeded every five years. There is a 20 percent chance that the flood will be equaled
or exceeded in any year; therefore, the 5-year flood could conceivably occur in several
consecutive years. The same reasoning applies to floods with other return periods.

3.2 Applicable Design Flow Return Periods

Currently the following design Periods are used in Kenya:

Table 3.1 Applicable Design Flow Return Periods

Return Period
years
Box Culverts and Bridges
5 Pipe culverts for small roads
10 Pipe culverts for large roads
50 Box culverts
100 Bridges
1 year return period, Drifts and low level crossings
overtopping not more than 10
cm supercritical flow and 15
cm for subcritical flow.

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4 Flood Estimation of Gauged Rivers
4.1 Introduction
The use of measures river flow data is the first choice for hydraulic design of drainage
structures, especially large bridges. However, the availability of measured water levels and
river flow in Kenya varies over space and time. Generally there are more hydrometric
stations in the western part of the country than towards the coast. In areas where
irrigations schemes are in operation, highly exact data of river flow and, possibly,
information on peak discharges are available.

For the design of large structures the optimum use of measured river flow data is strongly
recommended. Flood water runoff estimation methods solely based upon empirical rainfall
– runoff models (as described in Chapter 5 of this Manual) do not provide sufficient secure
information for safe design.

4.2 Sources of River flow Data in Kenya

Due to the recent restructuring of Kenya’s water sector in information on river flow can be
found at two agencies:

· The River Basin Management Agencies e.g. TARDA

· Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Nairobi

Recently measured stream data can best be obtained from the regional basin authorities.
However, detailed extended water levels or discharge data has to be obtained from the
Ministry of Water and Irrigation, located in Nairobi, where the historic data sets are
recorded in data base format.

Dept. of Meteorology, Nairobi, is a further source of measured river flow information.

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4.3 Procedure
4.3.1 Data Preparation

The analysis of gauged data is done by statistical methods provided sufficient data are
available at the site to permit a meaningful statistical analysis to be made. It is suggested
that at least 10 years of record are necessary to warrant a statistical analysis by method
presented therein.

Before analyzing data, it is necessary to arrange it in a systematic manner. Data can be

arranged in a number of ways depending on the specific characteristics that are to be
examined. An arrangement of data by a specific characteristic is called a distribution or a
series.

The most common arrangement of hydrologic data is by magnitude of the annual peak
discharge. This arrangement is called an annual series. Another method used in flood data
arrangement is the partial-duration series. This procedure uses all peak flows (for instance
all flows above the discharge of approximately bank-full stage) above some base value.

Partial-duration series are used primarily in defining annual flood damages when more
than one event that causes flood damages can occur in any year. The partial-duration
series avoids a problem with the annual-maximum series. Annual maximum series
analyses ignore floods that are not the highest flood of that year even though they are
larger than the highest floods of other years. While partial-duration series produce larger
sample sizes than annual maximum series, they require a criterion that defines
independence of the discharges to be considered for the frequency analysis.

The difference between the results of the two methods is large at the lower flows and
becomes very small at the higher peak discharges. If the recurrence interval of these peak
flows is computed as the order divided by the number of events (not years), the recurrence
interval of the partial-duration series can be computed in terms of the annual series by the
equation:

1
TB = (Eqn. 4.1)
ln T A - ln(TA - 1)

where:

TB and T A are the recurrence intervals of the partial-duration series and annual series,
respectively.

Comparison between analyses results of the two methods shows that the maximum
deviation between the two series occurs for flows with recurrence intervals less than 10
years. At this interval the deviation is about 5 percent and for the 5-year discharge, the
deviation is about 10 percent. For the less frequent floods, the two series approach one
another.

When using the partial-duration series, one must be especially careful that the selected
flood peaks are independent events. This is a tough practical problem since secondary
flood peaks may occur during the same flood as a result of high antecedent moisture
conditions. In this case, the secondary flood is not an independent event. One should also
be cautious with the choice of the lower limit or base flood since it directly affects the
computation of the properties of the distribution (i.e., the mean, the variance and standard
deviation, and the coefficient of skew) all of which may change the peak flow
determinations.
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For this reason, it is probably best to utilize the annual series and convert the results to a
partial-duration series through use of Equation 4.1. For the less frequent events (greater
than 5 to 10 years), the annual series is entirely appropriate and no other analysis is
required.

4.3.2 Frequency Analysis Concepts

Future floods cannot be predicted with certainty. Therefore, their magnitude and frequency
are treated using probability concepts. To do this, a sample of flood magnitudes are
obtained and analyzed for the purpose of estimating a population that can be used to
represent flooding at that location. The assumed population is then used in making
projections of the magnitude and frequency of floods. It is important to recognize that the
population is estimated from sample information and that the assumed population, not the
sample, is then used for making statements about the likelihood of future flooding. The
purpose of this section is to introduce concepts that are important in analyzing sample
flood data in order to identify a probability distribution that can represent the occurrence of
flooding.

4.3.3 Plotting Formulas

When making a flood frequency analysis, it is common to plot both the assumed
population and the peak discharges of the sample. To plot the sample values on frequency
paper or as computer chart in a logarithmic form, it is necessary to assign an exceedence
probability to each magnitude. A plotting position formula is used for this purpose. A
number of different formulas have been proposed for computing plotting position
probabilities, with no unanimity on the preferred method. A general formula for computing
plotting positions is:

i-a
P= (Eqn. 4.2)
n - a - b +1

where:

i = the rank of the ordered flood magnitudes, with the largest flood having a rank of 1
n = the record length
a and b = constants for a particular plotting position formula

The Weibull, Pw ( a = b =0), Hazen, Ph ( a = b =0.5), and Cunnane, Pc ( a = b =0.4) are three
possible plotting position formulas:

i
PW = (Eqn. 4.3 (a))
n +1
i - 0 .5
Ph = (Eqn. 4.3 (b))
n

i - 0.4
Pc = (Eqn 4.3 (c))
n + 0.2

The data are plotted by placing a point for each value of the flood series at the intersection
of the flood magnitude and the exceedance probability computed with the plotting position
formula.
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4.3.4 Distribution Function

Flood frequency analysis uses sample information to fit a population, which is a probability
distribution.

Several cumulative frequency distributions are commonly used in the analysis of

hydrologic data, and as a result they have been studied extensively. The frequency
distributions that have been found most useful in hydrologic data analysis are the Normal
Distribution, the Log-Normal Distribution, the Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution, and the
log-Pearson Type III distribution.

A very good approximation for most common distribution function is the Simplified
Frequency Formula as introduced by Chow (Ref.1)

YT = X+ s * k (Eqn. 4.4)

Where:

YT = expected maximum event at given return period

X = mean value of values in sample
s = Standard deviation of values in sample
k = frequency factor, depending on return period and sample size as show in Table 4.1

Table 4.1: Gumbel k values for different Sample Size and Return Periods, after Chow (1)
Return Periods
Sample size n 2 5 10 25 50
10 -0.136 1.058 1.848 2.846 3.587
15 -0.144 0.967 1.702 2.631 3.320
20 -0.148 0.918 1.624 2.516 3.178
25 -0.151 0.887 1.575 2.444 3.088
30 -0.153 0.866 1.540 2.393 3.025
35 -0.154 0.850 1.515 2.355 2.978
40 -0.156 0.837 1.495 2.326 2.942
45 -0.157 0.827 1.479 2.302 2.913
50 -0.157 0.819 1.466 2.283 2.889

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4.3.5 Application Example

Table 4.2: Maximum Discharge Calculation for Gumbel Equation after Chow (1)
Length of record 15 years
Mean measured maximal instantaneous discharge 48.74 m3/s
3
Standard Deviation 22.56 m /s

Max. measured maximal

instantaneous Treturn
Rank I Year discharge in any year Probability P = i/(15+1) 1/P
3
i m /s years
1 1987 94 0.0625 16.0
2 1988 83.7 0.125 8.0
3 1981 68.9 0.1875 5.3
4 1986 68.5 0.25 4.0
5 1984 64.9 0.3125 3.2
6 1980 55.5 0.375 2.7
7 1983 48.9 0.4375 2.3
8 1977 47.9 0.5 2.0
9 1989 44.6 0.5625 1.8
10 1990 43.7 0.625 1.6
11 1979 38.9 0.6875 1.5
12 1978 28.9 0.75 1.3
13 1985 27.4 0.8125 1.2
14 1976 23.9 0.875 1.1
15 1982 22.6 0.9375 1.1
16 1975 17.6 1 1.0
Treturn k for N = 15 Q est.= 48.47 + k*22.56
2 -0.144 45.5
5 0.967 70.6
10 1.702 87.1
25 2.631 108.1
50 3.32 123.6

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Figure 4.1 : Measured and calculated Flood flow for different Return Periods

Measured and Calculated Flood Flow for Different Return Periods

140

120
Discharge in m3/s

100

80 Measured
60 Calculated

40

20

0
1 10 100
Return Period in log y

References

1) Chow, V.T. ; ‘Handbook of Applied Hydrology’, McGraw Hill. 1964

2) Fiddes, D.; ‘The Prediction of Storm Rainfall in East Africa’ TRRL Report 623,
Crowthorne, 1974
3) Fiddes, D. and Watkins,L.H.; ’Highway and Urban Hydrology in the Tropics’, Pentech,
1984
4) Fiddes, D. ‘The East African Flood Model’, TRRL Report 706, Crowththorne 1976
5) Federal Highway Administration: Hydrology, , HEC No. 19, 1984
6) Rainfall Frequency Atlas of Kenya, Ministry of Water Development, 1978

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5 Flood Estimation of Non – Gauged Basins

5.1 Introduction
The estimation of storm water runoff from un-gauged catchments on the basis of rainfall –
runoff models is the most common exercise carried out by hydrologists as far as road
drainage issues are concerned. This due to the fact, that only very few catchments in
Kenya are gauged on a regular basis. The small and medium sized catchments often
crossed or even created by road embankments are usually not measured and estimation
techniques have to be applied.

The basis of all flood flow estimations should be the site visit, which represents an
essential step in the design procedure of culverts (see Chapter 6), drifts (see Chapter 7)
and bridges (see Chapter 8). High water marks should be identified and surveyed as part
of the field inspection.

Interviews with local inhabitants usually provide information on historic flood events. It has
to be mentioned however, that only people who live nearby the crossing can provide good
quality information on the flooding behaviour of specific rivers. Many flood events in Africa
happen at night after heavy late-afternoon rainfall and most people will try not to leave their
home during such conditions.

The observed high water marks should be used as a calibration tool for all storm water run
off estimation results achieved on the basis of basic (Rational Method) or more complex
rainfall runoff models.

Often existing structures upstream or downstream of the planned crossing point can
provide further information on flood flow.

If no measured flow at the crossing point is available the following methods can be used to
estimate the design rainfall:

· Specific Discharge Method

· Rational Method
· TRRL Method

These three methods, which are frequently used in Kenya are described in more detail
below.

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5.2 Specific Discharge Method

The specific Discharge Method is based upon transferring the specific storm water
discharge calculated as l/s/ha or m3/s/km2 from similar, gauged, catchments in the project
region to the actual project site.

Catchment size, form, exposure and slope should be of comparable nature for both
catchments, as well as the overall climatic and topographic conditions.

The un - gauged catchments is in some cases an upstream sub - catchment of a larger

measured river basin. In this case the probable contribution of the sub - catchment to the
total measured riverflow can be estimated on the basis of the respective surface areas of
the catchments. However, specific basin characteristics have to be considered in order to
avoid over - or under design.

5.3 Rational Method

5.3.1 Introduction

The Rational Method is most accurate for estimating the design storm peak runoff for small
catchments. This method, while first introduced in 1889, is still widely used. Even though it
has come under frequent criticism for its simplistic approach, no other drainage design
method has achieved such widespread use.

Carefully applied, it can be used for large catchments up to 200km2, provided an area
reduction factor is applied. Confirmation of the estimated storm water runoff with the TRRL
method described below is strongly recommended.

5.3.2 Application

Some precautions shall be considered when applying the Rational Method:

· The first step in applying the Rational Method is to obtain a good topographic map and
define the boundaries of the catchment area in question. A field inspection of the area
should also be made to determine if the natural drainage divides have been altered.

· In determining the runoff coefficient C value for the catchment area, thought shall be
given to future changes in land use (deforestation, bush fires) that might occur during
the service life of the proposed facility that could result in an inadequate drainage
system. Also, the effects and the life span of upstream detention structures must be
taken into account. Restrictions to the natural flow such as highway crossings and
dams that exist in the catchment area shall be investigated to see how they affect the
design flows.

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5.3.3 Characteristics

Characteristics of the Rational Method that generally limit its use include:

· The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when the rainfall
intensity lasts as long or longer than the time of concentration. That is, the entire
catchment area does not contribute to the peak discharge until the time of
concentration has elapsed.

This assumption limits the size of the drainage basin that can be evaluated by the Rational
Method. For large catchment areas, the time of concentration can be so large that constant
rainfall intensities for such long periods do not occur and shorter more intense rainfalls can
produce larger peak flows.

· The fraction of rainfall that becomes runoff (C) is independent of rainfall intensity or
volume.

This assumption is only reasonable for impervious areas, such as streets, rooftops, and
parking lots. For pervious areas, the fraction of runoff does vary with rainfall intensity and
the accumulated volume of rainfall.

Thus, the application of the Rational Method requires the selection of a coefficient that is
appropriate for the storm, soil, and land use conditions. Many guidelines and tables have
been established, but seldom, if ever, have they been supported with empirical evidence.

5.3.4 Equation

The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a catchment area
as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and the mean rainfall intensity for a
duration equal to the time of concentration. The rational formula is expressed as:
Q = 0.0278 CIA (Eqn.5.1)
where:
Q = maximum rate of runoff, m3/s
C = runoff coefficient, representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall
I = average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of
concentration TC, for a selected return period, mm/hr
A = catchment area tributary to the design location, km2

5.3.5 Time of Concentration, Tc

The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the hydraulically most
remote point of the catchment area to the point under investigation. Use of the Rational
Method requires the time of concentration tc for each design point within the catchment
area. The duration of rainfall is then set equal to the time of concentration and is used to
estimate the design average rainfall intensity (I).

Pipe or open channel flow time can be estimated from the hydraulic properties of the
conduit or channel. An alternative way to estimate the overland flow time is to estimate
overland flow velocity and divide the velocity into the overland travel distance.

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For design conditions in rural and agricultural areas which do not involve complex drainage
conditions, like steep slopes and mixed landuse, the following two equations are
recommended for use in Kenya.

5.3.5.1 Kirpich Formula

– 0.385
tC = 0.0663 * L0.77* S (Eqn. 5.2)

where:
tC = time of concentration (hr)
L = main stream length (km), and
S = overall catchment slope in m/m

5.3.5.2 Hathaway Formula

L. N
tC = 1.44 ( S
) 0.47,
where: (Eqn.5.3)
tC = time of concentration (min.)
L = catchment length (m)
S= catchment slope (m/m)
N= catchment roughness factor, see table below

Table 5.1: Catchment Roughness Factor in Hathaway’s Formula (5)

Soil types N
Smooth and impermeable 0.02
Bare and compacted 0.10
Plantations and agricultural areas 0.20
Bush and shrubs, low vegetation 0.40
Forest 0.60

Usually the Kirpich Formula provides shorter results for tc, and thus results in more
conservative and more costly design parameters. For catchment areas with considerable
vegetated areas (Hathaway N: 0.2 – 0.6) the Hathaway Formula is recommended.

For urban areas the following formula, based upon the American SCS method, is
recommended.

tC = ((8.7*L3)/(H*1010))0.385 * 60 +te (Eqn: 5.4)

where

L= length of the critical path of the catchment (m)

H= difference in elevation between the watershed and the design point (m)
tC = time of concentration (min.)
te = time of entry, usually taken as 2 to 5 minutes. The greater value of 5 minutes is
used where the ground is rather flat and the figure of 2 minutes where the grades
are steep.

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Three common errors should be avoided when calculating tc :

· First, application of simplified general equations such as Kirpich for determining tc can
result in too short of a time of concentration particularly when the average basin slope
varies significantly from the mean channel slope as in steep mountainous areas.
Neglecting the overland flow time can also dramatically shorten the time of
concentration thus increasing the design peak runoff. Computing tc for two reaches of
main channel, from the low point to the 0.7 point, then from there to the end of the
channel, has been found to give better results.

· Second, in some cases runoff from a portion of the catchment area that is highly
impervious may result in a greater peak discharge than would occur if the entire area
were considered. In these cases, adjustments can be made to the catchment area by
disregarding those areas where flow time is too slow to add to the peak discharge.
Sometimes it is necessary to estimate several different times of concentration to
determine the design flow that is critical for a particular application.

· Third, when designing a drainage system, the overland flow path is not necessarily
perpendicular to the contours shown on available mapping. Especially in urban areas,
the land will be graded and swales will intercept the natural contour and conduct the
water to the streets, which reduces the time of concentration. Care shall be exercised
in selecting overland flow paths in excess of 100 meters in urban areas and 200
meters in rural areas.

5.3.6 Rainfall Intensity, I

The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for a duration equal to the time
of concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has been
selected for design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area, the
rainfall intensity can be determined from Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves. Rainfall-
Intensity-Duration curves for use in Kenya can found in the ‘Rainfall Frequency Atlas of
Kenya’, which is currently in the process of being updated.

5.3.7 Runoff Coefficient, C

The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the Rational Method least susceptible to precise
determination and requires judgment and understanding on the part of the designer.

In determining the run-off coefficient, the designer should use his knowledge of local
conditions to take account of the following parameters:
· Catchment area
· Slope
· Soil type
· Vegetation
· Land use and probable changes during the design life of the road.
It is stressed that future changes in land use can have a dramatic effect on the runoff from a
catchment and careful consideration should be given to possible changes in vegetation
cover or future developments within the catchment.

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5.3.7.1 Undeveloped Basins and Natural Catchments

In the 1970s considerable research concerning the definition of runoff coefficient from
natural catchments in Kenya has been carried out by TTRL (see Section 5.4). It is
recommended to use the Contributing Area Coefficient (CA) as described in 5.4.2, Eqn.
5.8, below.

5.3.7.2 Urban Land Use

For urban Land use the following coefficients are recommended.

Table 5.2 Recommended Runoff Coefficient C for Various Urban Land Uses, after
(5)
Business: Downtown areas 0.70-0.95
Neighborhood areas 0.50-0.70
Residential: Single-family areas 0.30-0.50
Multi units, detached 0.40-0.60
Multi units, attached 0.60-0.75
Suburban 0.25-0.40
Residential (0.5 hectare lots or more) 0.30-0.45
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50-0.70
Industrial: Light areas 0.50-0.80
Heavy areas 0.60-0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10-0.25
Playgrounds 0.20-0.40
Railroad yard areas 0.20-0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10-0.30

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5.4 TRRL Method

5.4.1 Introduction

While catchments up to 200km2 can be calculated with the Rational Method (it is
recommended to check the result with the TRRL method) runoff from catchments having a
larger area should be calculated with the TRRL Method, which has for a long time been
the most widely used flood estimation method for ungauged catchment in the East African
Region.The TRRL method is based upon the Hydrograph Method, which attempts to relate
the form of a typical hydrograph to the estimated peak discharge. Additional information on
hydrographs, unit hydrographs and the attached flood estimation methods can be found in
(Ref.1,2,3,4,5).

Adapted to African conditions, it has proofed applicable to use the relatively stable ratio of
the peak flow (Q) divided by the average flow (Q) measured over the base time as means
for calculating peak discharge.

Q
F= (Eqn. 5.5)
Q
The peak flow can therefore be simply estimated if the average flow during the base time
of the hydrograph can be calculated.

The total volume of runoff is given by:

RO = ( P - Y )C A * A * 10 3 ( m 3 ) (Eqn. 5.6)

Where: P = rainfall (mm) during time period equal to the base time
Y = initial retention
CA = contributing are coefficient
A = catchment area (km2)

If the hydrograph base time is measured to a point on the recession curve at which the
flow is one tenth of the peak flow, then the volume under the hydrograph is approximately
7 per cent less than the total run off given by Eqn. 5.6

The average flow (Q ) is therefore given by:

0.93 * RO
Q= (Eqn. 5.7)
3600 * TB

Where:
TB = hydrograph base time (hrs.)

Estimates of Y and CA are required to calculate RO and lag time K to calculate TB.

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5.4.1 Initial Retention (Y)

In arid and semi arid zones an initial retention of 5 mm could be considered. Elsewhere
zero initial retention could be assumed.

5.4.2 Contributing Area Coefficient (CA)

Contributing area coefficient is a coefficient that reflects the effects of the catchment
wetness and the land use. A grassed catchment at field capacity is taken as a standard
value of contributing area coefficient. The design value of the contributing area coefficient
could be estimated from the following equation.

C A = C S * CW * C L (Eqn. 5.8)

Where: CS = the standard value of contributing area coefficient for a grassed catchment
at field capacity
CW = the catchment wetness factor
CL = the land use factor

The three factors are given in Tables 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5

Table 5.3: Standard Contributing Area Coefficient (wet zone catchment, short grass
cover) after (4)

Soil Type
Catchment Slope Slightly Impeded
Well Drained Impeded Drainage
Drainage
Very Flat < 1.0 % 0.15 0.30
Moderate 1-4 % 0.09 0.38 0.40
Rolling 4-10 % 0.10 0.45 0.50
Hilly 10-20 % 0.11 0.50
Mountainous >20 % 0.12
Note: The soil types are based on the soil map contained in the Hand Book of Natural
Resources of East Africa

Table 5.4: Catchment Wetness Factor, after (4)

Catchment Wetness Factor

Rainfall Zone
Perennial Streams Ephemeral Streams
Wet Zone 1.0 1.0
Semi Arid Zone 1.0 1.0
Dry Zones (except West. Uganda) 0.75 0.50
West Uganda 0.60 0.30

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Table 5.5: Land Use Factor (base assumes short grass cover), after (4)

Land Use Land Use Factor

Largely bare soil 1.50
Intense cultivation (particularly in valleys) 1.50
Grass cover 1.00
Dense vegetation (particularly in valleys) 0.50
Ephemeral steam, sand filled valley 0.50
Swamp filled valley 0.33
Forest 0.33

5.4.3 Catchment lag Time (K)

The appropriate value of lag time can be estimated from Table 5.6. In assessing which
category to place a given catchment, it should be remembered that generally only small
areas either side of the stream are contributing to the flood hydrograph. It is these areas,
therefore, which must be assessed.

Table 5.6: Catchment Lag Time, after (4)

Catchment Type Lag Time (K) in hrs

Arid 0.1
Very steep small catchments (slope > 20 %) 0.1
Semi arid scrub (large bare soil patches) 0.3
Poor pasture 0.5
Good pasture 1.5
Cultivated land (down to river bank) 3.0
Forest, overgrown valley bottom 8.0
Papyrus swamp in valley bottom 20.0

5.4.4 Base Time

The rainfall time (TP) is the time during which the rainfall intensity remains at high level.
This can be approximated by the time during which 60 per cent of the total rainfall occurs.
Using the general intensity duration frequency equation as given in Ref.4:

(Eqn.5.9)
a
i=
( 0 .33 + t p ) c

the time to give 60 per cent of the total rainfall is given by solving the above equation.

c
t p æ 24.33 ö
0 .6 = ç ÷ (Eqn. 5.10)
24 çè t p + 0.33 ÷ø

Values for the various rainfall zones of East Africa are given in Table 5.7

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Table 5.7: Rainfall Time (TP) for East African 10 year Storm, after (4)

Rainfall time (T P)
Zone Index 'c'
(hr)
Inland zone 0.96 0.75
Coastal zone 0.76 4.0
Kenya Aberdare Uluguru Zone 0.85 2.0

The flood wave attenuation (TA) can be estimated from equation 5.11

0.028L
TA = 1 1
(Eqn. 5.11)
Q 4S 2

Where:
L = length of main stream (km)
Q = average flow during base time (m3/s)
S = average slope along main stream

The base time is, therefore, estimated from equation 5.12:

TB = TP + 2.3K + T A (Eqn. 5.12)

It is noted that Q appears in eqn. 5.12. as part of TA . So an iterative or trial end error
solution is required. If initially TA is assumed zero, two iterations could be adequate.
Knowing Q and F, the peak flow is calculated using Eqn. 5.5

5.4.5 Area Reduction Factor

The use of an area reduction factor Area Reduction Factor ARF is advised. The following
formula is widely used:

1 1
ARF = 1 - 0.04T 3
A 2

with T = TB, base time (h),and

A = catchment area in km2

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5.4.6 Example (Adopted from TRRL Laboratory Report 706 (4))

A 10 year average recurrence interval design flood is required for a catchment that has the
following details.

a) Area: 10 square kilometres

b) Land slope: 6 %
C) Channel slope: 3%
d) Channel length: 4 km
e) Grid reference: 5oS 35o E
f) Catchment type: Poor pasture

From Table 5.6, lag time (K) = 0.5 h

From Table 5.3, standard contributing area coefficient CS = 0.45
From Table 5.4, catchment wetness factor CW = 0.5
From Table 5.5, land use factor CL = 1.0
Therefore, the design value for CA = 0.23
Initial retention Y = 0

From Table 5.7, TP = 0.75 hrs.

Using Eqn. 5.12 with TA = 0

TB = 0.75 + 2.3 (0.5) = 1.9 hrs.

Rainfall during base time is given by:

c
T æ 24.33 ö 10
RTB = B çç ÷÷ * R 24
24 è TB + 0.33 ø
10
Where R 24
= daily rainfall of 10 years average recurrence interval

and c = 0.96 (Table 5.7)

Using rainfall maps:

Map 5.1: Daily point rainfall of Average recurrence interval 2 year = 63 mm

Map 5.2:10:2 yr ratio = 1.49

Remark: For rainfall base data of longer return period use of the ‘Rainfall Frequency Atlas of Kenya
(ref.6) is recommended.

Daily rainfall of average recurrence interval 10 yr = (63*1.49) = 94 mm

0.96
1.9 æ 24.33 ö
R1.9 = ç ÷ * 94 = 73.79mm
24 è 1.9 + 0.33 ø
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Area Reduction Factor is given by

1 1
ARF = 1 - 0.04T 3
A 2 = 0.84

Average Rainfall P = 73.79 x 0.84 = 61.98

RO = C A ( P - Y ) A *103

0.93 * RO
(Q ) = = 19.38 m3/s
3600 * TB
0.028L
TA 1 1
= 0.31 hrs
(Q) 4 S 2

TB (2nd approximation) = 1.9 + 0.31 = 2.21 hrs.

0.96
2.21 æ 24.33 ö
R2.2.1 = ç ÷ * 94 = 75.75
m
m
24 è 2.21 + 0.33 ø
ARF = 0.84
Therefore P = 63.63 mm
Q = 17.11 m3/sec
TA = 0.32 hrs (no change)
Therefore Q = F * Q
For K less than 0.5 hour F = 2.8
For K more than 1 hour, F = 2.3
For the case at hand, therefore, F = 2.8
Therefore, Q = 2.8 * 17.11
= 47.91 m3/sec

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References

1) Chow, V.T. ; ‘Handbook of Applied Hydrology’, McGraw Hill. 1964

2) Fiddes, D.; ‘The Prediction of Storm Rainfall in East Africa’ TRRL Report 623,
Crowthorne, 1974
3) Fiddes, D. and Watkins,L.H.; ’Highway and Urban Hydrology in the Tropics’, Pentech,
1984
4) Fiddes, D. ‘The East African Flood Model’, TRRL Report 706, Crowththorne 1976
5) Federal Highway Administration: Hydrology, , HEC No. 19, 1984
6) Rainfall Frequency Atlas of Kenya, Ministry of Water Development, 1978

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Map 5.1: Daily point Rainfall of Average Recurrence Interval 2 years, after Ref. (4).

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Map 5.2: 10:2 Ratio for Different Rainfall Zones in East Africa, after Ref. (4)

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6 Hydraulic Design of Culverts

6.1 Definitions and Symbols

A culvert is a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence to
increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used to convey surface runoff through
embankments. A culvert can be a structure, as distinguished from bridges, that is usually
covered with an embankment and is composed of structural material around the entire
perimeter. These include steel and concrete pipe culverts and concrete box culverts.
However, a culvert can also be a structure supported on spread footings with the
streambed serving as the bottom of the culvert. These include some multi-plate steel
structures and concrete slab culverts.

This chapter provides procedures for the hydraulic design of highway culverts that are
based on FHWA and AASHTO practice. It also refers to the method of culvert analysis
using HY8 culvert analysis software.

This chapter only aims at covering the hydraulic design of culverts. For structural issues or
aspects concerning the construction procedure of culvert the reader is referred to:

· Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Part 6a – Bridge and Culvert Design, 2009
· Standard Culvert and Drifts Manual, Part 6b, Construction Drawings
· Standard Small Span Concrete Bridges, Section 1 A Construction

The following are concepts that are important in culvert design:

Critical depth
The depth at which the specific energy of a given flow rate is at a minimum. For a given
discharge and cross-section geometry, there is only one critical depth. Charts 6-3 and 6-7
at the end of this chapter contain critical depth charts for circular pipe and rectangular
sections, respectively.

Crown
The crown of the culvert is the inside top of the culvert.

Flow Type
Seven culvert flow types are presented that assist in determining the flow conditions at a
particular site. Diagrams of these flow types are provided in Figures 6-1 to 6-7 in this
chapter.

Free Outlet
Free Outlet describes a tailwater equal to or lower than critical depth. For culverts with free
outlets, a lowering of the tailwater has no effect on the discharge or the backwater profile
upstream of the tailwater.

Improved Inlet
Has an entrance geometry that decreases the flow constriction at the inlet and thus
increases the capacity of culverts. These inlets are referred to as either side- or slope-
tapered (walls or bottom tapered).

Invert
Is the flowline of the culvert (inside bottom).

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Normal flow
Normal flow occurs in a channel reach when the discharge, velocity, and depth of flow do
not change throughout the reach. The water surface profile and channel bottom slope will
be parallel. This type of flow will exist in a culvert operating on a steep slope if the culvert
is sufficiently long enough.

Submerged
A submerged outlet occurs where the tailwater elevation is higher than the crown of the
culvert. A submerged inlet occurs where the headwater is greater than 1.2D.

To provide consistency within this chapter the following symbols are used. These symbols
are selected for their wide use in culvert publications.

Symbol Definition Units

A Area of cross section of flow m²

AHW Allowable HW m
B Barrel width m
D Culvert diameter or barrel height mm or m
d Depth of flow m
dc Critical depth of flow m
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
H Sum of HE + Hf + Ho m
Hb Bend headloss m
HE Entrance headloss m
Hf Friction headloss m
HL Total energy losses m
Ho Outlet or exit headloss m
Hv Velocity headloss m
ho Hydraulic grade line height above outlet invert m
HW Headwater depth (subscript indicates section) m
KE Entrance loss coefficient m
L Length of culvert m
n Manning’s roughness coefficient m
P Wetted perimeter m
Q Rate of discharge m3/s
R Hydraulic radius (A/P) m
S Slope of culvert m/m
TW Tailwater depth above invert of culvert m
V Mean velocity of flow with barrel full m/s
Vd Mean velocity in downstream channel m/s
Vo Mean velocity of flow at culvert outlet m/s
Vu Mean velocity in upstream channel m/s
g Unit weight of water N/m
t Tractive force Pa

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6.2 Principles of Design

The following principles are specific to culverts:

· All culverts shall be hydraulically designed.

· Overtopping flood selected is generally consistent with the class of highway and the
risk at the site. In our case, it shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 3:
Design Standards and Design Flow Return Periods

· Survey information shall include topographic features, channel characteristics, high-

water information, existing structures, and other related site-specific information.

· Culvert location in both plan and profile shall be investigated to avoid sediment build-
up in culvert barrels.

· The cost savings of multiple use (e.g.- utilities, stock and wildlife passage, and land
access) shall be weighed against the advantages of separate facilities.

· Culverts shall be designed to accommodate debris or proper provisions shall be

made for debris maintenance.

· Material selection shall include consideration of materials availability, and the service
life including abrasion and corrosion potentials.

· Culverts shall be located and designed to present a minimum hazard to traffic and
people.

· The detail of documentation for each culvert site shall be commensurate with the risk
and importance of the structure. Design data and calculations shall be assembled
and retained for future reference.

6.3 Design Criteria

6.3.1 Introduction

Listed below by categories are the design criteria that should be considered for the
hydraulic design of culverts. For culvert types, designs and construction drawings currently
used in Kenya reference is made the following documents:

· Standard Culvert and Drifts Manual, Part 1, Construction Drawings

· Standard Small Span Concrete Bridges, Section 1 A Construction

6.3.2 Site Criteria

6.3.2.1 Structure Type Selection

The type of drainage structure specified for a particular location is often determined based
on economic considerations. The following can serve as a guide in the selection of the
type of structure, proceeding from the most expensive to the least expensive. Note that
bridges are included in the text of this section to allow for a more complete progression in
the treatment of this topic.

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Bridges are used where they are more economical than a culvert, perhaps due to the
need to bury a culvert under a high level of fill. They are also employed to satisfy land use
requirements, to mitigate environmental harm possible with a culvert, to avoid floodway or
irrigation canal encroachments, and to accommodate large debris. For more information
the reader is referred to Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Part 6 A, Bridge and
Culvert Design, 2009.

Culverts are used where bridges are not hydraulically required, where debris is tolerable,
and where they are more economical than a bridge. Culverts can be concrete box culverts,
reinforced concrete pipe culverts, or corrugated metal culverts.

Concrete box culverts are constructed with a square or rectangular opening, and with
wingwalls at both ends. They are usually specified for larger flows, where the area of the
opening is larger than that available for manufactured concrete or metal pipe culverts.
They may also be used where the cost estimate indicates that concrete box culverts
constructed on site are less expensive than manufactured and/or imported pipe culverts.
An alternative sometimes employed is to use metal arch pipe, and for larger openings this
can be more economic than concrete.

Although metal pipe culverts are usually less expensive than concrete pipe culverts, a cost
estimate may indicate that this is not the case.

Certain corrosive soils can create problems with metal pipes, and this would have a
tendency to create a shift in favour of concrete pipes. However, the corrosive effects are
mitigated through the application of bitumen coating to the metal pipes. This adds slightly
to the cost of the metal pipe.

The use of headwalls and/or wingwalls with pipe culverts is generally dependent on factors
such as the slope and stability of the channel. Pipe culverts can often be placed
particularly on lower volume roads without headwalls or wingwalls.

6.3.2.2 Length and Slope

· The culvert invert shall be aligned with the channel bottom and the skew angle of the
stream, and
· The culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the roadway.

6.3.2.3 Debris Control

Where experience or physical evidence indicates the watercourse will transport a

heavy volume of controllable debris,

· for culverts located in mountainous or steep regions,

· for culverts that are under high fills, and
· where clean out access is limited;

access must be available to clean out the debris control device.

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6.3.3 Design Limitations

6.3.3.1 Allowable Headwater

Allowable Headwater is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end of the
culvert that will be limited by one or more of the following:
· will not damage up stream property,
· not higher than 300 mm below the edge of the shoulder,
· equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5,
· no higher than the low point in the road grade

6.3.3.2 Tailwater Relationship of Channel

· The hydraulic conditions downstream of the channel determine the tailwater depth
relationship for different discharges.
· Backwater curves at sensitive locations or single cross sections should be used. For
important structures several downstream cross sections are required.
· Critical depth and equivalent hydraulic grade line can be used if the culvert outlet is
operating with a free outfall.
· The high water elevation that has the same frequency as the design flood if events
are known to occur concurrently (statistically dependent) should be used to
evaluate the influence of confluences.

6.3.3.3 Maximum Velocity and Minimum Velocity

The maximum velocity at the culvert exit shall be consistent with the velocity in the natural
channel or shall be mitigated with channel stabilization and energy dissipation. It is
generally recommended to limit the exit velocity below 3m/s.
The minimum velocity in the culvert barrel should result in a tractive force (t=gdS) greater
than critical t of the transported streambed material at low flow rates. When streambed
material size is not known 0.8 meters per second should be used as approximation.

If clogging is probable, consider installation of a sediment trap or size culvert to facilitate

cleaning.

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Design Features

6.3.4.1 Culvert Sizes and Shape

The culvert size and shape selected is to be based on engineering and economic criteria
related to site conditions. The following absolute minimum sizes shall be used to avoid
maintenance problems and clogging:

Urban areas: Cross drainage min. 450 mm

Rural areas: Cross drainage min. 900 mm, 600 mm for access culverts.

Land use requirements can dictate a larger or different barrel geometry than required for
hydraulic considerations

6.3.4.2 Multiple Barrels

Multiple barrel culverts should fit within the natural dominant channel with only minor
widening of the channel to avoid conveyance loss through sediment deposition in some of
the barrels. When the approach flow is supercritical, either a single barrel or special inlet
treatment is required to avoid adverse hydraulic jump effects. It is good practice to install
one barrel at the flow line of the stream while other barrels are set slightly higher to reduce
sedimentation.

Where ever possible double cell pipe culverts should be replaced with single cell box
culverts in order to avoid the problem of piling up of debris against the ineffective middle
section.

6.3.4.3 Material Selection

Concrete is the preferred material for construction of culverts, however, other materials
may be more suitable for a particular location, hydraulic roughness, bedding condition, or
project. In evaluating the suitability of alternate materials, the selection process shall be
based on a comparison of the total cost of alternate materials over the design life of the
structure that is dependent upon the following:

· durability (service life)

· cost
· availability
· construction and maintenance ease
· structural strength
· traffic delays
· abrasion and corrosion resistance, and
· water tightness requirements
A pipe material other than concrete may be accepted as an alternate if the substitution is
supported by evidence that the hydraulic capacity, strength, durability, abrasion, and
corrosion resistance of the concrete pipe specified is equaled or exceeded. In addition, any
substitution must be analyzed in terms of cost and availability. Corrugated metal pipe, if
permitted, shall be protected at the ends by headwalls. Use of corrugated metal pipes with
projecting ends is not recommended.

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6.3.4.4 Further Reference

For further design features, reference is made the commonly used culvert and bridge
design specification documents used in Kenya:

· Standard Culvert and Drifts Manual, Part 1, Construction Drawings

· Standard Small Span Concrete Bridges, Section 1 A Construction
· Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Part 6 A, Bridge and Culvert Design, 2009.

6.4 Culvert Design Hydraulics

6.4.1 Introduction and Calculation Principles

An exact theoretical analysis of culvert flow is extremely complex because the following is
required:
· analyzing non-uniform flow with regions of both gradually varying and rapidly
varying flow,
· determining how the flow type changes as the flow rate and tailwater
elevations change,
· applying backwater and drawdown calculations, energy, and momentum
balance,
· applying the results of hydraulic model studies, and
· determining if hydraulic jumps occur and if they are inside or downstream of
the culvert barrel
The procedures in this chapter use the following principles:
· Control Section
The location where there is a unique relationship between the flow rate and the upstream
water surface elevation. Inlet control is governed by the inlet geometry. Outlet control is
governed by a combination of the culvert inlet geometry, the barrel characteristics, and the
tailwater.

· Minimum Performance
Is assumed by analyzing both inlet and outlet control and using the highest headwater.
The culvert may operate more efficiently at times (more flow for a given headwater level),
but it will not operate at a lower level of performance than calculated.

6.4.2 Inlet and Outlet Control

A culvert may flow with either inlet or outlet control over its full design discharge range.
Alternatively flow through the culvert may vary with discharge from inlet to outlet control.
The designer should check both inlet and outlet control to determine the governing
headwater depth. The following sections are aimed to guide the designer on these issues.

6.4.2.1 Inlet Control

Culverts flowing with inlet control usually lie on relatively steep gradients and flow only
partly full. Guidance for the sizing of culverts for inlet control are adapted from publications
by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, and from AASHTO model drainage manual.

For inlet control, the control section is at the upstream end of the barrel (the inlet). The flow
passes through critical depth near the inlet and becomes shallow, high velocity

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(supercritical) flow in the culvert barrel. Depending on the tailwater, a hydraulic jump may
occur downstream of the inlet.

Headwater depth is measured from the inlet invert of the inlet control section to the surface
of the upstream pool. The inlet area is the cross-sectional area of the face of the culvert.
Generally, the inlet face area is the same as the barrel area. Inlet edge configuration
describes the entrance type. Some typical inlet edge configurations include thin edge
projecting, mitred edges, square edges in a headwall, and beveled edges. Inlet shape is
usually the same as the shape of the culvert barrel. Typical shapes are rectangular,
circular, elliptical, and arch. It is necessary to check for additional control section if the
shape of inlet is different from that of the barrel.

Flow with inlet control can be further subdivided into different flow regions depending on
whether inlet is submerged or unsubmerged. Hydraulically, three regions of flow are
known: unsubmerged, transition, and submerged types of flow regions.

Unsubmerged Zone
For headwater below the inlet crown, the entrance operates as a weir (see Figure 6.1). A
weir is a flow control section where the upstream water surface elevation can be predicted
for a given flow rate. The relationship between flow and water surface elevation can be
determined by model tests of the weir geometry or by measuring prototype discharges.

Figure 6.1: Unsubmerged Flow Inlet Control

Submerged Zone
For headwaters above the inlet, the culvert operates as an orifice (see Figure 6.2). An
orifice is an opening, submerged on the upstream side and flowing freely on the
downstream side, which functions as a control section.

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Figure 6.2: Submerged Flow Inlet Control

Transition Zone
The transition zone is located between the unsubmerged and the submerged flow
conditions where the flow is poorly defined. This zone is approximated by plotting the
unsubmerged and submerged flow equations and connecting them with a line tangential to
both curves as shown in Figure 6.11

Nomographs applicable for Inlet Control

The inlet control flow versus headwater curves, which are established using the above
procedure, are the basis for constructing the inlet control design nomographs. Note that in
the inlet control nomographs, Hw is measured to the total upstream energy grade line
including the approach velocity head. Inlet control nomographs are given in Chart 6.1, 6.2
and 6.6.

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6.4.2.2 Outlet Control

Outlet control has depths and velocity that are subcritical. The control of the flow is at the
downstream end of the culvert (the outlet). The tailwater depth is assumed to be critical
depth near the culvert outlet or in the downstream channel, whichever is higher. In a given
culvert, the type of flow is dependent on all of the barrel factors such as barrel roughness,
barrel area, barrel length, barrel slope and so on. Outlet control flow is illustrated in Figure
6.3.

Figure 6.3 Outlet Control

Figure 6.4 Submerged Pipe Flowing Full, Inlet Control

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Outlet controlled culvert flows are calculated with an energy (total head) equation.
Occasionally a backwater calculation through the culvert is required. The energy equations
are expressed below based on schematic diagram of Figure 6.3.

Ignoring the outlet velocity head, the energy equation between u/s and d/s ends of the
culvert:

Hw + SoL = Tw + H (Eqn.6.1)

where:

Hw: depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
So : slope of channel
L : length of channel
Tw: tailwater depth
H : head losses

Losses are composed of :

HL = HE + Hf + Hv + Hb + Hj + Hg (Eqn.6.2)

where:

HL = total energy loss, m

HE = entrance loss, m
HF = friction losses, m
HV = exit loss (velocity head), m
Hb = bend losses, m
Hj = losses at junctions, m
Hg = losses at grates, m

Velocity V = Q/A (Eqn.6.3)

where:

V = average barrel velocity, m/s

Q = flow rate, m3/s
A = cross sectional area of flow with the barrel full, m2

Velocity Head Hv = V2/2g (Eqn.6.4)

where:

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2

Entrance Loss

HE = KE (V2/2g) (Eqn.6.5a)

where:

KE = entrance loss coefficient, see Table 6.2

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Friction Loss

HF = [(19.63n2L)/R1.33] [V2/2g) (Eqn.6.5b)

where:

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

L = length of the culvert barrel, m
R = hydraulic radius of the full culvert barrel = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter of the barrel, m exit Loss

Ho = 1.0 [(V2/2g) - (Vd2/2g)] (Eqn.6.5c)

where:

Vd= channel velocity downstream of the culvert, m/s (usually neglected,

resulting in equation (6.5d)).

Ho = HV = V2/2g (Eqn.6.5d)

Barrel Losses

H = HE + Ho+HF
H = [1 + Ke + (19.63n2L/R1.33)] [V2/2g] (Eqn.6.6)

The energy grade line represents the total energy at any point along the culvert barrel.
Equating the total energy at sections 1 and 2, upstream and downstream of the culvert
barrel in Figure 6.3, the following relationship results:

HW o + ( Vu2/2g) = TW + (Vd2/2g) + HL (Eqn.6.7)

where:
HW o= headwater depth above the outlet invert, m
Vu = approach velocity, m/s
TW = tailwater depth above the outlet invert, m
Vd = downstream velocity, m/s
HL = sum of all losses (equation 6.2)
The hydraulic grade line is the depth to which water would rise in vertical tubes connected
to the sides of the culvert barrel. In full flow, the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade
line are parallel lines separated by the velocity head except at the inlet and the outlet.

Nomographs applicable to outlet control

Nomographs (full flow) - The nomographs were developed assuming that the culvert barrel
is flowing full and:

· TW > D, Outlet Control (see figure 6.3) or;

· dc > D, Inlet Control (see figure 6.4);
· Vu is small and its velocity head can be considered a part of the available
headwater (HW) used to convey the flow through the culvert;
· Vd is small and its velocity head can be neglected; and,
· Equation 6.7 will appear in same form as equation 6.1. With rearrangement it
becomes:

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HW = TW + H - SoL (Eqn.6.8)

where:

HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m

H = is the value read from the nomographs (or equation 9.6), m
SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m

Nomographs (Partly full flow)

Equations (6.1) through (6.8) were developed for full barrel flow. The equations also apply
to the flow situations which are effectively full flow conditions, if TW < dc, Figure 6-5.

Figure 6.5: Partly full flow

Backwater calculations may be required that begin at the downstream water surface and
proceed upstream. If the depth intersects the top of the barrel, a full flow extends from that
point upstream to the culvert entrance.

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Nomographs: FHWA Approximation

It has been found that the hydraulic grade line pierces the plane of the culvert outlet at a
point one-half way between critical depth and the top of the barrel or (dc + D)/2 above the
outlet invert. For such situation, TW should be used if higher than (dc + D)/2. Generally, the
following equation should be used:

HW =ho+ H -SoL (Eqn.6.9)

where:

ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2, m

Adequate results are obtained down to a HW = 0.75D. For lower headwaters, backwater
calculations are required. (See Figure 6.6 if TW < dc and Figure 6.7 if TW > dc)

Figure 6.6 Flow Condition, TW < dc

Figure 6.7 Flow Condition, TW > dc

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6.5 Design Procedure

The following design procedure provides a convenient and organized method for designing
culverts for a constant discharge, considering inlet and outlet control.

The computation form has been provided as Figure 6-10 to guide the user. It contains
blocks for the project description, designer’s identification, hydrologic data, culvert
dimensions and elevations, trial culvert description, inlet and outlet control HW, culvert
barrel selected, and comments.

The overall procedure is resumed in Flowchart 6-1 at the end of this section

Step 1: Assemble Site Data and Project File

A: Hydrographic Survey, Data include

· topographic, site, and location maps
· embankment cross section
· roadway profile
· photographs
· field visit (sediment, debris) and
· design data of nearby structures

B: Studies by other agencies including Ministry of Water Resources

C: Environmental constraints contained in environmental review documents
D: Design criteria. Review Chapter 3: for applicable design criteria, and prepare risk
assessment, if necessary.

Step 2: Determine Hydrology

Minimum data required—drainage area maps, rainfall intensities at design return

period

Step 3: Design Downstream Channel

Minimum data are cross section of channel and the rating curve for channel

Step 4: Summarize Data on Design Form (see Form 6-1)

Use data from Steps 1-3

Step 5: Design Limitations

A: See Section 6.3. subchapter Design Features.

B: Choose culvert material, shape, size, and entrance type

Step 6 : Select Design Discharge Qd

A: See Section 6.3: subchapter Design Limitations

B: Determine flood frequency
C: Determine Q from Rational Method or TRRL Method
D: Divide Q by the number of barrels

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Step 7: Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)

Use the inlet control nomograph (Chart 6-1, 6-2 or 6-6) (NOTE: A plastic sheet with a
matte finish can be used for marking such that the nomographs can be preserved.)

A: Locate the size or height on the scale

B: Locate the discharge

· for a circular shape use discharge

· for a box shape use Q per meter of width

C: Locate HW/D ratio using a straightedge

· extend a straight line from the culvert size through the flow rate
· mark the first HW/D scale. Extend a horizontal line to the desired scale, read
HW/D, and note on Charts

D: Calculate headwater depth (HW)

· multiply HW/D by D to obtain HW to energy gradeline

· neglecting the approach velocity HW i = HW
· including the approach velocity HWi = HW - approach velocity head

Step 8: Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)

A: Calculate the tailwater depth (TW) using the design flow rate and normal depth
(single section) or using a water surface profile

B: Calculate critical depth (dc) using appropriate chart (Chart 6-3 or 6-7)

· locate flow rate and read dc

· dc cannot exceed D

C: Calculate (dc + D)/2

D: Determine (ho)
ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2)

E: Determine entrance loss coefficient (KE) from Table 6-2

F: Determine losses through the culvert barrel (H)

· use nomograph charts or equation 6.5 or 6.6 if outside

range
· locate appropriate KE scale
· locate culvert length (L) or (L1):
· use (L) if Manning’s n matches the n value of the culvert
and
· use (L1) to adjust for a different culvert n value
L1 = L(n1/n)2 (Eqn.6-10)
Where:
L1 = adjusted culvert length, m
L = actual culvert length, m
n1 = desired Manning n value
n = Manning n value on chart

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§ mark point on turning line

§ use a straightedge and
§ connect size with the length

· read (H)

§ use a straightedge
§ connect Q and turning point and

· read (H) on Head Loss scale

G: Calculate outlet control headwater (HW)

· use equation 6.11, if Vu and Vd are neglected

HW oi = H + ho - SoL (Eqn. 6.11)

· use equation 6.1, 6.4c, and 6.6 to include Vu and Vd.

· if HWoi is less than 1.2D and control is outlet control

§ the barrel may flow partly full

§ the approximate method of using the greater tailwater or (dc+
D)/2 may not be applicable
§ backwater calculations should be used to check the result and
§ if the headwater depth falls below 0.75D, the approximate
method shall not be used

Step 9: Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)

Compare HW i and HW oi, use the higher

· HWc = HWi, if HW i > HW oi Þ the culvert is in inlet control

· HWc = HWoi, if HW oi > HWi Þ the culvert is in outlet control

Step 10: Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr )

Calculate depth above the roadway (HWr)

HWr = HWc - HWov

HW ov = height of road above inlet invert

· If HWr £ 0, Qr = 0
· If HWr > 0, determine Qr

Step 11: Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

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Qt = Qd + Qr (Eqn.6.12)

Step 12: Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn)

If inlet control is the controlling headwater :

a. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit

· use normal depth (dn)
· use water surface profile
b. Calculate flow area (A)
c. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A

If outlet control is the controlling headwater:

a. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit

· use (dc) if dc > TW
· use (TW) if dc < TW < D
· use (D) if D < TW
b. Calculate flow area (A)
c. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A

Step 13: Review Results

Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any of the following are
exceeded, repeat Steps 5 through 12

· the barrel must have adequate cover

· the length should be close to the approximate length
· the headwalls and wingwalls must fit site conditions
· the allowable headwater should not be exceeded and
· the allowable overtopping flood frequency should not be exceeded

Step 14: Plot Performance Curve

Repeat Steps 6 through 12 with a range of discharges

Use the following upper limit for discharge

· Q100 if Qd £ Q100
· Q500 if Qd > Q100
· Qmax if no overtopping is possible
· Qmax = largest flood that can be estimated

Step 15: Related Designs

Consider the following options (See Sections 6.3: Design Features)

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· Tapered inlets if culvert is in inlet control and has limited available

headwater
· Energy dissipators if Vo is larger than the normal V in the downstream
channel
· Sediment control storage for sites with sediment concerns such as
alluvial fans

Step 16: Documentation

Prepare report and file with background information

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T able 6-2 Entrance Loss Coefficient (Outlet Control, Full or Partially Full)

He = Ke (V2/2g)

Type of Structure and Design of Entrance Coefficient ke

Pipe, concrete
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
End-section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = 1/12D) 0.2
Socket end of pipe (groove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove-end) 0.2
Beveled edges, 33.7˚ or 45˚ bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Pipe, or pipe-arch, corrugated metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Mitered to conform to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square-edge 0.5
End-section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7˚ or 45˚ bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides) square-edged at 0.7
crown
Wingwalls, 10˚ to 25˚ or 30˚ to 75˚ to barrel, square-edged 0.5
at crown
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension 0.2
Beveled edges on 3 sides 0.2
Wingwalls at 30˚ to 75˚ to barrel, crown edge rounded to 0.2
radius of 1/12 barrel dimension, or beveled top edge
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2

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6.6 Software Applications for Culvert Design

As culvert hydraulics are extremely complicated various software products are freely
available to assist the lengthy process of culvert design as described above. The most
widely use applications have been developed by the American Federal Highway Authority
(HY8) or the Hydraulic Engineering Corps (HEC). HEC RAS 4 can be applied for all kinds
of water level calculations concerning floodplain crossings, multiple culvert calculations
and bridge hydraulics.

The application of these software tools is highly recommended for checking the design
results reached by the Nomograph Method described below.

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6.7 Nomograph Design Example
The following example problem follows the Design Procedure Steps described in Section
6.5

Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File

A: Site survey project file contains:

Figure 6-8 Cross-Section

· roadway profile and

· embankment cross section (see Figure 6-8)

Site visit notes indicate

· no sediment or debris problems and
· no nearby structures

B: Studies by other agencies – none

C: Environmental risk assessment shows

· no buildings near floodplain
· no sensitive floodplain values and
· convenient detours exist

D: Design criteria
· 50-year frequency for design and
· 100-year frequency for check

Step 2: Determine Hydrology

TRRL equations yield

· Q50 = 11.3 m3/s
· Q100 = 14.16m3/s

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Step 3: Design Downstream Channel (see figure 6-9)

Figure 6-9 Cross-Section of Channel (Slope = 0.05 m/m)

Point Station, m Elevation, m

1 3.7 54.86
2 6.7 53.34
3 9.8 53.19
4 10.4 52.58
5 11.9 52.58
6 12.5 53.19
7 15.5 53.34
8 18.6 54.86

Q (m3/s) TW (m)
2.83 0.43
5.66 0.63
8.50 0.76
11.33 0.85
14.16 0.93

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Step 4: Summarize Data on Design Form (see Figure 6-10)

Figure 6.10: Completed Design Form

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Step 5: Select Design Alternative

Shape - Box
Size - 2135 mm by 1830 mm
Material – Concrete
Entrance - Wingwalls, 45o bevel, rounded

Step 6: Select Design Discharge

(Qd = Q50 = 11.33 m3/s)

Step 7: Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)

Use inlet control nomograph - Chart 6-6

a. D = 1.83 m
b. Q/B = 11.33/2.13 = 5.32
c. HW/D = 1.27 for 45o bevel
d. HWi = (HW/D)D = (1.27)1.83 = 2.32 m (Neglect the approach velocity)

Step 8: Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)

a. TW = 0.85 m for Q50 = 11.33 m3/s

b. dc = 1.43 m from Chart 6-7
c. (dc + D)/2 = (1.43 + 1.83)/2 = 1.63 m
d. ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2)
ho = (dc + D)/2 = 1.63 m
e. KE = 0.2 from Table 6-2
f. Determine (H) - use Chart 6-8
· KE scale = 0.2
· culvert length (L) = 90 m
· n = 0.012 same as on chart
· area = 3.90 m2
· H = 0.85 m
g. HWoi = H + ho - SoL = 0.85 + 1.63 - (0.05)90 = - 2.02 m
HWoi is less than 1.2D, but control is inlet control, outlet control
computations are for comparison only
Step 9: Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)

· HWc = HW i = 2.32 m > HWoi = - 2.02 m

· The culvert is in inlet control

Step 10: Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)

a. Calculate depth above the roadway:

HWr = HWc - HWov = 2.32 – 2.59 = - 0.27m

b. If HWr £ 0, Qr = 0

Step 11: Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

Qt = Qd + Qr = 11.33 m3/s + 0 = 11.33 m3/s

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Step 12: Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn)

Inlet Control
a. Calculate normal depth (dn):
Q = (1/n)A R2/3 S1/2 = 11.33 m3/s
= (1/0.012)(2.13*dn)[(2.13*dn/(2.13+2dn)]2/3(0.05).5
= (2.13*dn)[2.13*dn/(2.13+2dn)]2/3 = 0.608
try dn = 0.6 m, 0.675 > 0.608
use dn= 0.55 m, 0.596 » 0.608

b. A = (2.13)0.55 = 1.17 m2
c. Vo = Q/A = 11.33/1.17 = 9.68 m/s

Step 13: Review Results

Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any of the following are
exceeded repeat, Steps 5 through 12
· barrel has (2.59 m – 1.83 m) = .76 m of cover
· L = 90 is OK, since inlet control
· headwalls and wingwalls fit site
· allowable headwater (2.59 m) > 2.32 m is ok and
· overtopping flood frequency > 50-year

Step 14: Plot Performance Curve

Use Q100 for the upper limit, Steps 6 through 12 should be repeated for each discharge
used to plot the performance curve, these computations are provided on the computation
form, Figure 6-11 that follows this example.

Step 15: Related Designs

Consider the following options (see Section 6.3: Design Features)

a. Consider tapered inlets, culvert is in inlet control and has limited available headwater

· No flow routing, a small upstream headwater pool exists

· Consider energy dissipators since Vo= 9.5 m/s > 6 m/s in the downstream
channel
· No sediment problem

Step 16: Documentation

Report prepared and background filed

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Figure 6-11 Performance Curve for Design

Example

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CHART 6.1

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CHART 6.2

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CHART 6-3 – CRITICAL DEPTH – CIRCULAR PIPE

This curves are obtained from the following formula :

With :
3
Q – Discharge (m /s)
2
g - gravity constant (m/s )
Dc – Critical depth (m)
q, qr - See sketch (degree, radian)

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CHART 6.4

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CHART 6.5

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CHART 6.6

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Chart 6-7

1,6

1,4

1,2
Critical Depth-dc (Meters)

0,8

0,6 dc CANNOT EXCEED TOP OF PIPE

0,4

0,2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q/B

4,5

4
Critical Depth-dc (Meters)

3,5

2,5 dc CANNOT EXCEED TOP OF PIPE

1,5

1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Q/B

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CHART 6.8

Q=flow (m3/s)
B=base of section (m)
Dc=0.467 (Q/B ) 2/3

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Assemble Site data,

profile, cross-section,
design criteria, hydrology,
channels…
Using one of the nomographs
Using
(Chart 6-1,one
6-2oforthe
6-3nomographs
according to
Select design alternative : Select design the(Chart 7-1,
type of 7-2 orto7-3
culvert) according
determine
Shape, size, material… discharge Qd to theand
HW/D type
HW.of culvert) determine
HW/D and HW.

END
Is
Considerdesign
design option
options The approach Yes
Consider
depending onon the
the results. velocity V
depending results.
See7.3
6.3:: Design neglectable ?
See Design Features
features
No
Yes Hwi = HW
Hwi = HW-V²/2g

Do you
have enough values to Yes
plot performance Compute the Tailwater depth TW
curve ? Compute the Tailwater
(see 6.3 Design depth
Limitations)
TW (See 7.3 DESIGN
LIMITATIONS)
No Yes

Are results in Calculate critical depth (dc) using chart

Calculate6-3critical
or 6-7depth (dc)
agreement with cons-
using chart 7-3 or 7-7
traints and assump-
tions ?

Ho= Max (TW,dc+D/2)

Compute Outlet velocity Vo

and depth dn Determine Ke (see Table 6-2)
Determine Ke (See Table 7-2)

Compute total discharge : Determine lossloss

Detrmine H through
H throughthe culvert using
the culvert
Qt=Qd+Qr Eqn. using
6.5 forEquation
a full barrel
7.5(Y=Q/Section
for a full
barrel.(V=Q/Section)

Compute drainage Qr=0

Calculate outlet control
over roadway Qr. headwater HWoi=H+Ho-SoL

Yes
No
HWc= HWi Yes HWi>Hwoi ?
HWc-HWov>0 ? Inlet control
(HWov=height of road
above inlet invert) No
Yes
HWc= Hwoi HWoi>1.2D ?
Outlet control

Flowchart 6-1 Design of Culverts No

(See Procedure in section 6-5) Approximation has to
be checked (see Step 8)

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Form 6-1

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References

1) J.M Norman, R.J. Houghtalen, W.J. Johnston, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts,"
HDS No. 5, FUWA-IP-85-15, FUWA, Washington, D.C. 20590,1985
2) G.K. Young, J.S. Krolak, HYDRAIN - Integrated Drainage Design Computer System,
Volumes 1-6, FUWA-RD-88-120, FUWA, 1987.
3) A. Ginsberg, HY8 - Culvert Analysis Microcomputer Program, Applications Guide,
FHWA-EPD-87-101, and software available from McTrans Center, 512 Weil Hall,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611.
4) "Guidelines for the Hydraulic Design of Culverts," Task Force on Hydrology and
Hydraulics, Subcommittee on Design, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, 341 National Press Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20045, 1975.
5) G.L. Bodhaine, Measurement of Peak Discharge at Culverts by Indirect Methods,
Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the USGS, Chapter A3, 1982.
6) G. Reihsen and L.J. Harrison, "Debris Control Structures," BEC No. 9, Hydraulics
Branch, Bridge Division, Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington, D.C. 20590,
August 1971.
7) S.W. Jens, "Design of Urban Highway Drainage - The State of the Art," FHWA-TS-79-
225, Hydraulics Branch, Bridge Division, Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington,
D.C. 20590, August 1979
8) "Design of Small Canal Structures," Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Co., 1974.
9) 'Culvert Design System," FHWA-TS-80-245, Hydraulics Section, Wyoming Highway
Department, Cheyenne, Wyoming 82006, December 1980.
10) "Design Charts For Open Channel Flow," HDS No. 3, Hydraulics Branch, Bridge
Division, Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington, D.C. 20590, 1973.
11) J.N. Bradley, "Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways," HDS No. 1, Second Edition,
Hydraulics Branch, Bridge Division, Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington, D.C.
20590, September 1973.
12) J.O. Shearman, W.H. Kirby, V.R. Schneider, and H.N. Flippo, "Bridge Waterways
Analysis Model, "FHWA-RD-86-108, FHWA, Washington, D.C.
13) H.W. King and E.F. Brater, "Handbook of Hydraulics, 'I Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1976.
14) FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 (HDS5), Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts.
15) AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, 1992.

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DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009
7 Drifts and Low Level Crossings

7.1 Introduction
Design flows at river crossings often substantially exceed the capacity of small to medium
type culvert structures as described in Chapter 7. However, due to economic or technical
constraints it is not always possible to construct high level bridges at these locations. Low
level crossings, which also come under the name of drifts, fords, irish crossing or vented
drifts, can offer a cost effective alternative.

It is the aim of this chapter to provide assistance to the engineer concerning:

· the choice of type of low level crossing
· the technical and economic aspects to be taken into consideration, and
· the hydrological and hydraulic design process

7.2 Definition and Terminology

A Low Level River Crossings (LLRC) is a submersible road structure, designed in such
way as to experience no or limited damage when overtopped. This type of structure is
appropriate when the inundation of a road for short periods is acceptable.

Different names of Low Level Crossings are used in many part of the world, such as:

· Low Level River Crossing

· Low Level Bridge
· Submersible Crossing
· Irish Crossing
· Causeway
· Vented Causeway
· Drift
· Ford
· Submersible bridge
· etc..

In order to clearly define the different type of structures the following classification of LLRC
is proposed:

7.2.1 Drifts

A drift is defined as a specifically prepared surface for vehicles to drive over when crossing
a river. A drift does not contain any openings underneath the surface for allowing passing
water through. The surface layer may consist of gravel, concrete, grouted stone concrete
blocs held together longitudinally with polyester, galvanised steel or stainless steel cables.
Drifts are also referred to in the literature as Fords.

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Figure 7.1: Example of drifts

7.2.2 Causeway

A vented causeway (also referred to as a causeway) in essence also consists of a suitable

surface layer over which vehicles may drive, but contains openings underneath allowing
water to pass through the structure.

These openings may be of circular or rectangular shape and can be formed by means of
pre-cast pipes or portal culverts, corrugated iron void formers, short spun decks etc.
Vented causeways are also referred to in the literature as Vented Fords

Vented causeways with several openings under the actual roadway could have the
following functions:

· To reduce the water level upstream of the structure

· To raise the tailwater level, so less embankment protection is required on the

downstream side

· To act as anti – ponding structures

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Figure 7.2: Example of vented causeways

7.2.3 Submersible Bridges

A submersible bridge is defined as a structure consisting of a short – span deck (typically

between 4 and 7.5 m) supported by a sub structure consisting of two abutments and any
number of piers. The height of the deck above the riverbed is usually lass than 2m.

Additional information on low level crossing structures can be found under Section 5.8 ,
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Part 6 a Bridge and Culvert Design

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7.3 Application Characteristics

7.3.1 Basic Characteristics

· LLRC are designed to be inundated from time to time

· Construction costs are considerably lower than those for a conventional
bridge

LTRC are appropriate under the following circumstances:

· when short-term disruption of traffic is acceptable

· when alternative routes exists which can be taken during flood periods
· where high level crossings are not economically justified

The following limitations of LLRC have to be taken into consideration:

· The fact that the crossing might not be usable from time to time
· The risk that drivers might try to use the crossings during flood flow and and
of being washed away
· The level of maintenance, which might be required after flooding events.

7.3.2 Road Network Considerations

If a particular community has only one access road only and the access road crosses a
river without a structure, the decision whether to construct a LLRC or a high – level bridge
depends on the acceptability of short periods of inaccessibility, the construction costs and
the economic justification of the options.

With large rivers, attention should be paid to the total road network in the area, the number
and locations of river crossing structures, as well as the levels of these structures in terms
of design return period. Rather than designing all river crossing structures for the same
return period, variations in the return periods used for design can be considered. In this
way the number of accessible structures during flooding will be reduced, whilst alternatives
remain available. In contrast with the first option a situation may occur where all the
structures under consideration are overtopped at the same time.

7.4 Design Considerations

7.4.1 Site selection

As with all river crossing structures LLRC should be located within a straight section of the
river where the river flow is as uniform as possible. Riverbanks on the outside of bends
tend to erode which might lead to the floodwater by-passing the structure during flooding.

Where the width of a river channel varies, the advantages of locating the structure in a
narrower section should be compared to those associated with location I a wider section.
Benefits of a narrower section are shorter length and, therefore, lower construction costs.
Benefits of narrower section also cover the possibility that the narrower section is
associated with less weathered in-situ material, which may offer better foundation
conditions.

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Benefits of a wider section in the river are that flow velocity is relatively low with shallower
depth. These two benefits reduce the risk that the structure maybe damaged and
increases the safety of vehicles crossing the structure.

Crossing the river at a skew should be avoided. A skew approach, coupled with the
possible blocking of opening with debris tends to direct the full force of the river towards on
of the riverbanks, which increases the possibility of the approach being washed away.

The structure should be straight. A horizontally curved structure will be subject to similar
problems of undesirable concentration of flow.

7.4.2 Hydrological Considerations

Design flow return periods are to chosen from Chapter 3.

The recommended methods for design flood calculations are explained in Chapter 4 and 5
of the Design Manual. Generally is it not required to achieve high accuracy of flood water
estimation as the structure is designed to be overtopped.

In many cases it is thus sufficient to apply the Rational Method for flood calculation. If the
theoretical submergence period is of concern, the TRRL Method has to be applied in order
estimate the duration of flood flow above a certain flood level, associated with a specific
flood return period.

7.4.3 Hydraulic Design

In this section the design procedure for both, standard drifts and vented drifts are
discussed.

The capacity of a structure is determined as the sum of the discharge that could be
accommodated over the structure within acceptable depth, and the discharge to be
accommodated underneath the structure. The sum is then compared to the design
discharge, Qdesign, in order to evaluate the adequacy of the structure.

Flow over the structure

Decide on the maximum flow depth over the structure through which a vehicle will still be
able to pass safely (l00 mm for supercritical flow due to the high momentum transfer
associated with the velocities, and 150 mm for subcritical flow over the structure.

Determine the discharge that could be accommodated over the structure. As a first
assumption, especially if the slope in the direction of flow is 2 to 3% as recommended
elsewhere, assume this flow to be supercritical. For supercritical channel flow over the
structure:

Qover = ( Aover 5/3 * So 0.5 )/ (n Pover2/3) (Eqn. 7.1)

Where:

Qover = the discharge that could be accommodated over the structure within the
selected flow depth (m3/s)

Aover = area of flow over structure at the flow depth selected m

So = slope in direction of flow, for example 0,02 or 0,03 mlm

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NCONC = Manning n-value. For a concrete deck nCONC can be taken as 0,016 s/ml/3
wetted perimeter at the flow depth selected (m)

Aover and Pover are calculated as follows:

Aover = A1 + A2 + A3, or (Eqn.:7.2)

Pover = P1 + P2 + P3, or (Eqn.: 7.3)

AI, A2, A3 = areas defined in Figure 7.4 (m2)

d = depth of flow over the structure (m)
K = the K value for vertical curve 1
K2 = the K value for vertical curve 3

With K being a vertical road alignment parameter, defined as the horizontal length of road
required for a 1 % change in the gradient of the road.

Figure 7.3: Cross section through river at drift

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Figure 7.4: Cross section through structure at drift

The vertical road alignment, K (K1 and K3) should not be confused with K1nl and Kout
following below. The symbol K is used because it is the symbol used in vertical road
design methodology.

Note that in the calculation of the flow over the structure the effect of guide-blocks are for simplicity
reasons ignored.

Flow through the structure

Flow under the structure is in essence flow through a culvert opening as discussed in section 6.5.
However, as the bridge deck represents an obstacle to flow over the structure a slightly adapted
way of culvert calculation is recommended for the flow through the structure.

Assume outlet control

The flow passing through the structure is defined as Qunder , where

Qunder = Vunder * A eff (Eqn.: 7.4)

(Eqn.: 7.5)

where:

Acff = the effective inlet area through the structure (m2) = Acell (the effective
inlet area through the structure)
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LB = the total width of the deck of the structure (m)

Vunder = the average velocity of flow through the structure (m/s)

C = factor that reflects the transition losses

Determine the total energy height (Hj) upstream of the structure and the water level at the outlet of
the structure:

Assumption: Since the water is dammed by the structure, the velocity v1 = 0 m/s

H1 = h +x+ D (Eqn.: 7.6)

Where:

x = the thickness of the deck (depending on the structural design) (m)

D = the height of the soffit of the deck above the river invert level (m)

By applying the conservation of energy principle, determine the depth upstream of the structure, h,
that is required to pass the flow rate, Qover:

h = (v22/2g) + d (Eqn.: 7.7)

with v2 = Qover/Aover (Eqn.: 7.8)

H2 = D - LbSo (Eqn.: 7.9)

where:

LB = the total width of the deck of the structure (m)

So = slope of the conduit underneath the structure (m/m)

C is a factor representing the local or transition losses due to flow convergence/divergence at the
inlet/outlet:

C = ∑(K inl. + Koutl.) each cell (Eqn.: 7.10)

Kinl and Koutl. Are determined as followed for rectangular sections:

::
Kinl. at outlet control Sudden transition Kinl = 0.5
Gradual transition Kinl = 0.25
Koutl. at outlet control Sudden transition Koutl.= 1.0
Gradual transition Koutl. = 1.0 for 45º<ɵ<80º
0.7 for Θ = 30º
0.2 for Θ = 15º

Where Θ is the diversion angle.

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neff is the effective Manning n-value for flow through the structure

neff = ∑(ncell*Pcell) / Peff (Eqn.: 7.11)

and

ncell = ( Pconcrete*nconcrete/ Pcell) + (Priver*nriver/Pcell) (Eqn.: 7.12)

where:

P concrete = the part of the wetted perimeter that has concrete surface per cell (m)

Priver = the part of the wetted perimeter that is made up by the river bed per cell (m)

P cell = the total wetted perimeter of each cell (m)

P eff = (effective wetted perimeter for the flow passing through the structure) (m)

nconcrete = the Manning coefficient of concrete (s/m1/ 3) = 0.016/m1/ 3

nriver = the Manning roughness coefficient of the river bed (s/m1/3) =

0,03 s/ml/ 3

R = A eff / P/ eff (hydraulic radius (m))

Total flow

The total discharge capacity needs to exceed the design discharge:

Determine if Q over + Q under > Qdesign

If so, the capacity of the structure meets the design capacity. If not, the design height or
the length of the structure would have to be increased, and the flow checked again.

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7.5 Worked Example

A river crossing structure is to be provided for a tertiary road linking rural settlements
on both banks of a river. No structure exists and vehicles such as tractors, four-wheel drive
vehicles, LDVs and donkey carts cross via the sandy riverbed. The route is not accessible
for motorcars. Motorcars use an alternative route via the main road with a length of 45 km.

Test pits were excavated in the sandy riverbed. Solid rock was encountered at depths
varying between 1,2 m and 2,0 m.
The approach gradients of the road are moderate and there is no horizontal curvature. The
preliminary design of the vertical alignment of the road across the structure to be provided
has also been done. The straight section in the middle (Lz) has a length of 20 m, and Kj
and K3 are both 4 m (refer to Figure 7.4). The slope of the road on the southern bank is -
5,6%, and on the northern bank 7,0%.

The deck thickness is taken as 500 mm, and the soffit of the deck is on average 1400 mm
above the riverbed.

Solution Example

Design flow rate

On the basis of the hydrological investigations (see chapter 4 and 5) a design flow of
60m3/s has been determined. As the structure is meant to overflow on a regular basis this
is the 1 year storm water runoff.

Cross section

Due to economic reasons a single lane structure is chosen. The cross fall in the direction
of flow is taken as 2%.

Selection of structure

Because of good, but uneven founding conditions a low-level bridge is opted for. Six spans
of 6 m each fit the river cross-section well. Piers are 300 mm thick.

The capacity of the structure is determined as the sum of the flow that can be accommodated over
the structure and through the structure .

Flow over the structure

Assume supercritical flow and decide on a maximum flow depth of 0,1 m (d). The flow that can be
accommodated over the structure is determined from Equation 7.1. So is 0,02 (2% as above) and
Manning n for concrete is 0,016 s/m1l3. The cross-section area of flow is determined as follows
(Equation 7.2):

1 1
Aover = * d 800 K 1 d + dL2 + * 800 K 3 d
3 3

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where K1 and K3 are both 4 and L2 is 20m.

A over = 3.19m2

1 1
Pover = 800K 1 + L2 + 800K 3 d = 37.89
2 2

From equation 7.1

1/ 2
Aover S 0 (3.19) 5 / 3 (0.02)1 / 2
Qover = 2/3
=
nPover (0.016)(37.89) 2 / 3

Qover = 5.42 m3/s

Flow passing through the structure

Assume outlet control, then Qunder = Vunder * Aeff

V under is determined from equation 7.5 for which the following is required:

Equation 7.7:

2
v2
h= + d , where v2 = Qover/Aover = 1.7 m/s
2g

h = 0.247 m

H1 = h + x +D, where h is as above, x = 0.5 m and D = 1.4 m

H1 = 2.147 m

H2 = D- LB So, where LB = (4.0) +(2)(0.25) = 4.5 m (for the guide blocks)

H2 = 1.4 – (4.5)(0.02)

H2 = 1.31 m

Assume Kinl. = 0.5 and Koutl. = 1.0 (both sudden transition), then

C = 6 * (0.5 +1.0), see equation 7.10

C=9

Pcell is the total wetted perimeter of each cell (m)

Pcell (5.7)*(2) + (1.4)*(2) = 14.2m

Pconcrete n concrete Priver * nriver

ncell = + and assume nriver to be 0.03s/m1/3
Pcell Pcell

ncell = 0.022 s/m 1/3

Peff = ∑Pcell = (6)(14.2) = 85.2 m

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( 6)((0.02)(14.2)
neff =
85.2

neff = 0.022 s/m1/3

R = Aeff/Peff, where Aeff = (6)(5.7)(1.4) = 47.88 m2

R = 0.562 m.

Vunder from equation 7.5 is:

H1 - H 2 2.147 - 1.31
Vunder = 2
=
C n eff LB 9
+
(0.022) 2 ( 4.5)
+
2g R4/3 2(9.81) (0.562) 4 / 3

Vunder = 1.34 m/s

Also from equation 7.4 : Qunder = Vunder Aeff = 64.16m3/s

Design Discharge

The capacity of the structure at design level Qover + Qunder = 69.6 m3/s

As Q over + Qunder I larger than Q design (60m3/s) the design is complete as the structure
is adequate. If this was not the case, the level of the deck would have to be adjusted, and
the calculation be redone.

References

1) The South African National Roads Agency: “Drainage Design Manual”

2) Roads Department Queensland, Australia : “Road Drainage Design Manual”
3) Fiddes D. and Watkins L.H. : “Highway and Urban Hydrology in the Tropics”

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8 Bridge Design
Bridge design criteria discussed here only cover the hydraulic aspects of bridge design.
For all other issues such as structural design, load bearing capacity etc. The reader is
referred to: Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Part 6 A, Bridge and Culvert
Design, 2009

8.1 Principles and Design Criteria

8.1.1 General Criteria

Design criteria are the tangible means for placing accepted policies into action and
become the basis for the selection of the final design configuration of the stream-crossing
system. The following are the general criteria related to the hydraulic analyses for the
location and design of bridges:
· Backwater shall not significantly increase flood damage to property upstream of the
crossing;
· Velocities through the structure(s) will not either damage the highway facility or
increase damages to adjacent or downstream property;
· Maintaining the existing flow distribution to the extent practicable, is recommended
· Pier spacing, orientation, and abutment are to be designed to minimize flow disruption
and potential scour; spill-through type abutments using side slopes are preferred over
deep abutments to minimize scour and backwater;
· Select foundation design and/or scour countermeasures to avoid failure by scour;
· Freeboard at structure(s) designed to pass anticipated debris;
· Acceptable risks of damage or viable measures to counter the unpredictability of
alluvial streams;
· Minimal disruption of ecosystems and values unique to the flood plain and stream;

8.1.2 Specific Criteria

These criteria augment the general criteria. They provide specific, quantifiable values that
relate to local site conditions. Evaluation of various alternatives according to these criteria
can be accomplished by using the water surface profile programs such as HEC-RAS.

8.1.2.1 Inundation

Inundation of the carriageway dictates the level of traffic services provided by the facility.
The carriageway overtopping flood level identifies the limit of serviceability. Desired
minimum levels of protection from carriageway inundation for functional classifications of
roadways are presented in (see Chapter 3, Design Standards and Design Flow Periods).

8.1.2.2 Design Floods

Design floods for such purposes as the evaluation of backwater, clearance, and
overtopping shall be established predicated on risk based assessment of local site
conditions. They should reflect consideration of traffic service, environmental impact,
property damage, hazard to human life, and flood plain management criteria. Drainage
works shall be designed for storms having a recurrence interval of at least that shown in
Table 3-1. Carriageway inundation from Section 8.1.2.1 that represents a frequency-based
design shall be used to establish the minimum design flood.

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8.1.2.3 Freeboard

A minimum clearance conforming to the requirements of the Bridge Design manual

(usually 1.5 meters) shall be provided between the design approach water surface
elevation and the low chord of the bridge for the final design alternative to allow for
passage of debris.

8.1.2.4 Flow Distribution

The movement of the proposed stream-crossing location shall be calculated to determine

the flow distribution and to establish the location of the bridge opening(s). The proposed
facility should not cause any significant change in the existing flow distribution. Relief
openings in the approach roadway embankment shall be investigated if there is more than
a 20% redistribution of flow.

8.1.2.5 Relief Openings

There are situations where roadway and structural constraints dictate the vertical
positioning of a bridge and result in a small vertical clearance between the low chord and
the ground. Significant increases in span length provide small increases in effective
waterway opening in these cases.

It is possible to increase the effective area by excavating a flood channel through the reach
affecting the hydraulic performance of the bridge. However, several factors must be
accommodated when this action is taken.

· The flow line of the flood channel shall be set above the stage elevation of the
dominant discharge
· The flood channel must extend far enough up and downstream of the bridge to
establish the desired flow regime through the affected reach.

The flood channel must be stabilized to prevent erosion and scour.

8.1.2.6 Scour

Design for bridge foundation scour considering the magnitude of flood, through the 1%
event (100 year), which generates the maximum scour depth. The designer should use a
safety factor of three. The resulting design should then be checked using a superflood that
is 1.7 times the magnitude of the 1% event and a safety factor of at least 1.0

For larger structures the modelling of scour with appropriate hydraulic modelling software
such as HEC RAS 3 is strongly recommended.

8.1.2.7 Environmental Considerations

Environmental criteria must be met in the design of stream-crossing systems. Such

considerations might require the expertise of a biologist on the design team. Water quality
considerations should also be included in the design process insofar as the stream-
crossing system affects the water quality relative to beneficial uses. As a practical matter
with bridges, the hydraulic design criteria related to scour, degradation, aggradation, flow
velocities, and lateral distribution of flow, for example, are important criteria for evaluation
of environmental impacts as well as the safety of the stream-crossing structures.

8.1.2.8 Construction/ Maintenance

Construction plans shall be reviewed jointly by the Contractor and the Hydraulic Engineer
to note any changes in the stream from the conditions used in the design. Temporary
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structures and crossings used during construction shall be designed for a specified risk of
failure due to flooding during the construction period. The impacts on normal water levels,
fish passage, and normal flow distribution must be considered.

All borrow areas existing within the flood plain shall be chosen so as to minimize the
potential for scour and adverse environmental effects within the limits of the bridge and its
approaches on the flood plain.

The stream-crossing design should incorporate measures which reduce maintenance

costs whenever possible. These measures include spur dikes, retards, guide dikes, jetties,
riprap protection of abutments and embankments, embankment overflow at lower
elevations than the bridge deck, and alignment of piers with the flow.

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8.2 Design Procedure

8.2.1 Survey Accuracy and Data Collection

The designer of a stream crossing system requires a comprehensive engineering

approach that includes formulation of alternatives, data collection, selection of the most
cost effective alternative according to established criteria, and documentation of the final
design. Water surface profiles are computed for a variety of technical uses including:
· flood hazard mitigation investigations,
· drainage crossing analysis, and
· longitudinal encroachments.
The completed profile can affect the highway bridge design and is the mechanism for
determining the effect of a bridge opening on upstream water levels. Errors associated
with computing water surface profiles with the step backwater profile method can be
classified as:
· data estimation errors resulting from incomplete or inaccurate data
collection and inaccurate data estimation,
· errors in accuracy of energy loss calculations depending on the validity of
the energy loss equation employed and the accuracy of the energy loss
coefficients (Manning's n-value is the coefficient measuring boundary
friction),
· inadequate length of stream reach investigated, and
· significant computational errors resulting from using inadequate cross-
sectional spacing: spacing shall be at least every 20 meters.

The errors are due to inaccurate integration of the energy loss-distance relationship that is
the basis for profile computations. Adding interpolated sections (more calculation steps)
between surveyed sections may reduce this error.

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8.2.2 Design Procedure Outline

The following design procedure outline shall be used. Although the scope of the project
and individual site characteristics make each design a unique one, this procedure shall be
applied.
I. Data Collection
A. Survey

1. Topography, including several river cross sections up to 100m upstream and

downstream of planned bridge, depending on size of planned bridge
2. Geology
3. High-water marks
4. History of debris accumulation and scour
5. Review of hydraulic performance of existing structures
6. Maps, aerial photographs
7. Rainfall and stream gage records
8. Field reconnaissance

B. Other Relevant Information

1 Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation studies

2 River basin studies
3 Hydraulic performance of existing bridges

C. Influences on Hydraulic Performance of Site

1. Other streams, reservoirs, water intakes

2. Structures upstream or downstream
3. Natural features of stream and flood plain
4. Channel modifications upstream or downstream
5. Flood plain encroachments
6. Sediment types and bed forms

D. Environmental Impact

1. Existing bed or bank instability

2. Flood plain land use and flow distribution
3. Environmentally sensitive areas (fisheries, wetlands, etc.)

E. Site-specific Design Criteria

1. Preliminary risk assessment

2. Application of agency criteria

II. Hydrologic Analysis

A. Catchment area morphology

1. Drainage area (attach map)

2. Catchment area and stream slope
3. Channel geometry
B. Hydrologic computations

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1. Discharge for historical flood that complements the high water marks
used for calibration
2. Discharges for specified frequencies

III. Hydraulic Analysis

A. Computer model calibration and verification
B. Hydraulic performance for existing conditions
C. Hydraulic performance of proposed designs

IV. Selection of Final Design

A. Risk assessment/least-cost alternative (LTEC, or Least Total Expected Cost)
B. Measure of compliance with established hydraulic criteria
C. Consideration of environmental and social criteria
D. Design details such as riprap, scour abatement, and river training

V. Documentation
A. Complete project records, etc.

8.2.3 Hydraulic Performance of Bridges

The stream-crossing system is subject to either free-surface flow or pressure flow through
one or more bridge openings with possible embankment overtopping. These hydraulic
complexities shall be analyzed using a computer program such as HEC-RAS.
It is impracticable to perform the hydraulic analysis for a bridge by manual calculations due
to the interactive and complex nature of those computations. However, an example of the
basic manual backwater height and riprap sizing calculations is included at the end of this
chapter as an explanation of the various aspects of bridge hydraulics. The backwater
coefficient for deep abutments is larger than for spill-through type abutments of the same
waterway opening. Therefore, spill-through type abutments are preferred for minimizing
scour.
The hydraulic variables and flow types are defined in Figures 8-1 and 8-2 on the next two
pages.
· Backwater (h1) is measured relative to the normal water surface elevation without
the effect of the bridge at the approach cross-section (Section 1). It is the result of
contraction and re-expansion head losses and head losses due to bridge piers.
Backwater can also be the result of a "choking condition' in which critical depth is
forced to occur in the contracted opening with a resultant increase in depth and
specific energy upstream of the contraction. This is illustrated in Figure 8-2.

· Type I consists of subcritical flow throughout the approach, bridge, and exit cross
sections and is the most common condition encountered in practice (see Figure 8-
2).

· Type IIA and IIB (see Figure 8-2) both represent subcritical approach flows which
have been choked by the contraction resulting in the occurrence of critical depth in
the bridge opening. In Type IIA the critical water surface elevation in the bridge
opening is lower than the undisturbed normal water surface elevation. In the Type
IIB it is higher than the normal water surface elevation and a weak hydraulic jump
immediately downstream of the bridge contraction is possible.

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· Type III flow (see Figure 8-2) is supercritical approach flow and remains
supercritical through the bridge contraction. Such a flow condition is not subject to
backwater unless it chokes and forces the occurrence of a hydraulic jump upstream
of the contraction.

Figure 8-1 Bridge Hydraulics Definition Sketch

Source: HDS-1

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Figure 8-2 Bridge Flow Types

Source: HDS-1

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8.2.4 Methodologies

8.2.4.1 HDS-1 Method

The method in HDS-1 (see worked example) is an energy approach with the energy
equation written between cross sections 1 and 4 as shown in Figure 8-1 for Type I flow.
The backwater is defined in this case as the increase in the approach water surface
elevation relative to the normal water surface elevation without the bridge.
This model uses a single typical cross section to represent the stream reach from points 1
to 4 on Figure 8-1. It also requires the use of a single energy gradient. This method is no
longer recommended for final design analysis of bridges due to its inherent limitations but it
may be useful for preliminary analysis. Previous studies show the need to use a multiple
cross section method of analysis in order to achieve reasonable stage-discharge
relationships at a bridge.

8.2.4.2 Advanced Computerized Methods, HEC 2, HEC RAS

The water surface profile used in the hydraulic analysis of a bridge should extend from a
point downstream of the bridge that is beyond the influence of the constriction to a point
upstream that is beyond the extent of the bridge backwater.

Energy losses caused by structures such as bridges and culverts are computed in two
parts. First, the losses due to expansion and contraction of the cross section on the
upstream and downstream sides of the structure are computed in the standard step
calculations. Secondly, the loss through the structure itself is computed by either, the
normal bridge or the special bridge method.

For such an analysis, which is strongly recommended for all larger bridges to be built in
Kenya, sophisticated hydraulic analysis software such as HEC RAS 3 is required. Further
information on these software packages, which also include routines for analysing scour at
bridges, can be found in References (2,6,8).

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8.3 Bridge Scour and Aggradation
8.3.1 Introduction

Reasonable and prudent hydraulic analysis of a bridge design requires that an assessment
be made of the proposed bridge vulnerability to undermining due to potential scour.
Because of the extreme hazard and economic hardships posed by a rapid bridge collapse,
special considerations must be given to selecting appropriate flood magnitudes for use in
the analysis. The designer shall use the most appropriate scour forecasting methods.

Users of this manual should consult HEC-18 (Ref. 8) for a more thorough treatise on scour
and scour prediction methodology. A companion FHWA document to HEC-18 is HEC-20,
"Stream Stability at Highway Structures" (Ref. 11).

The inherent complexities of stream stability, furthered complicated by highway stream

crossings, requires a multilevel solution procedure. The evaluation and design of a
highway stream crossing or encroachment shall begin with a qualitative assessment of
stream stability. This involves application of geomorphic concepts to identify potential
problems and alternative solutions. This analysis shall be followed with quantitative
analysis using basic hydrologic, hydraulic and sediment transport engineering concepts.
Such analyses could include evaluation of flood history, channel hydraulic conditions (up to
and including, for example, water surface profile analysis) and basic sediment transport
analyses such as evaluation of catchment area sediment yield, incipient motion analysis
and scour calculations. This analysis can be considered adequate for many locations if the
problems are resolved and the relationships between different factors affecting stability are
adequately explained.

If not, a more complex quantitative analysis based on detailed mathematical modelling

and/or physical hydraulic models shall be considered. This multilevel approach is
presented in HEC-20.

Less hazardous perhaps are problems associated with aggradation. Where freeboard is
limited, problems associated with increased flood hazards to upstream property or to the
travelling public due to more frequent overtopping may occur. Where aggradation is
expected, it may be necessary to evaluate these consequences. In addition, aggradation in
a stream reach may serve to moderate potential scour depths. Aggradation is sometimes
referred to as negative scour.

8.3.2 Scour Types

Present technology dictates that bridge scour be evaluated as interrelated components:

· long term profile changes (aggradation/degradation),

· plan form change (lateral channel movement),
· contraction scour/deposition, and
· local scour.

8.3.2.1 Long Term Profile Changes

Long-term profile changes can result from streambed profile changes that occur from
aggradation and/or degradation.
· Aggradation is the deposition of bedload due to a decrease in the energy
gradient.
· Degradation is the scouring of bed material due to increased stream
sediment transport capacity that results from an increase in the energy
gradient.

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Forms of degradation and aggradation shall be considered as imposing a permanent
future change for the streambed elevation at a bridge site whenever they can be identified.

8.3.2.2 Plan Form Changes

Plan form changes are morphological changes such as meander migration or bank
widening. The lateral movement of meanders can threaten bridge approaches as well as
increase scour by changing flow patterns approaching a bridge opening. Bank widening
can cause significant changes in the flow distribution and thus the bridge's flow contraction
ratio.

It is difficult to anticipate when a change in planform may occur. It may be gradual or the
result of a single major flood event. Also, the direction and magnitude of the movement of
the stream are not easily predicted. It is difficult to evaluate properly the vulnerability of a
bridge due to changes in planform; however, it is important to incorporate potential
planform changes into the design of new bridges and design of countermeasures for
existing bridges.

Assessing the significance of planform changes, such as the shifting location of meanders,
the formation of islands, and the overall pattern of streams, usually cannot be
accomplished without field observations. Records and photographs taken by bridge
inspectors and maintenance personnel may provide some insight into the nature of the
stream for the initial assessments. Historical aerial photographs of the stream can be
extremely valuable in this analysis. Ultimately, an engineering judgement must be made as
to whether possible future or existing planform changes represent a hazard to the bridge,
and the extent of field work required to evaluate this condition.

For a detailed discussion of this subject refer to HEC 20 “Stream stability at highway
structures”, Ref 11.

8.3.2.3 Contraction

A constriction of the channel, which may be caused, in part, by bridge piers in the
waterway, can result in channel contraction scour. Deposition results from an expansion of
the channel or the bridge site being positioned immediately downstream of a steeper reach
of stream. Highways, bridges, and natural channel contractions are the most commonly
encountered cause of constriction scour. Two practices are provided in this manual for
estimating deposition or contraction scour.

1. Sediment routing practice - This practice shall be considered should either bed
armoring or aggradation from an expanding reach be expected to cause an
unacceptable hazard.

2. Empirical practice - This practice is adapted from laboratory investigations of bridge

contractions in non-armoring soils and, as such, must be used considering this
qualification. This practice does not consider bed armoring and its application for
aggradation may be technically weak.

The same empirical practice algorithms used in this manual to evaluate a naturally
contracting reach may also be used to evaluate deposition in an expanding reach provided
armoring is not expected to occur. With deposition the practice of applying the empirical
equations "in reverse" is required; i.e., the narrower cross section is upstream which
results in the need to manipulate the use of the empirical 'contraction scour" equation. This
need to manipulate the intended use of an equation does not occur with the sediment
routing practice, which is why it may be more reliable in an expanding reach.

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8.3.2.4 Local Scour

The potential scour hazard at a bridge site is exacerbated by abutments or piers located
within the flood flow prism. The amount of potential scour caused by these features is
termed local scour. Local scour is a function of the geometry of these features as they
relate to the flow geometry. However, the importance of these geometric variables will
vary. As an example, increasing the pier or cofferdam width either through design or debris
accumulation will increase the amount of local scour, but only up to a point in subcritical
flow streams. After reaching this point, pier scour should not be expected to increase
measurably with increased stream velocity or depth. This threshold has not been defined
in the more rare, supercritical flowing streams.

8.3.2.5 Natural Armoring

Armoring occurs because a stream or river is unable, during a particular flood, to move the
more coarse material comprising either the bed or, if some bed scour occurs, its underlying
material. Scour may occur initially but later become arrested by armoring before the full
scour potential is reached again for a given flood magnitude. When armoring does occur,
the coarser bed material will tend to remain in place or quickly redeposit so as to form a
layer of riprap like armor on the stream bed or in the scour holes and thus limit further
scour for a particular discharge. This armoring effect can decrease scour hole depths
which were predicted based on formulae developed for sand or other fine material
channels for a particular flood magnitude. When a larger flood occurs than used to define
the probable scour hole depths, scour will probably penetrate deeper until armoring again
occurs at some lower threshold.

Armoring may also cause bank widening. Bank widening encourages rivers or streams to
seek a more unstable, braided regime. Such instabilities may pose serious problems for
bridges as they encourage further plan form changes that are difficult to assess. Bank
widening also spreads the approach flow distribution, which in turn results in a more
severe bridge opening contraction.

8.3.2.6 Naturally Occurring Scour Resistant Materials

Caution is necessary in determining the scour resistance of bed materials and the
underlying strata. With smaller size material, the passage of a single flood may result in
the predicted scour depths. Conversely, in scour resistant material the maximum predicted
depth of scour may not be realized during the passage of a particular flood; however,
some scour resistant material may be lost. Commonly, this material is replaced with more
easily scoured material. Thus, a later flood may reach the predicted scour depth. Serious
scour has been observed to occur in materials commonly perceived to be scour resistant,
such as consolidated soils, so-called bed rock streams, and streams with gravel and
boulder beds.

8.3.3 Scour Analysis Methods

Before the various scour forecasting methods for contraction and local scour can be
applied it is first necessary to (1) obtain the fixed bed channel hydraulics, (2) estimate the
profile and plan form scour or aggradation, (3) adjust the fixed bed hydraulics to reflect
these changes, and (4) compute the bridge hydraulics. Two methods are provided in this
manual for combining the contraction and local scour components to obtain total scour.
The first method identified as Method 1 shall be used when streambed armoring is of
concern, more precise contraction scour estimates are deemed necessary or deposition is
expected and is a primary concern. The second method, Method 2, should have
application where armoring is not a concern or insufficient information is available to permit
its evaluation, or where more precise scour estimates are not deemed necessary.

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8.3.3.1 Method 1

This analysis method is based on the premise that the contraction and local scour
components do not develop independently. As such, the local scour estimated with this
method is determined based on the expected changes in the hydraulic variables and
parameters due to contraction scour or deposition; i.e. through what may prove to be an
iterative process, the contraction scour and channel hydraulics are brought into balance
before these hydraulics are used to compute local scour. Additionally, with this method the
effects of any armoring may also be considered. The general approach for this method is
as follows:

· Estimate the hydraulics of the natural channel for a fixed bed condition
based on existing site conditions.
· Estimate the expected profile and plan form changes. (See sub-section
8.3.2.2, Plan Form Changes)
· Adjust the hydraulics of the natural channel based on the expected profile
and plan form changes.
· Select a trial bridge opening and compute the bridge hydraulics.
· Estimate contraction scour or deposition. Lauren’s empirical formula can
be used (See Ref.8, HEC 18 Section 4.3.4 for detailed instructions about
this formula and other possible formulae) :

(y2/y1)=(Q2/Q1)6/7(W1/W 2)K1 (7.1)

In which y2 is the average depth in the contracted section, y1 is the average depth in the
upstream main channel, Q2 is the discharge through the contracted section, Q1 is the
discharge in the approach main channel, W1 is the width of the main channel and W2 is the
width of the contracted section. The exponent K1 is an empirical constant.(See HEC 18)

· Once again revise the natural channel's geometry to reflect these

contraction scour or deposition changes and then again revise the
channel's hydraulics (repeat this iteration until there is no significant
change in either the revised channel hydraulics or bed elevation changes
- a significant change would be a 5% or greater variation in velocity, flow
depth or bed elevation).
· Use the revised bridge and channel hydraulic variables and parameters,
considering the contraction scour or deposition to calculate the local
scour.
· Extend the local scour assessment below the predicted contractions
scour depths in order to obtain the total scour.

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8.3.3.2 Method 2

This is considered a conservative practice as it assumes that the scour components

develop independently. Thus, as indicated with Method 1 the potential local scour to be
calculated using this method would be added to the contraction scour without considering
the effects of contraction scour on the channel and bridge hydraulics. The general
approach with this method is as follows.

· Estimate the hydraulics of the natural channel for a fixed bed condition
based on existing conditions.
· Assess the expected profile and plan form change. (See sub-section Plan
Form Changes)
· Adjust the fixed bed hydraulics to reflect any expected profile or plan form
changes.
· Estimate contraction scour using the empirical contraction formula (8.1)
and the adjusted fixed bed hydraulics assuming no bed armoring.
· If the reach is expanding, estimate the deposition by 'reversing' the
empirical equation application and considering deposition as "negative"
scour.
· Estimate local scour using the adjusted fixed bed channel and bridge
hydraulics assuming no bed armoring.
· Add the local scour to the contraction scour or aggradation ("negative"
scour) to obtain the total scour.

8.3.4. Scour Assessment Procedure

Bridge scour assessment should normally be accomplished by collecting the data and
applying the general procedure outlined in this section. It is generally accomplished using
computer software, and worked examples are given as a portion of the manuals for HEC-
2, HEC RAS 3, and other software.

8.3.4.1 Site Data

· Bed Material
Obtain bed material samples for all channel cross sections when armoring is to be
evaluated. If armoring is not being evaluated, this information need only be obtained at the
site. From these samples try to identify historical scour and associate it with a discharge.
Also, determine the bed material size-weight distribution curve in the bridge reach and
from this distribution determine d16, d50, d84, and d90.

· Geometry
Obtain existing stream and flood plain cross sections, stream profile, site plan and the
stream's present, and where possible, historic geomorphic plan form. Also, locate the
bridge site with respect to such things as other bridges in the area, tributaries to the stream
or close to the site, bed rock controls, manmade controls (dams, old check structures, river
training works, etc.), and downstream confluence with other streams. Locate (distance and
height) any “headcuts” due to natural causes or such things as gravel mining operations.
Upstream gravel mining operations may absorb the bed material discharge resulting in the
more adverse clear water scour case discussed later. Any data related to plan form
changes such as meander migration and the rate at which they may be occurring are
useful.

· Historic Scour
Any scour data on other bridges or similar facilities along the stream.

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· Hydrology
Identify the character of the stream hydrology; i.e., perennial, ephemeral, intermittent as
well as whether it is subject to broad hydrographic peaks resulting from gradual flow
increases such as occur with general thunderstorms.
· Geomorphology
Classify the geomorphology of the site; i.e., such things as whether it is a flood plain
stream, crosses a delta, or crosses an alluvial fan; youthful, mature or old age.

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8.3.4.2 Design Procedure Step by Step

The steps in the design procedure are as follows. The procedure is summarized in flow
chart 8-1 at the end of this section:

Step 1: Choice of Method

Decide which analysis method is applicable. Method 1 shall be used to evaluate bridges
where armoring or an expanding reach are of concern as well as where Method 2 indicates
a significant potential scour hazard may exist. Method 2 shall be used to quickly evaluate
existing bridges to identify significant potential scour hazards or, where armoring or an
expanding reach are obviously not of concern, on a proposed bridge.

Step 2 : Flood Determination

Determine the magnitude of the base flood as well as the magnitude of the incipient
overtopping flood, or relief opening flood. Accomplish steps 3 through 12 using the
discharge that places the greatest stress on the bed material in the bridge opening.

Step 3: Determination of Bed Material Size

Determine the bed material size that will resist movement and cause armoring to occur.

Step 4: Definition of Water Surface Profile

Develop a water surface profile through the site's reach for fixed bed conditions using,
HEC RAS-4, or other software.

Step 5: Assessment of expected Changes in the vertical Stream Profile

Assess the bridge crossing reach of the stream for profile bed scour changes to be
expected from degradation or aggradation. Again, take into account past, present and
future conditions of the stream and catchment area in order to forecast what the elevation
of the bed might be in the future. Certain plan form changes such as migrating meanders
causing channel cutoffs would be important in assessing future streambed profile
elevations. The possibility of downstream mining operations inducing "headcuts" shall be
considered. The quickest way to assess streambed elevation changes due to "headcuts'
(degradation) is by obtaining a vertical measurement of the downstream "headcut(s)" and
projecting that measurement(s) to the bridge site using the existing stream profile
assuming the stream is in regime; if it is not, then it may be necessary to estimate the
regime slope. A more time consuming way to assess elevation changes would be to use
some form of sediment routing practice in conjunction with a synthetic flood history.

Step 6 : Assessment of expected Changes in horizontal Stream Profile

Assess the bridge crossing reach of the stream for plan form scour changes. Attempt to
forecast whether an encroaching meander will cause future problems within the expected
service life of the road or bridge. Take into account past, present and expected future
conditions of the stream and catchment area in order to forecast how such meanders
might influence the approach flow direction in the future. The sediment routing practice
discussed later for computing channel contraction scour or aggradation may prove useful
in making such assessments - particularly if coupled to a synthetic flood history. This
forensic analysis on a site's past geomorphologic history to forecast the future may prove
useful. Otherwise, this assessment has to be largely subjective in nature.

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Step 7: Adjustment of Parameters

Based on the expected profile and plan form scour changes, adjust the fixed bed hydraulic
variables and parameters.

Step 8: Assessment of Scour Magnitude

Assess the magnitude of channel or bridge contraction scour using Method I or Method 2
based on the fixed bed hydraulics of Step 7.

Step 9: Assessment of local Scour

Assess the magnitude of local scour at abutments and piers using Method 1 or 2.

Step 10: Plotting of Results

Plot the scour and aggradation depths from foregoing steps on a cross section of the
stream channel and flood plain at the bridge site. Treat any aggradation as a negative
scour. Enlarge any overlapping scourholes. The top width of a local scour hole ranges
from 1.0 to 2.8 times the depth of scour. A top width value of 2.0 times the depth of scour
is suggested for practical applications.

Step 11: Evaluation of Findings

Evaluate the findings of Step 10. If the scour is unacceptable, consider the use of scour
countermeasures or revise the trial bridge opening and repeat the foregoing steps.

Step 12: Preliminary Foundation Design

Once an acceptable scour threshold is determined, the geotechnical engineer can make a
preliminary foundation design for the bridge based on the scour information obtained from
the foregoing procedure using commonly accepted safety factors. The structural engineer
should evaluate the lateral stability of the bridge based on the foregoing scour.

Step 13: Design Test on ‘Superflood’

Repeat the foregoing assessment procedures using the greatest bridge opening flood
discharge associated with Table 3-1. These findings are again for the geotechnical
engineer to use in evaluating the foundation design obtained in Step 12. A foundation
design safety factor of 1.1 is commonly used to ensure that the bridge is marginally stable
for a flood associated with the "Superflood".

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8.4 Examples
These worked examples address the manual calculation of bridge backwater as presented
in FHWA HDS-1, and the design of riprap at bridge abutments and piers as presented in
the FHWA HEC - 11 .

The information presented covers the necessary calculations. The user should refer to the
referenced publications for a more complete coverage of the subject.

8.4.1 Example 1: Backwater Calculation HDS-1

The expression for backwater has been formulated by applying the principle of
conservation of energy between the point of maximum backwater upstream from the
bridge, section 1, and a point downstream from the bridge at which normal stage has been
re-established, section 4 (Figure 8-1). The expression is reasonably valid if the channel in
the vicinity of the bridge is essentially straight, the cross sectional area of the stream is
fairly uniform, the gradient of the bottom is approximately constant between sections 1 and
4, the flow is free to contract and expand, there is no appreciable scour of the bed in the
constriction and the flow is in the subcritical range.

The expression for computation of backwater upstream from a bridge constricting the flow
is as follows:

h1 = K a2 Vn2/2g + a1 [(An2/A4)2 – (An2/A1)2] Vn22/2g (Eqn.8.2)

where
h1 = total backwater, m
K = total backwater coefficient
a1 & a2 = as defined below
An2 = gross water area in constriction measured below normal stage, m2
Vn2 = average velocity in constriction or Q/An2, m/s
A4 = water area at section 4 where normal stage is reestablished, m2
A1 = total water area at section 1, including that produced by the backwater, m2

To compute backwater, it is necessary to obtain the approximate value of h1 by using the

first part of the expression:

h1 = [Ka2 (Vn22)]/2g

The value of A1 in the second part of expression, which depends on h1*, can then be
determined and the second term of the expression evaluated:

a1 [(An2/A4)2 - (An2/Al)2] Vn22/2g

This part of the expression represents the difference in kinetic energy between sections 4
and 1, expressed in terms of the velocity head, Vn22 /2g.

Bridge Opening Ratio

M = Qb/(Qa + Qb +Qc) (Eqn.8.3)

Kinetic Energy Coefficient

al = (qv2)/QV12 (Eqn.8.4)
Where:
v = average velocity in a subsection
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q = discharge in same subsection
Q = total discharge in river
V1 = average velocity in river at section 1 or Q/A,

Width of Constriction

b = An2/y (Eqn.8.5)

Backwater Coefficient

K* = Kb.+ DKp+ DKs+DKc

Where:
Kb is the base constriction coefficient
DKp is the pier coefficient
DKs is the skew coefficient
DKe is the eccentricity coefficient

Individual coefficient values are obtained from Figures in HDS-1, Ref.2, or from Fig. 8.5

Example: Find the Bridge Backwater caused by this roadway crossing:

The channel crossing is shown in Figure 8-3 with the following information:
Cross section of river at bridge site showing areas, wetted perimeters, and values of
Manning n; normal water surface for design = El 8.5m at bridge; average slope of river in
vicinity of bridge So = 0.00049; cross section under bridge showing area below normal
water surface and width of roadway = 12.2m.

The stream is essentially straight, the cross section relatively constant in the vicinity of the
bridge, and the crossing is normal to the general direction of flow.

Under the conditions stated, it is permissible to assume that the cross sectional area of the
stream at section 1 is the same as that at the bridge. The approach section is then divided
into subsections at abrupt changes in depth or channel roughness as shown in Figure 8-3.
The conveyance of each subsection is computed as shown in columns 1 through 8 of
Table 8-2. The summation of the individual values in column 8 represents the overall
conveyance of the stream at section 1 or K1 = 24,889.2. Note that the water interface
between subsections is not included in the wetted perimeter. Table 8-2 is set up in short
form to better demonstrate the method. The actual computation would involve many
subsections corresponding to breaks in grade or changes in channel roughness.

Since the slope of the stream is known (0.49m/km) and the cross sectional area is
essentially constant throughout the reach under consideration, it is permissible to solve for
the discharge by what is known as the slope-area method or;

Q = K1So1/2 = 24,889.2(0.00049)1/2 = 551.2 m3/s

To compute the kinetic energy coefficient, it is first necessary to complete columns 9, 10,
11of Table 8-2; then:

a1 = qv2 /QV12 = 974.881/(551/526.137)2 = 1.61

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Figure 8-3 Channel Crossing

2/3 2
Sub- Manning a P r= r k= q= V= qv
2 2/3
Section n (m ) (m) a/P (1/n)ar Qk/k1 q/a
(m)
0-60.96 0.045 58.287 61.021 0.955 0.970 1256.4 27.8 0.477 6.325
Qc 60.96-
0.070 26.496 12.222 2.168 1.675 634.0 14.0 0.528 3.903
73.15
73.152-
0.070 30.147 12.222 2.467 1.826 786.4 17.4 0.577 5.793
85.344
85.344-
Qb 0.035 186.17 44.196 4.213 2.609 13878.2 307.2 1.650 836.35
128.016
128.016-
0.050 19.119 7.650 2.499 1.842 704.2 15.6 0.816 6.916
135.636
135.636-
0.050 50.112 16.764 2.989 2.075 2079.6 46.0 0.918 38.765
152.4
Qa
152.4-
0.045 155.80 76.505 2.036 1.606 5560.3 123.1 0.790 76.827
228.6
An = Q= Σqv2
k1 =
So = 0.00049 526.13 551.1 =
2 24,899.2 3
m m /s 974.88
An2 = Qb =
235.44 340.2
m2 m3/s

Table 8-2 Calculation Summary

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The sum of the individual discharges in column 9 must equal 551 m3/s. The factor M is the
ratio of that portion of the discharge approaching the bridge in width b, to the total
discharge of the river:

M=Q M = Qb/Q = 340.2/551.2 = 0.62

Entering Figure 8.4 of with a1 = 1.61 and M = 0.62, the value of a2 is estimated as : 1.40.

Figure 8.4, (Fig. 5 HDS – 1) Estimation

of a 2

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Entering Figure 8.5 with M = 0.62, the base curve coefficient is Kb = 0.72 for a bridge
waterway of 62.5 m.

Figure 8.5 (Fig. 6 of HDS-1) Backwater coefficient base curve

As the bridge is supported by five solid piers, the incremental coefficient (DKp) for this
effect is determined. Referring to Figure 8-3 and Table 8-2: the gross water area under
the bridge for normal stage, An2, is 235.44 m2 and the area obstructed by the piers, Ap, is
16.723 m2; so:

J = Ap/An2 = 16.723/235.44 = 0.071

Entering Figure 7A in HDS-1 with J = 0.071 for solid piers, the reading from the ordinate is
DK = 0.13. This value is for M = 1.0. Now enter Figure 7B in HDS-1 and obtain the
correction factor s, for M = 0.62 which is 0.84. The incremental backwater coefficient for
the five piers, DKp = DKs = 0. 13 x 0. 84 = 0.11

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Figure 8.6, (Fig. 7a and b of HDS –1)

The overall backwater coefficient:

K* = Kb + DKp = 0.72 + 0.11 = 0.83

Vn2 = Q / An2= 551.2/235.44 = 2.34 m/s

and Vn22 /2g = 2.342/2(9.8) = 0.279 m

The approximate backwater will be:

K*a 2Va22/2g = 0.83 x 1.40 x 0.279 = 0.325 m

Substituting values in the second half of expression for difference in kinetic energy
between sections 4 and 1 where An1 = 526.137 m2 = A4.

A1 = 593.1 m2 and An2 = 235.44 m2

a1 [(An2/A4)2 - (An2/A1)2] Vn2/2g

1.61[(235.4/526.2)2 - (235.4/593.1)2] (.279) = (1.61)(.042)(.279) =0.0189 m

Then total backwater produced is: h1* = 0.325 + 0.0189 = 0.344 m

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8.4.2 Example 2 : Riprap at Piers

The equation for determining the required size of riprap stone at piers is:

D50 = 0.692[KV2)]/[(Ss-1)2g]

Where:
D50 = median stone diameter, m
K = coefficient for pier shape; 1.7 for rectangular piers, 1.5 for round piers
V = velocity at pier, m/s
Ss = specific gravity of riprap material (normally 2.65)
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2

Example:

Determine the D50 size of the riprap at a bridge pier using the rearranged equation to solve
the stone diameter (in meters), for fresh water:

Example: V = 2.73 m/s

K = 1.7 (rectangular nose pier)

D50 = [0.692[1.7(2.73)]2/[(2.65-1)(2)(9.81)] = 0.46 m

Further calculated examples can be founding Ref. 2

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Determine design discharge

Determine bed material size that will resist movement

Develop water surface for fixed bed conditions

Assess profile bed scour changes

Asses plan form scour changes

Adjust fixed bed hydraulic variable and parameters

Method 1 Method 2
Yes Is armouring or an No
expanding reach of
concern ?

Select a trial bridge opening and compute Estimate contraction

Estimate scouring
contraction using
scour using
the bridge hydraulics empirical
empiricalcontraction
contraction formula (8.1)
formula (8.1)

Estimate contraction scour or deposition

Revise the channel’s geometry and the

channel’s hydraulics

Yes Does the revision lead

to a variation of more
than 5% in velocity,
elevation or flow depth?

No
Plot the scour and aggradation depths on a cross section

Can scour Is the scour

countermeasures acceptable?
be used?

Yes
Yes

Pre-design the bridge

Check bridge stability

Flowchart 8-1 : Scour Assessment procedure

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References

1) AASHTO, Volume VII-l Highway Drainage Guidelines, "Hydraulic Analyses for the
Location and Design of Bridges", AASHTO Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics,
1992.
2) Bradley, J.N., "Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways," HDS-1, Federal Highway
Administration, 1978.
3) Corry, M.L., Jones, J.S., and Thompson, P.L., "The Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains Using Risk Analysis, "Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 17, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, D.C., 1980.
4) Federal Highway Administration, "Highways in the River Environment-Hydraulic and
Environmental Design Considerations,” Training and Design Manual, Federal Highway
Administration, 1975.
5) Federal Highway Administration, "Federal Highway Program Manual," Vol. 6, Ch. 7,
Sec. 3, Subsec. 2, November, 1979.
6) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "HEC-2 Water Surface Profiles," User's Manual,
September 1982.
7) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Accuracy of Computed Water Surface Pro-files",
December, 1986.
8) Federal Highway Administration "Evaluating Scour at Bridges", HEC-18, 1995.
9) Kindsvater, C.E., "Discharge Characteristics of Embankment-Shaped Weirs, "U.S.
Geological Survey, WSP 1607-A, 1964.
10) Federal Highway Administration, "Drainage at Highway Pavements", HEC-12, 1984.
11) Federal Highway Administration "Stream Stability at Highway Structures", HEC-20,
1991.

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9 Rural Roads: Road Drainage and Erosion Control

9.1 Introduction
The chapter on Rural Road drainage comprises Section 4.4 ‘Side Ditches and Cut-off
Ditches’ of the existing ‘Kenyan Road Design Manual Part 1’, Chapter 4 and the Chapter 5,
‘Drainage and Erosion Control’ of the existing Road Design Manual Part III, ‘Materials and
Pavement Design for new Roads’. The two existing chapters overlap considerably and it is
the aim of this chapter is to synthesise the contents of the existing two separate manuals
into one comprehensive volume.

For further discussions on the Geometric Design of rural and urban roads the reader is
referred to: Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Part 1A, Geometric Design, 2009

9.2 Type of Drain

9.2.1 Choice of Side Drain

The types of side ditches, which will generally be used, are shown in Chapter 10. In
section 10.4 a selection of side drains frequently used in Kenya are presented, including
the hydraulic capacity calculations based upon the Colebrook – White Formula. The charts
cover side drains with 1:2 slopes and bottom widths up to 1 m. The largest pre-calculated
drain has a width of 5 meters and a capacity of 15m3/s at 1% slope. For wider and flatter
drains individual calculation on the basis of the Manning - Strickler formula are
recommended.

9.2.1.2 Discharge Channels

Depending on topographic conditions it is sometimes necessary to collect water at the top

of either a cutting or an embankment and discharge it down the slope. For this purpose
discharge channels shall be constructed and lined with masonry, concrete or metal. The
usual dimensions are 400mm deep. If half rounded channel elements are used the
diameter should normally be 500mm.

9.2.1.3 Collection of Water on Embankments

On embankments, where water is to be discharged down the side of the slopes, it is

necessary to lead all water to the top of these channels. This can be achieved by some
form of kerbing or a recessed channel.

The kerbing can be formed from masonry, precast concrete units or in situ concrete. The
channel can be formed from precast concrete or metal channels, with an internal diameter
in the range of 300 to 400 mm.

For safety reasons these features should be placed outside the edge of the surfacing.
Where a crash barrier is installed the kerbing or the channel should be installed
immediately in front of the supports, on the traffic side.

At the base of the embankment, toe ditches may be necessary to remove water from the
vicinity of the embankment or to prevent erosion of the fill.

9.2.1.4 Economic and Aesthetics

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The side ditch type should match the adjacent terrain, e.g. wide ditches with gentle side
slope in flat open country and narrow ditches with steeper side slopes in hilly and
mountainous terrain.

If this principle is followed an economic and aesthetic design will generally be achieved.

9.3 Dimensioning of Side Drains

9.3.1 Discharge Calculation

The side ditches must be designed to carry the stormwater run-off originating from the
carriageway, shoulder drain and cut-slope.

Where cut – off ditches are not provided, any run-off from beyond the cut must also be
included.

The expected flow, or run off, should be estimated with the Rational Formula (see also
Chapter 5)

Q = 0.278*C*I*A

9.3.2 Capacity of Side Ditches

The capacity of side ditches should be determined using the graphs in Chapter 10
(Colebrook – White Formula), or alternatively, by using the Manning – Strickler Formula
(metric).

Q = n * A*R 2/3 * s 0.5 = V*A

Or V = n * R 2/3 * s 0.5

Where Q = capacity in m3/s

A = cross sectional area of water
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
n = Roughness Coefficient
R = Hydraulic Radius, A/P where P is the wetted perimeter
S = longitudinal slope (m/m)

Spreadsheets should be used to calculate the capacity, flow speed and water depth in the
drainage channel at different slopes.

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9.3.3 Protection of Ditches and Channels from Erosion

9.3.3.1 Critical Length Ditches

The critical length of unlined ditches must be determined with regard to erosion control.

This critical length is defined as the maximum length of ditch, in which water velocities do
not give rise to erosion.

The maximum velocity of water can be calculated from the slope, shape and dimensions of
the ditch, volumes of water and from the roughness coefficient of the material. Knowing the
maximum permissible velocity for each type of material, the maximum length of ditch in
this material can then be determined.

A single maximum length diagram for all of Kenya cannot be established, as the rainfall
intensity of the projects area, which defines the volume of water to be discharged, varies
from place to place.

Figure 9.7, taken from the existing ‘Standard Culverts and Drift Manual’ Part 1
Construction Drawings, shows an example of such a diagramme.

Figure 9.7: Example for Critical Length Diagramme for Side Drains

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Limiting value for the velocity of flow (v) to prevent scour, together with the corresponding
Roughness Coefficients, are given in Table 9.2 for the different types of ditch material
which will normally be encountered.

Example of producing critical length diagramme:

Step 1: Calculation of runoff in the ditch

Use Kirpich formula to estimate flow time from:

· road surface (usually 5 min or less)
· adjacent road side terrain (usually in the order of 15 min.)

into the road side drain.

Use Rational Formula to calculate runoff for different road lengths (100m, 200m, 500m
etc.) separately for the road surface (width 10m) and the adjacent terrain (width 10-50 m).

Step 2: Hydraulic calculation of water level and flow speed for different slopes

Use Mannings Equation to determine flow speed and water level for different slopes. At
low slopes the water level in the channel will be the limiting factor, at strong slopes flow
speed will limit the capacity of the ditch and thus the permissible length of the ditch.

If slope are too high scour checks can be introduced to reduce flow speed. Alternatively
the channels width can be altered. Scour checks should only be made from concrete or
masonry. Other materials are not acceptable.

Table 9.2: Maximum permissible Velocities in erodible ditches and corresponding

Roughness Coefficients

Material in the Ditch Max. permissible Velocity Roughness Coefficient

(m/s) Manning’s n
Sand, loam, fine gravel, 0.6 0.033
volcanic ash
Stiff clay 1.1 0.02
Course gravel 1.5 0.025
Conglomerate, hard shale, 3.0 0.04
soft rock
Hard rock 3.0 0.04
Masonry 3.0 0.025
Concrete 3.0 0.015

In areas where good grass cover is guaranteed, these values may be increased up to a
maximum of 1.5 m/s. In such cases a Roughness Coefficient of 0.03 should be used.
Where grass cover is expected but not guaranteed a maximum velocity of 1.1 m/s should
be used with a Roughness Coefficient of 0.033.

9.3.3.2 Method of Protection

Section of ditch beyond the critical length must be protected from erosion by lining

The following methods may be used;

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· Grassing
· Turfing
· Stone pitching (possibly grouted)
· Placing of masonry
· Concreting
· Reducing the gradient and constructing steps (steps must be paved)
· Placing velocity breakers and scour checks

Scour checks should be designed as control sections and will thus match the side ditch
cross sections so as not to cause an obstruction, which would raise the water level.
Careful consideration must be given to the spacing of scour checks; such spacing will not
be constant but should reduce as the flow increases.

9.3.4 Sedimentation Control

If water velocities are too low sedimentation may occur.

Ditches and drains should therefore be given sufficient gradient everywhere, in so far as
topography and erosion control will permit.

Sedimentation velocities for a few types of material are approximately the following:

Table 9.3: Sedimentation Speeds for different Material

Material Sedimentation speed in m/s

Silt 0.08
Fine sand 0.15
Coarse sand 0.2
Fine gravel 0.3
Gravel 0.65

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9.4 Erosion Control at Slopes and Embankment

9.4.1 General

Erosion problems may occur on the side slopes of embankments or cuttings, grave
shoulders or at any other point where surface run off is concentrated or a spring occurs.
The obvious palliatives are there fore well-designed surface and subsurface drainage
features and appropriate slope angles for the soils and the rocks present.

This last measure is problematic as there is no standard test to assess ’erodibility’. The
best guidance would be obtained from observations of actual road sections, assuming that
these exist.

Various surface protection systems can be used in conjunction with the above.

9.4.2 Protection of Slopes

9.4.2.1 Topsoiling and Grassing

Sprigs of indigenous ‘runner’ type grass may be planted on slopes by one or two methods

· The slopes may be covered with a layer of fine top soil free of stones greater
than 50mm. The minimum thickness should be 75 mm. The layer shall be
planted with grass.

· Sprigs of grass shall be planted at approximately 200 mm centres in pockets

of topsoil, 75mm deep.

Planting should be carried out at the beginning of the rainy season.

9.4.2.2 Surface Treatment with Seeds and Fertilizers

When difficulties are anticipated in establishing a healthy growth of grass on a sterile soil,
a mixture of grass seeds and fertilizer may be applied. This can be done either as a wet or
dry process. In the former process grass seeds fertiliser, mulch material and water are
mixed to form a slurry which is sprayed onto the ground. In the dry process grass seed
grass seed and fertiliser are mixed and applied to the ground, followed by watering and
possible application of mulching material.

9.4.2.3 Gravel or Stone Blanketing

Erodible material may be protected by placing coverings of gravel or stone blankets. The
blanketing material should have a maximum size of 40 mm and be placed in an even layer
of at least 75 mm

9.4.2.4 Fascines

Placing fascines or branches over the most vulnerable areas, generally combined with
some form of grass planting, will help stabilise the slope until it is covered by grass or other
vegetation.

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9.4.2.5 Serrated Slopes

Serrated slopes aid in the establishment of vegetation. Serration may be constructed in

any material that is rippable or that will hold a vertical or sub vertical face for a few weeks,
until vegetation becomes established.

9.4.2.6 Other Protection Works

More costly types of protection, such as stone pitching (possibly grouted), gabions,
masonry or placing of concrete may also be used, but, in general, they are economically
justified only where the overall slope stability has to be improved.

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9.5 Drainage of Ground Water

9.5.1 General

Ground water may be encountered in the following situations:

· In cuttings, a water table with a level above or near formations, or springs

· In low –lying or poorly drained flat areas , a water table near formation, likely
to affect the subgrade by capillary rise.

9.5.2 Drainage Remedies

9.5.2.1 Choice of Proper Alignment

The best expedient for the prevention of drainage problems is carrying out a proper survey
of he area concerned and choosing or modifying both vertical and horizontal alignment so
that the formation is as far away as practicable from water tables and springs.

9.5.2.2 Subsoil Drains

Longitudinal subsoil drains can be used to locally lower a water table. These will normally
consist of porous or perforated PVC pipes laid in a trench with a surround and backfill of
free draining material, e.g. graded crushed stone (maximum size: 60 mm), clean coarse
gravel or sand. The pipe size will depend on the expected flow of water but will generally
not be less than 100 mm internal diameter. The depth of the trench will depend on the
level of the water table and the permeability of the soil but normally it should be at least 1
meter deeper than the formation level and 500mm wide.

In some cases where it is necessary to prevent surface water from entering the subsoil
drains, the upper 500mm of the trench shall be backfilled with impermeable clayey
material.

If the surrounding ground is likely to squeeze or wash into the free draining material, filter
protection is required. This can be achieved by placing filter material as free draining
material in the trench.

Filter materials shall comply with the following requirements:

5.S15 < F 15 < 5.S85

where

F 15 is the sieve size (in mm) through which 15% by weight of the filter material passes.

S15 is the sieve size ( in mm) through which 15% by weight of the natural soil passes

S 85 is the sieve size (in mm) through which 85 % of the natural soil passes

It is important that the pipe be surrounded by appropriate filter material to prevent fines
from clogging the openings.

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A non-woven geo fabric of an approved type my be placed around the pipe. The effective
pore size of the fabric should comply with the above filter criteria.

It may also be useful to place non woven geo fabric around the pipe. The effective pore
size of the fabric should comply with the above filter criteria.

Where the flow of water is small and where non woven geo – fabric is placed around the
drainage material, it may be unnecessary to place a pipe.

Where pipes are used, inspection chambers with silt traps shall be constructed every 100
m along straight sections and at every change of direction. This will enable the pipe to be
rodded or flushed out.

9.5.2.3 Blanket Drains

Blanket Drains are used to remove seepage water appearing in the base of cuttings or in
the subgrade. The blanket shall consist of a filter layer in contact with the soil, and a
coarser collector layer. Non woven geo-fabric may also be used, to prevent fines from
blocking the draining layer. Protection by filter layers or non – woven geo fabric may be
required on both sides of the blanket drain.

9.5.2.4 Seepage Remedies

If during construction unanticipated local seepage or springs are encountered in cuttings

they may be controlled by either a counter fort drain or sub-horizontal well. In its simplest
form a counter fort drain consists of an excavated ‘slot’ or deep trench running into the cut
slope, which is then backfilled with free-draining material and in large cases a porous pipe.

The filter criteria already stated will apply and some arrangements must be made to lead
away the intercepted water. Geo-fabrics can also be used as already described.

Drilling into the cut slope at a slight upward angle to intercept the water-bearing strata
forms sub-horizontal wells. The hole is then lined with a slotted or perforated pipe to keep
it open and to carry the water out. Usual diameters range from 50 to 100 mm and lengths
may reach 50 m.

References

1) Materials and Pavement Design Manual (Part 3, Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges) Republic of Kenya
2) Geometric Design (Part I a), Design Manual for Roads and Bridges), Republic of
Kenya

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10 Urban Areas: Road Drainage and Urban Stormwater

Drainage
10.1 Introduction
Dividing the issue of road drainage into two separate chapters follows the tradition of the
existing Kenya Road Design Manual. While a considerable section of both the urban and
the rural road design are based upon common principles, for example the method of storm
water calculation there are also considerable differences.

These differences consist of:

· The larger variety of lined open drains due to space constrains in urban areas
· The use of pipe conduits for urban storm water drainage, and – most
importantly -
· The network character of urban drainage systems.

This network character of urban drainage requires a comprehensive approach to the

drainage design, the involvement of various planning authorities (see Chapter 2.Section 2:
‘Coordination with other local and national and local Ministries and Agencies’ ) and often
more sophisticated hydrological methods for determining peak runoff.

There are numerous techniques for making stormwater runoff estimates. Some of these
techniques estimate only an instantaneous peak flow rate while others also yield a
hydrograph, thereby providing an estimate of runoff volume and distribution. The
momentary peak flow rate estimates are most often used in the design of roadside
channels, cross drain culverts, and storm drain systems. Drainage systems employing
pumping stations, detention, retention, or recharge basins and large, complex storm drain
systems require the use of hydrographs.

However, as far as the Kenyan situation is concerned the classic methods of estimating
storm water runoff through the Rational Method is considered adequate. However, for
specific locations, like the coastal town of Mombasa, more complex approaches have to be
chosen. The reader is referred to Ref.1, AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines Volume
IX, for such complex issues.

10.2 Urban Hydrology

Urban Hydrology is characterized by:

· Complex, often artificial drainage patterns

· High run – off coefficients from roof tops and paved areas
· Relatively rapid change of land use over time
· Short times of concentration
· High frequency of extreme rainfall events due to special climatic conditions

A the same time urban areas often have complex, large scale structures and building,
including basements (car parks etc.) which are specially flood prone.

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10.2.1 Peak Discharge Calculation

Due to the relatively small catchment areas, high runoff coefficients and large sections of
impermeable surface the Rational Formula is best used in urban areas. Reference is made
to Chapter 5 of this Manual, especially to Equations 5.1 and 5.4 (Time of concentration).

10.3 Hydraulic Calculations

The capacity calculations for open channels and closed conduit flow can be carried out
with the Colebrook – White formula, or alternatively, with the Manning Equation (see
Chapter 9). The Manning equation is widely used, especially for the side drain design of
rural roads design (see also Chapter 9).

However, it only provides an estimate of pipe capacity and the Colebrook – White formula
(as attached as charts to this document) should be used for more exact calculations in
urban areas.

The Colebrook White Formula calculates the flow velocity as

V= - √(32gRs)log10 {(k/14888R) +1.225v/R√(32gRs)} (Eqn.10.1)

Where
V= velocity of flow in m/s
R = hydraulic Radius (m)
S = energy gradient
V= kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
K = equivalent sand roughness (mm)
G = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

The Colebrook-white formula is rather complex and has been simplified and expressed
graphically in the attached charts on Figures 10.1 to 10.7. For other calculations the
Mannings Formula (see chapter 9) can be used to calculate the capacity of lined and
unlined open drains.

Values used in urban areas for Mannings n and related maximum allowable flow
velocities for different materials are presented in Table 10.1.

Due to better maintenance and more uniform environmental conditions (built up

environment, fewer changes of flow conditions etc.) higher flow speeds for concrete
drains in urban areas are permissible than in rural areas (compare Table 9.2).

Table 10.1: Manning n – Values for Urban Drainage Channels

Mannings n Maximum flow speed
Closed conduits
Concrete 0.01 - 0.012 6
Corrugated metal 0.024 6
Vitrified clay 0.010 6
Brick 0.014 3 -4.5
Open paved channels
Concrete 0.012 6
Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 5.5 -6
Random stone in mortar 0.017 5 -5.5
Dry rubble riprap 0.025 3 -4.5
Brick 0.014 3 -4.5

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10.3.1. Minimum Velocity

Storm drains must not only be of such sizes and be laid at such gradients as to be
capable of carrying the calculated flows, but they must also be laid at gradients steep
enough to ensure "self cleansing velocities" i.e. velocities sufficiently fast to prevent
the deposition of solids and/or grit with the possibility of eventual blockage. The
recommended value for piped systems and lined drains is not less than 0.75 m/sec.

10.3.2 Safety Issues

Where open channels pass close to residential areas and schools, consideration
must be given to the safety of children when designing for upper velocity limits or
deep drains.

10.4 Types of Urban Drains

10.4.1 Slotted Drains

Slotted drains are formed from a rectangular reinforced concrete or brick lined channel
covered with a precast slotted reinforce concrete slab. Their use should be specified with
caution as the cover slabs are susceptible to damage from traffic and impact from heavy
loads and the drains are subject to clogging up with debris and other detritus. Because the
drain is not normally visible to the cursory inspection they seldom receive the regular
maintenance and cleaning they require.

10.4.2 Invert Block Drains (IBD)

Invert block drains are used to form lined trapezoidal side or outlet drains. The capacity of
the drain can be expanded by deepening the drain and increasing the number of side
panels. Two types of IBD are generally in use; a half round block drain some 300mm in
diameter and a rectangular block drain 450 x 230mm in size. Side panels are usually 600 x
225 x 75mm thick and are laid on 75mm of compacted murram.

10.4.3 Kerbs

For a detailed discussion on kerbs and the drainage options associated with
different types and geometries of kerbs, the reader is referred to: Design Manual
for Roads and Bridges, Part 1A, Geometric Design, 2009.

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10.5 Inlet Structures

10.5.1 Grate Inlets

Grate inlets are commonly used inlet structures, which are available in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes. They can be placed in the gutter on a continuous grade or at sag
locations. In a sag location, the capacity of a grate inlet is dependent mainly on the open
area of the grate and the depth of allowable ponded water above the grate. At ponding
depths which completely submerge the grate, the concept of orifice flow is usually applied
to the design of sag location grates. Since grates at sag locations are particularly prone to
clogging, it is common practice to apply a safety factor (typically 2) to the required inlet
area. Generally, if used in kerb and gutter, it is recommended that they be supplemented
with a kerb-opening to provide a combination sag inlet. Important factors influencing the
interception capacity of an on-grade grate inlet are:

· length and width of grate,

· shape and size of bars in grate,
· gutter geometry,
· depth and velocity of approaching flow, and
· orientation of bars (vertical and horizontal).

For an inlet on a continuous grade, the depth of water in the gutter will depend on the
channel flow characteristics of the gutter. These gutter characteristics include the cross
section, grade, and the roughness of the gutter and pavement surfaces over which the
water flows. An increase in either pavement cross slope or in width of a grate will increase
the capacity of the inlet. For hydraulic analysis purposes, it is convenient to consider the
flow intercepted by an on-grade inlet grate as consisting of two parts: (1) frontal flow or that
portion of the intercepted flow which passes over the upstream front edge of the grate, and
(2) side flow or that portion of the intercepted flow which passes over the edge of the grate
parallel to and away from the kerb.

The hydraulic efficiency, E, of a grate is defined as the ratio of total flow intercepted, Qi, to
the total gutter flow, Q.

The amount of frontal flow intercepted depends mainly on bar configuration, grate width,
and velocity of flow. On milder profile grades, it is possible for 100 percent of the frontal
flow to be intercepted. On steeper grades, the higher velocity flow may cause the water to
splash over the grate. When "splash-over" occurs, a portion of the frontal flow is not
intercepted. The amount of side flow intercepted increases as the length of the grate
increases and it decreases as the velocity of flow increases. The quantity of intercepted
flow increases as the depth of flow and ponded width increase. Design economics usually
require that a percentage of the approach gutter flow be allowed to bypass the inlet to be
picked up by inlets down grade. Therefore, the spacing of grate inlets on continuous
grades is determined by the allowable water spread on the pavement and the efficiency of
the inlets.

Factors influencing grate type selection should include:

· hydraulic efficiency,
· pedestrian and bicycle safety,
· debris handling characteristics,
· structural strength,
· installation costs
· safety against theft.

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Grates-on-grade with longitudinal bars parallel to the direction of traffic are generally more
efficient than those with transverse bars. However, in areas where bicycle traffic is
anticipated, parallel bars require special provisions such as narrowing the space between
bars or adding transverse bars to ensure the safety of bicyclists.

These provisions tend to reduce hydraulic efficiency. Grates with transverse bars are
bicycle-safe; however, when used on steep slopes they can be very inefficient because of
the tendency for the water to splash over the grate without entering the system.

Figure 10.1: Grated Inlet

In urban areas in Kenya concrete filled grated inlets used. The concrete filling protects the
metal grade against theft.

Spacing of the gulleys is determined either by rule of thump: every 45 m. or one gulley for
every 200m2 of catchment area. Alternatively the following formula is used:

Gulley Spacing y = 100*S0.5 / W

Where S = Slope of Pavement in %

W = width of Pavement in feet

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10.6 Urban Drainage Networks

10.6.1 General

The fundamental approach for network design for open drains and pipe conduits is very
similar. It comprises first the selection of a suitable rainfall input (Chapter 5), and secondly
the calculation of the flow in various parts of the system, leading to the determination of
appropriate conduit sizes.

The main aim of the sewer design is to achieve an adequate level of protection at
acceptable costs. What level of costs is acceptable will vary from place to place, but for
high value downtown urban areas a flood return period of 20 years seems reasonable.

The designer of the system has a second requirement. If the built sewer system is
surcharged too often this will lead to a rapid destruction of the sewer system. Many sewers
crack during their lifetime due to overloading, soil settlement and other reasons. Once
water starts to leak through these cracks and the backfill material is washed out rapid
collapse of the sewer can happen.

Normal surcharge return periods are in the order of 5 years.

10.6.2 Design Procedure

10.6.2.1 Summation of Flow Method

The hydrologic computations for this method of storm drain design are performed exactly
as its title suggests. The total peak runoff is estimated by adding the runoff intercepted by
each inlet upstream of the design point. This sum is then used to size the conduit. Results
achieved with this method a very conservative.

A situation in which peak runoff from numerous inlets arrives at the design point at different
point in time cannot be accounted for by this method. In addition it does not consider the
fact that the peak runoff rate for each inlet can be reduced by the influence of channel
storage in the upstream portion of the network. The method shall only be used for
preliminary design.

10.6.2.2 Rational Method

The Rational Method is the traditionally used method for sewer network design. A peak
discharge is calculated for each design point in a storm drainage network. The method
requires a different time of concentration at each point. Methods for calculation time of
concentration are described in Chapter 5. Since the time of concentration is increased as
the design proceeds in downstream direction, the design rainfall decreases. Thus for large
systems the design flow rates will be lower than those obtained through the Summation of
Flows Method described above.

A comparison of the results the Summation of Flow Method and the Rational Method are
shown on the Example Network calculated in section 10.7.

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 128 Draft Document – December 2009
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009

10.7 Worked Example of Sewer Network

Figure 10.2: Hypothetical Storm Drain System

Table 10.2: Data for demonstrating Storm Drain Hydraulic Procedure

Data for Demonstrating the Application of Storm Drain Hydraulic Procedure

Inlet a Drainage Time of Rainfallb Runoff Inlet Flowc
Area concentration Intensity Coefficient Rate
( ha) (min) (mm/h) (m3/s)
1 0.81 10 72 0.9 0.146
2 1.21 15 58 0.9 0.167
3 1.01 10 72 0.9 0.182
4 1.01 10 72 0.9 0.182
5 0.81 12 69 0.9 0.140
6 1.01 15 58 0.9 0.139
7 0.81 10 72 0.9 0.146
a
Inlet and storm drain system as shown in Figure 10.3
b
Obtained from IDF curves
c
Calculated using Rational Formula

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 129 Draft Document – December 2009
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 2 – Drainage Design 2009

Table 10.3: Results for Summary of Flow Calculation Method

Results for Summary of Flow Calculation Method for Hypothetical Storm Drain System
Strom Drain Segments Tributary Inlets Summation of Inlet Flow
(m3/s)
I 1 – M1 1 0.146
I2 – M1 2 0.167
M1 – M2 1 and 2 0.313
I 3 – M2 3 0.182
I4 – M2 4 0.182
M2 – M3 1,2,3 and 4 0.677
I 5 – M3 5 0.140
I6 – M4 6 0.139
M3 – M4 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 0.956
I 7 – M1 7 0.146
M4 - O 1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 1.102
100 % inlet intercept has been assumed for data

Table 10.4: Results of Rational Method Calculation for Storm Drain System
Results of Rational Method Calculations for the Hypothetical Storm Drain System
Storm Drain Tributary Time of Rainfall Runoff Design Flow
Segment Area Concentration intensity Coefficient Rate
(ha) (min.) (mm/h) (m3/s)
I 1 – M1 0.81 10 72 0.9 0.146
I2 – M1 1.21 15 58 0.9 0.167
M1 – M2 2.02 16.6 55 0.9 0.278
I 3 – M2 1.01 10 72 0.9 0.182
I4 – M2 1.01 10 72 0.9 0.182
M2 – M3 4.04 19.9 48 0.9 0.485
I 5 – M3 0.81 12 69 0.9 0.140
I6 – M4 1.01 15 58 0.9 0.139
M3 – M4 5.86 26.4 39 0.9 0.572
I 7 – M1 0.81 10 72 0.9 0.146
M4 – O 6.67 30.4 35 0.9 0.584

References

1) AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IX, Storm Drain Systems

2) Fiddes D. and Watkins L.H. Highway and Urban Hydrology in the Tropics, Pentech,
1984
3) Abu Dhabi Municipality Road Section, Drainage Design Manual

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 130 Draft Document – December 2009