2020 - S2 - MEC4444 - Lecture Notes (Week 1 - Loudness) PDF

Monash University Sunway campus is jointly owned by Monash University and the Jeffrey Cheah Foundation
School of Engineering
MEC 4444
Industrial Noise and Control
Semester 2, 2019
MEC 4444 Industrial Noise and Control
The Measurement of Noise – an Introduction
• We have seen previously that the ear responds to sound in a

logarithmic way
• We will consider this in more detail, and begin to see how we
can measure noise in a meaningful way, since the ears
response to noise varies with frequency
• Can we measure the effect of noise on humans?
• Do we all respond in the same way?
• What happens when the noise varies with time?
2
Learning Objective
Why do this?
▪ Engineering always involve measurements (load, strain, noise?)
▪ Understand how “noise” is assessed
▪ How can we relate noise measurement to what our ears hear?
▪ Sound level meters and their functionalities
3
Loudness
Subjective effect of changes in sound pressure level for a single fixed

frequency or a narrow band of noise
Change in sound level (dB) Change in apparent loudness
3 Just perceptible
5 Clearly noticeable
10 Half or twice as loud
4
The Ear’s sensitivity with Frequency.

120
L 110
e 100 A contour of “equal loudness”
v 90
e 80
l 70
60
(dB)
20 31 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Frequency (Hz)
Suppose that we start at 1000 Hz, with a pure tone, of 70 dB.
We will now change the frequencies and adjust the sound pressure levels (dB) so that
each of the new tones seems to be as “loud” as the original pure tone was at 1000 Hz.
5
Phon : Equal “Loudness”
• Any pure tone on this contour will sound as “loud” as any of

the other pure tones even though the sound pressure levels
will usually differ
• We need to invent a new unit to describe sound in terms of
its loudness.
• The unit is the “phon”; its numerical value is the value of
the sound pressure level at 1000 Hz for each of the various
contours.
• Thus we have drawn the 70 Phon curve.
6
The Ear’s sensitivity with Frequency, and with Level.
120
L 110
e 100
v 90
e 80
l 70
60
(dB)
20 31 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Frequency (Hz)
Thus, for example, a pure tone of 80 dB at 63 Hz, will sound as loud as a

pure tone of 70 dB at 1000 Hz. Each will have a value of 70 phons.
7
Equal
loudness
contours
based on ISO
226 1987 and
2003
8
Sone
▪ Phon provides no information about the relative loudness; that is, how
much louder is one sound than another
▪ Relative loudness of two sounds
– An increase in sound pressure level of 10 decibels will result in a
subjectively judged increase in loudness of a factor of 2
– The 40-phon contour has arbitrarily been labelled as 1 sone
– Then the 50-phone contour, which would be judged twice as loud,
has been labelled two sones
– The relation between the same, 𝑆, and the phone, 𝑃, is
𝑃−40 Τ10
𝑆=2
9
Sone
40 Phons 1 Sone
50 Phons 2 Sones
60 Phons 4 Sones
70 Phons 8 Sones
80 Phons 16 Sones
40 Phons 1 Sone
30 Phons 0.5 Sones
20 Phons 0.25 Sones
Phons−40 Τ10
Sones = 2
Phons = 40 + 33 log Sones
10
L
E
V
E
L
dB
Frequency (Hz)
11
12
Weighting Networks
▪ The apparent loudness of a sound (the subjective response of ear) varies with
frequency as well as with sound pressure
– Variation of loudness with frequency also depends to some extent on the
sound pressure
▪ Sound-measuring instruments are designed to make allowance for this behaviour
of the ear by the use of electronic “weighting” networks
▪ A-weighted filter – commonly used for assessing potential hearing damage
cause by loud noise
▪ B-weighted filter – no longer in use
▪ C-weighted filter – calculate Noise Rating Reduction and assess low frequency
noise
▪ D-weighted filter – used for high level aircraft noise (large peak reflects human
ears response to random noise differently from pure tones)
▪ Z-weighted filter – “Zero” weighting same as “flat” or “linear” filter
13
14
Response of the A, B, C, and D filters as a function of frequency
Frequency A B C D
(Hz) dB dB dB dB
Frequency A B C D 400 -4.8 -0.3 0 -0.5
(Hz) dB dB dB dB 500 -3.2 -0.3 0 0
20 -50 -24.2 -6.2 -20.5 630 -1.9 -0.1 0 0
25 -44.7 -20.4 -4.4 -18.3 800 -0.8 0 0 0
31.5 -39.4 -17.1 -3 -16.5 1000 0 0 0 0
40 -34.6 -14.2 -2 -14.6 1250 0.6 0 0 2
50 -30.2 -11.6 -1.3 -12.5 1600 1 0 -0.1 5.5
63 -26.2 -9.3 -0.8 -11 2000 1.2 -0.1 -0.2 8
80 -22.5 -7.4 -0.5 -9 2500 1.3 -0.2 -0.3 10
100 -19.1 -5.6 -0.3 -7.5 3150 1.2 -0.4 -0.5 11
125 -16.1 -4.2 -0.2 -6 4000 1 -0.2 -0.8 11
160 -13.4 -3 -0.1 -4.5 5000 0.5 -1.2 -1.3 10
200 -10.9 -2 0 -3 6300 -0.1 -1.9 -2 8.5
250 -8.6 -1.3 0 -2 8000 -1.1 -2.9 -3 6
315 -6.6 -0.5 0 -1 10000 -2.5 -4.3 -4.4 3
12500 -4.3 -6.1 -6.2 0
16000 -6.6 -8.4 -8.5 -4
Monash University Sunway campus is jointly owned by Monash University and the Jeffrey Cheah Foundation 20000 -9.3 -11.1 -11.2 -7.5
• Thus if we were using the “A” Filter, we would increasingly attenuate

the amplitude of frequencies below 1000Hz (to as much as 50 dB at
20 Hz), and also the high frequencies – above about 10 kHz
• We would then measure the resulting signal, find the rms value, and
calculate its decibel value.
• The dB(A) value is used very extensively – as we shall see later – in

defining acceptable noise levels, and is thus most relevant for noise
control considerations
16
Common Sound dB(A) Effect
Some Normal breathing 10 Just audible
typical Rustling leaves 20
values Whisper 30 Quiet
of noise Bedroom 30 - 40
in dB(A) Quiet office 50
Normal conversation 50 - 65 Moderate
Vacuum cleaner 70
City Traffic Noise 80
Lawn mower 90
Garbage truck 100 Loud
Jackhammer 110
Thunder (not too near) 120
Rock concert
130 Very loud
Frequency Analysis
▪ Noise has a broadband spectrum; it contains a mixture of all frequencies
▪ To investigate the frequency content of the noise in more detail
– Split the frequency range into bands and measure the sound
pressure level in each band
▪ There are two ways of splitting the frequency range into bands
– A constant bandwidth
– A constant percentage bandwidth
Constant bandwidth
▪ Each band has the same width
▪ The centre frequency of each band would be half way between its upper
and lower cut-off points
▪ Usually only for “narrow band frequency analysis”
19
Constant percentage bandwidth

▪ Covering the entire audio range (20 to 20000 Hz) using constant bandwidth
filters requires too many bands
▪ Constant percentage bandwidth analysis is most frequently used for
routine assessment of broad band noise
▪ The most commonly used methods use octave and one-third octave bands
▪ They are called “octave bands” because for each filter the upper cut-off
frequency, is twice the value of the lower cut-off frequency
▪ The internationally defined system of octave bands for sound
measurement has a series of contiguous bands named by their nominal
centre frequencies at 16Hz, 31.5Hz, 63Hz, 125Hz, 250Hz, 500Hz, 1000Hz,
2000Hz, 4000Hz, 8000Hz, 16000Hz
▪ In the one third octave system each octave is split into three bands
20
The “Pass Band” of an Octave Band Filter.
Input contains all

frequencies of the noise.
Input Output
Octave Band
Filter
Output contains only those

frequencies that are
“passed” by the filter - i.e.
frequencies in the range:
flower to fupper
21
• By using a series of these Octave Band Filters (covering the

audible frequency range), we can pass the signal through each
filter in turn and measure in dBs the various Octave Band levels.
• This will give us an indication of which frequencies are present in

the noise signal, and their respective amplitudes.
• This information will be needed when we begin to consider
the effect of the noise on humans, and how we might most
efficiently reduce that effect.
22
22
Centre Frequency (Hz)

32 64 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000 16,000
• We can work out the various “pass bands” of the octave filters by finding
the geometric mean of its centre frequency with that of the adjacent
centre frequencies
𝑓c = 𝑓L × 𝑓U
• For example, the “pass band” of the 1000 Hz filter is:
f lower= 500 × 1000 = 707 Hz ; f upper= 1000 × 2000 = 1414 Hz
• This filter “passes” frequencies in the octave from 707 Hz to 1414 Hz

• Notice that the “bandwidth” increases with frequency. Filters of this
type are called “constant percentage” filters.
23
The series of Octave Band Filters
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
Frequency (Log scale)
24
An Octave Band Spectrum

90
80
Octave Band level (dB)
70
60
50
40
31.5 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K 16K
Frequency (Hz) (log scale)

25
If we were given this Octave Band Spectrum, how would

we calculate:
• The Overall Sound pressure Level – dB, and

• The A Weighted Sound Pressure Level - dB(A)
Can we also identify which octave bands in the

spectrum are most relevant if we are required to reduce
the noise level efficiently?
26
We can calculate the Overall Level, or dB(Lin)
Frequency (Hz) Octave Band
Level (dB)
10( SPL /10 ) = 108.7 + 107.9 + 107.5
31.5 87
63 79 + 108.0 + 108.3 + 107.7 + 108.1
125 75
250 80 + 107.9 + 107.5 + 107.2
500 83
10( SPL /10) = 1.2 109
1000 77
SPL
2000 81 = log(1.2 109 )
10
4000 79
8000 75 SPL = 90.8dB( Lin)
16000 72
27
To calculate the “A” weighted value we first need to apply
the “A” weightings to the octave band values.
Frequency Octave Band “A” Weightings “A” Octave Level
(Hz) Level (dB)
31.5 87 -39.5 47.5
63 79 -26.2 52.8
125 75 -16.1 58.9
250 80 -8.6 71.4
500 83 -3.2 79.8
1000 77 0.0 77.0
2000 81 1.2 82.2
4000 79 1.0 80.0
8000 75 -1.1 73.9
16000 72
-6.6 65.4 28
To calculate the “A” weighted value we first need to apply
the “A” weightings to the octave band values.
Frequency Octave Band “A” Weightings “A” Octave Level
(Hz) Level (dB)
31.5 87 -39.5 47.5
63 79 -26.2 52.8
125 75 -16.1 58.9
250 80 -8.6 71.4
500 83 -3.2 79.8
1000 77 0.0 77.0
2000 81 1.2 82.2
4000 79 1.0 80.0
8000 75 -1.1 73.9
16000 72
-6.6 65.4 29
To calculate the “A” weighted value we first need to apply the “A”
weightings to the octave band values.
Frequency Octave Band “A” “A” Octave Using the
(Hz) Level (dB) Weightings Level technique of
31.5 87 -39.5 47.5 adding
63 79 -26.2 52.8 decibels, we
can use the
125 75 -16.1 58.9
figures in the
250 80 -8.6 71.4 last column to
500 83 -3.2 79.8 get the “A”
1000 77 0.0 77.0 Weighted SPL.
2000 81 1.2 82.2
“A” weighted
4000 79 1.0 80.0 level is
8000 75 -1.1 73.9 86.6 dB(A)
16000 72 -6.6 65.4 30
The original Octave Band Spectrum “Lin”
The “A” weighted Octave Band Spectrum
90.8
“A”
90
86.6
80
70
60
50
40
31.5 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K 16K

Why are these important from a noise control point of view?
The original Octave Band Spectrum
“Lin”
The “A” weighted Octave Band Spectrum
“A”
90
80
70
60
50
40
31.5 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K 16K

Why are these not important from a noise control point of view?
Octave Band SPL
Third Octave Bands
• The 1/3 Octave Band Filter divides each Octave band into
equal 3 sub-bands, on a logarithmic frequency basis
• The result is a more detailed spectrum
R This could be of value

e perhaps??
s
p An Octave Band Filter
o
n The 1/3 Octave Band
s Filters
e
Frequency (Log scale) 34

MEC 4444 Industrial Noise and Control Octave band One-third octave band
centre frequency centre frequency
Octave band One-third octave band 400
centre frequency centre frequency 500 500
25
630
31.5 31.5
800
40
1000 1000
50
1250
63 63
1600
80
2000 2000
100
2500
125 125
3150
160
4000 4000
200
5000
250 250
6300
315
8000 8000
10000
35
A 1/3 rd Octave Band Spectrum

90
80
1/3 Octave Band level
70
60
(dB)
50
40
31.5 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K 16K

36
One-Third Octave Band
37
What do we do about noise that varies with time?
There are many different approaches, but today we

consider just two of them – more in later lectures.
• Statistical methods – L10, L50 , and L90, and

• The Equivalent Continuous Noise Level , Leq .
38
Time varying Noise – e.g. road traffic noise.
L50 L10
dB(A)
L90
Time
The value , L10, is the noise level that is exceeded for
10 % of the time.
50 % of the time.
90 % of the time.
39
dB(A)
Time

10 % of the time.
This quantity gives a measure of the “peaks” in the

noise and is sometimes taken as a measure of how
“annoying” the noise is.
40
dB(A)
Time
The value , L50, is the noise level that is exceeded for 50 % of the
time.
This quantity gives a measure of the “average” or mean noise level.

Note that with each of these parameters we are simply taking the
linear average of the instantaneous noise levels. 41
dB(A)
Time

90 % of the time.
This quantity gives a measure of the what is often called

the “background” noise level. 42
dB(A)
Time
These statistical quantities are usually measured directly with a sound level
meter which has the various statistical functions built in.
They are mostly used for environmental noise, and often are the basis for
defining acceptable levels for road traffic noise.
We shall use the “Traffic Noise Index” in a few weeks time.
43
Equivalent Continuous Noise Level – Leq
dB(A)
Time
This quantity is the level of a steady noise which would contain the
same acoustic energy as the time varying signal.
This parameter is usually more relevant when we are considering

hearing damage as a result of exposure to noise that varies with time.
44
Equivalent Continuous Noise Level – Leq .
dB(A) Leq
Time
The general equation is as follows:
SPL1 SPL2 SPL3 SPLn
t1 10 10
+ t 2 10 10
+ t3 10 10
+ . . . .t n 10 10
Leq = 10 log( )
T
t1 is the time at a level SPL1 , t 2 is the time at a level SPL 2
t3 is the time at a level SPL 3 , t n is the time at a level SPL n
and T = t 1 + t 2 + t3 + . . . . + t n
45
46
dB(A)
Time
As an example: A person is exposed to noise at work

for an 8 hour period as follows:
dB(A) Hours What is the
95 1.0 value of the
90 3.0 Equivalent
85 2.5 Continuous
80 1.5 Noise Level?
47
89.5 dB(A)
dB(A)
Time
From the general equation we get:

95 90 85 80
110 + 3 10 + 2.5 10 + 1.5 10 10 10 10 10
Leq = 10 log( )
(1 + 3 + 2.5 + 1.5)
Leq = 89.5 dB( A) Will this cause hearing damage??
If we had taken the (time weighted) arithmetic average of
these values our answer would have been: 87.2 dB(A)
48

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Monash University Sunway campus is jointly owned by Monash University and the Jeffrey Cheah Foundation

• We have seen previously that the ear responds to sound in a

Subjective effect of changes in sound pressure level for a single fixed

The Ear’s sensitivity with Frequency.

Phon : Equal “Loudness”

• Any pure tone on this contour will sound as “loud” as any of

Thus, for example, a pure tone of 80 dB at 63 Hz, will sound as loud as a

• Thus if we were using the “A” Filter, we would increasingly attenuate

• The dB(A) value is used very extensively – as we shall see later – in

Constant percentage bandwidth

Input contains all

Output contains only those

• By using a series of these Octave Band Filters (covering the

• This will give us an indication of which frequencies are present in

Centre Frequency (Hz)

• This filter “passes” frequencies in the octave from 707 Hz to 1414 Hz

Frequency (Log scale)

An Octave Band Spectrum

Frequency (Hz) (log scale)

If we were given this Octave Band Spectrum, how would

• The Overall Sound pressure Level – dB, and

Can we also identify which octave bands in the

Frequency (Hz) (log scale)

Frequency (Hz) (log scale)

R This could be of value

Frequency (Log scale) 34

A 1/3 rd Octave Band Spectrum

Frequency (Hz) (log scale)

What do we do about noise that varies with time?

There are many different approaches, but today we

• Statistical methods – L10, L50 , and L90, and

The value , L10, is the noise level that is exceeded for

This quantity gives a measure of the “peaks” in the

This quantity gives a measure of the “average” or mean noise level.

The value , L90, is the noise level that is exceeded for

This quantity gives a measure of the what is often called

Equivalent Continuous Noise Level – Leq

This parameter is usually more relevant when we are considering

t3 is the time at a level SPL 3 , t n is the time at a level SPL n

As an example: A person is exposed to noise at work

From the general equation we get:

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