Gym Coach, Vol.

4 (2011) 1- 11

www.thegypress.net Technical Report

Kinematic Analysis of the Centre of Mass in

the Back Handspring: A case study.
Gabriella Penitente1, Franco Merni2, William A. Sands3
1Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK, 2 University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, 3Mesa State
College, Grand Junction, USA

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to analyze the back handspring from a round off in gymnastics via
kinematics. A secondary purpose was to explore the use of an optoelectronic system in studying the nature of
this skill. Five female gymnasts, with differing levels of expertise volunteered as subjects. An optoelectronic
system (Vicon Motion 460) was employed (100Hz). A 41 point three-dimensional model was used to
characterize the body, and descriptive analyses were performed. The results demonstrated that the most
accomplished gymnast achieved a greater take off horizontal velocity into the back handspring (3.4 m.s-1) and
from the hands support phase (2.2 m.s-1). The most advanced gymnast showed a higher take off vertical
velocity from hands support (1.0 m.s-1) and higher flight trajectory from her hands (0.06 m). The less skilled
gymnasts all demonstrated a serious flaw by showing a marked descent during the flight phase from the hands.
They showed inappropriately long first flight phases (0.67 and 0.75 m equal to 46 and 55% their height),
sacrificing distance during the second flight (22 and 25% their height against 49% recorded for the
accomplished gymnast). The more expert gymnast demonstrated fewer general technical errors. This study
demonstrated that infra red optoelectronics optoelectronic systems are helpful in reporting detailed kinematics
performance deficiencies and determining the biomechanical feedback for superior performances.

Key Words: Acrobatics, Flic flac, Tumbling, Skill learning, Biomechanics.

Keep the abstract below 500words.

INTRODUCTION between kinematic analysis of basic skills such as the

back handspring (BH) (i.e., flic flac) and the round off
Artistic gymnastics has received considerable attention (RO) and much more advanced skills. One of the most
from biomechanics investigators (1). Kinematic important skills in artistic gymnastics is the BH (4). As
analysis of gymnastics informs in two ways, scientists a form of `acrobatic locomotion` the BH consists of a
learn about the nature of gymnastics movement, and it backward jump and flight onto the hands and then a
provides a framework within which coaching and quick push from the hands to a second flight phase to
judging analysis can be objectively interpreted (2,3). land on the feet. The basic BH begins and ends in a
Most gymnastics tumbling studies involve kinematics standing position (Figure 1). The first flight phase of
of difficult skills such as double somersaults and the BH should be relatively long and low minimizing
somersaults with twists. This approach serves elite height and flight. The BH does not add points to a
gymnasts and performer coaches by enhancing gymnast’s routine due to its basic nature, but it is
understanding of skills that can help to lead to higher crucial to the performance of higher level skills. The
scores. However, even elite gymnasts must rely heavily BH can be performed poorly enough to cost the
on basic gymnastics skills. Thus, there is a disparity gymnast points; in fact it is primarily used as a
©2009 The Gym Press. All rights reserved Gym Coach Vol.4, January, 2011 - 1-
stepping stone or accelerator movement from a round off to difficult somersaults and somersaults with
Figure 1. Shows the back handspring from the round off. The instants of impact and take off relative to feet and hands
identified the four phases of feet support (a), 1 flight (b), hands support(c) and 2 flight (d).

twists. Due to the ubiquitous nature of the BH, proper

technique is also important in efforts to prevent injury
(5,6,7,8,9). METHODOLOGY
There is a paucity of information on the kinematics of
the BH. Koh et al (10,11) and Davidson et al (12) Subjects
studied the kinetics of the BH via ground reaction Five Italian female gymnasts ranging in age from 10 to
forces during the support phase on the hands. Payne 14 years, competing for two local gymnastics clubs,
and Barker (13) and Seeley and Bressel (14) studied the volunteered to participate. Informed consent and
kinetics of the skill phase that often precedes the BH in assent were obtained in writing conforming to
a tumbling pass. In particular they focus on the final University of Bologna policy on research involving
action of the round off (e.g. snap down). Grassi et al human subjects. These gymnasts were selected based
(15) analyzed the BH using optoelectronic methods, on their level of proficiency in tumbling. The Italian
but only reported the markers trajectories. Gymnastics Federation (FGI) ranks gymnasts in
The importance of the BH cannot be understated categories A, B, and C with A being the highest or most
because as the round off and BH series work becomes proficient. Gymnast 1 was a Level A (1A) and a Junior
faster and more efficient power is generated that National Team member. Gymnast 2 (2B) was B level.
allows increasingly more difficult skills to be Gymnasts 3 and 4 were Level C (3C and 4C,
performed. As such, the methodology for gaining respectively). Gymnasts 5 was a novice gymnast
kinematic information about the BH, and ranked as a Level D (5D). The athletes were assessed
commensurate understanding of the skill, should anthropometrically for height, body mass (Table 1), leg
invoke the most sophisticated and thorough length, knee diameter, ankle diameter, bi-iliac
investigation techniques. Therefore, it is clear that an breadth, elbow diameter and wrist diameter. The
analysis of the entire body and the path of the centre of anthropometric data were later used for the automatic
mass (COM) are warranted. Earlier investigations determination of the location of the COM of the body.
with more limited equipment provided some insights
but often could not rival a coach’s visual analysis. Procedures
The purpose of this study was to characterize the Gymnasts performed their BHs on a standard 5 cm
general motion of the BH though the analysis of the thick tumbling mat composed of polyethylene foam
COM movements recorded in 3-dimentions. The encased in a vinyl cover approved by the FGI. The
information derived from this study should assist motion of the gymnasts was captured in 3-dimensions
scientists in furthering information on the BH, coaches using external spherical markers (14 mm diameter)
by providing new and sophisticated information on a and analyzed by an optoelectronics system (Vicon
crucial skill, and technologists by showing the use of an Motion System 460, Vicon Oxford Metrics, Oxford,
optoelectronic system with a relatively stationary England). The system consisted of six infrared
rotational movement. cameras with a maximum resolution of 300.000 pixels
in the visual field and sampling performed at 100 Hz.
The motion capture volume was 4 x 2 x 3 m. The The additional markers (2) were placed between the
absolute error in this camera configuration was deltoid and the pectoral muscles over the coracoid
measured with a 25 mm diameter marker and found to process on both sides. Two anterior markers were also
be approximately 1 mm. The gymnast’s body was placed on the lowest full rib directly below the nipple.
characterized by 41 reflective markers placed in Three markers were placed on the left scapula, one at
defined positions identifying joints and segment the superior-medial angle, one at the inferior angle,
locations (Figure 2). COM was defined as the centroid and one centered on the axillary border. Finally, two
of a 15-segment model (head, thorax, 3-segment arms, markers were located on each side of the pelvis at the
pelvis, and 3-segment legs). Thirty-five markers were superior crest of the ilium.
applied according to the standard gait kinematic model Gymnasts were allowed a self-selected warm up and
(Plug-In-Gait, Vicon Peak®, Oxford, UK) (Figure 2) then performed 10 repetitions of BH. The best trials,
The lower body model is described by Davis et al (16), in terms of gymnastics execution, evaluated by means
Kadaba, Ramakrishnan and Wootem (17) and of the qualitative analysis of two federal judges, and
Ramakrishnan and Kadaba (18). The upper body marker recognition, were selected for further analysis.
segment definition is based on the Hay`s model (19). The COM was automatically calculated by the Vicon’s
Despite this model has not yet been evaluated, software using the Winter`s method (21).
Gutierrez, Artonek and Saraste (20) showed that it is Approximately 200 frames from foot impact (IMP) of
accurate and reliable in measuring COM motion as the the final phase of the RO to the last foot IMP at the
well-established method based on the ground reaction end of the BH from each trial were analyzed. Each
force integration. In order to solve the marker trial was broken into four phases which were defined
occlusion problem created by the gymnast’s limbs as: a – feet support (F SUP) following the RO, b – first
moving over and thus covering underlying markers, an flight (1FL) phase from feet to a subsequent landing on
additional ten markers were applied. The Plug-In-Gait the hands, c – hands support (H SUP), and d – second
marker set and the additional marker set are shown in flight phase (2FL) from the hands to the feet(Figure 1).
Figure 2. Data Analyses
All kinematic variables, including position,
displacement and velocity were obtained from the data
acquisition software’s report functions. The angle
variables were determined by further calculation
involving separate algorithms. Temporal information
was derived from frame counts between events of
interest and was expressed in time units of seconds
and in percentages.
COM horizontal component path and trajectory
information were calculated from horizontal and
vertical displacement data. Considering that the back
handspring is a movement that is mainly developed in
the sagittal plane, and to facilitate comparisons
between gymnasts, the horizontal displacement was
scaled also on the gymnasts` height. The COM
vertical component information was extrapolated from
the COM trajectory calculations. In order to further
characterize the COM vertical component movement,
the feet and hands support phases were divided into
eccentric (ECC) and concentric (CONC) phases. The
Figure 2- Shows the marker sets used to characterize the eccentric phase was defined as the period from initial
gymnasts` body in a 3-dimentional virtual environment. feet or hands contact to the instant where the COM
The black markers identified the Plug-In-gate marker set; was at its lowest point. The concentric phases began
the white markers identified the additional marker set used at the end of the eccentric phase and concluded on feet
to increase the visibility of the body during the rotational or hands departure from the mat. The flight stages
movements. The markers were 14 mm in diameter. were broken down similarly into two phases. The first
phase consisted of the upward motion of the COM
from a departure following the feet or hands contact,
while the second phase was defined as the downward Figure 3 shows the presence of an eccentric/concentric
movement of the COM from the peak of its flight transition in gymnast 1A; while gymnast 5D (figure 4)
trajectory to the first frame of feet or hands contact. shows an absence of the transition phase.
Temporal data were also determined for each phase.
Velocity data of the COM were calculated from the
horizontal and vertical velocity components by
700
standard methods. 680
An overall body angle was determined as the angle 660
between the horizontal and a line running from the 640
620
feet or hands to the COM measured in a

mm
600
F SUP
counterclockwise direction. 580
560 F PSH
In keeping with the descriptive nature of this case 540
study, statistical analysis consisted of descriptive 520
statistics of all kinematics variables (mean and 500

standard deviation) and percentages.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.
29

31

33

35

37

39

41

43

45

47

49

51

53

55
Temporal analysis Frames
The average total duration of the BH was 0.78 ± 0.03 s
(table 2). The novice gymnast performed the skill the Figure 4. Vertical displacement of the centre of mass of the
novice gymnasts 5D.
quickest (0.74 s). The 1 flight required approximately
35% of the entire skill while the 2 flight required 29%
of the entire movement.
Vertical displacements and durations of the COM
Horizontal displacement
during the flight phases
The total mean distance traveled of the COM during
Table 5 serves to show the wide variability in all the
the entire skill was 1.730 ± 0.155 m (table 3). Also of
relevant variables. Interestingly, only the more expert
note, the COM continues to move backward
gymnast (1A) showed a positive value above zero for
horizontally during the support phases of the feet and
2flight in upward direction. This further emphasizes
hands. The average movement of the COM was greater
the overall postural collapse of the hands support
during the feet support than during the hands support.
phase of the other gymnasts.
The horizontal displacement of the COM was also COM Horizontal velocity
greater during the 2 flight than during the 1 flight. After the RO at the feet impact phase the average
Vertical displacement and durations of COM during
horizontal velocity is 2.0 m.s-1 n (table 6), while during
support phases.
feet support the gymnasts were able to increase their
During the hands concentric phase there was a wide
horizontal velocity to a mean of 3.4 m.s-1 at take-off
variability among subjects (table 4). Note that the
from the feet (F TKO). Horizontal velocities slowed
gymnasts 1A,2B and 3C showed a relatively short
during hands support considerably. By completion of
concentric phase followed by hands eccentric phase
the BH the horizontal velocities were still slower than
while gymnast 4C and 5D showed almost no eccentric
the velocities achieved after the feet support phase
phase and an absent eccentric/concentric transition
following the RO. The most expert gymnast (1A) was
resulting in a collapse during hands support and
able to conserve more horizontal velocity of the COM
further fall to the feet.
than the less experienced gymnasts.
COM Vertical velocity
760 The values at the hands take off instants show that
740 only the expert gymnast (1A) was able to achieve a
720 positive velocity at this moment in time (table 7).
F SUP Angle Analysis
mm

700

680
Table 8 shows the angles of the body in the sagittal
F ECC

plane with a vertex at the gymnasts` feet/hands. It is

F PSH
660

640
defined as the angle of the line connecting the COM to
the point of contact which the mat (feet or hands).
3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

4.

4.

Note that the angle of the body at the hands takeoff (H

75

78

81

84

87

93

96

99

02

05

Frames
TKO) of the three gymnasts 3C, 4C and 5D showed
Figure 3. Vertical displacement of the centre of mass of the angles greater than 100° while the two most advanced
expert gymnasts 1A
gymnasts (1A and 2B) showed departure angles closer rapidly (1A vertical velocity = -0.1 m.s-1) than the less
to vertical. accomplished gymnasts who ranged from -0.4 m.s-1 to
-0.9 m.s-1 (5D). Gymnast 1A showed a higher take off
vertical velocity from her hands support (1 m.s-1),
DISCUSSION while less accomplished gymnasts showed vertical
velocities that were slightly negative indicating that
they fell rather than rose from the hands support
The results of this case study showed that the BH from phase. The present investigation offered a
a RO without a running approach was fast taking less biomechanical evidence and accurate quantification of
than a second to complete. During this rapid skill the a technical problem that is well known in gymnastics
periods of longest duration were the two flight phases, for some time (4,6,7,9,13).
from the landing of the feet of the RO to hands support Continuing the analogy of “tumbling as running” the
(0.27 s ± 0.05) and from hands support back to a feet BH becomes analogous to running strides. If the
landing (0.22 s ± 0.05). The shortest phase was the gymnast wants to perform a skill following the BH that
hands support phase (0.12 s ± 0.02) separating the two requires relatively large amounts of somersault
flight phases. Horizontal distances of the BH were rotation then she needs to emphasize the horizontal
largest for the more experienced and expert athlete (1A component velocity such that the “trip effect” of
=1.914 m) while the shortest distance was shown by stopping the feet on the floor causes the COM to pass
the novice gymnast (5D=1.505 m). over and above the feet at such a high velocity that
Tumbling can be considered a particular `form of somersaulting is emphasized (23). If the gymnast
locomotion` that involves both hands and feet, not wants to perform a high somersault without an over
simply feet. If we think of tumbling as something abundance of angular momentum, then she may have
similar to an `acrobatic-run` then the goals of the BH a slightly higher BH trajectory in both flight phases in
should be clear and similar to a running stride. In the order to slow the somersault and emphasize a vertical
case of the BH, alternate feet contacts are replaced direction of the jump thus increasing flight time while
with simultaneous hands and feet contacts. Run speed slowing the somersault. The reasoning above is
is controlled by stride length and stride frequency (22). evident in the difference between the gymnasts’
A similar situation arises in the BH from the RO. The horizontal displacements of the two flight phases
gymnast should strive to both cover a large distance where just athlete 1A was able to cover a relatively
and perform the BH at relatively high horizontal large horizontal distance of 0.709 m (49% her body
velocities. There is an optimal combination of both height) in comparison with the other gymnasts’ 2FL
distance and speed in a running stride and in a BH. A displacements of approximately 0.32 m (between 20
gymnast who performs a BH with high speed while and 25% their height). The data show that the lesser
sacrificing distance of travel will not achieve overall experienced gymnasts made common technical errors,
effectiveness in tumbling (2). The gymnast who both gymnasts 2B and 3C performed the 1FL phase too
achieves large flight distance must also achieve a long (0.670 and 0.753 m respectively; 46 and 55%
relatively high flight trajectory resulting in a their height) while sacrificing the distance of the
pronounced downward component velocity and force second flight phase (2FL, approximately 0.43 m; 22
that must be arrested at hands and feet contact and and 25% their height). This would be analogous to
reversed to continue subsequent movements (4,13). running a long stride on one leg and a short stride on
This study demonstrated at a descriptive level that the the other.
most accomplished gymnast (1A) achieved a greater In this study, the link between performance
horizontal component velocity (F TKO 34 m.s-1 and H differences and goal differences is not as clear as the
TKO 2.2 m.s-1) without resorting to a higher first flight analogy above. The primary reason for performance
phase (1FL 0.009 m), while the second flight phase differences in these subjects was more likely the
showed that she was attempting to arrest the marked differences in skill and ability (6,7,9).
movement thus increasing the height of this phase However, it was interesting that the more expert
(2FL 0.06 m). A tumbling pass where the BH leads to gymnasts also showed less pronounced deficiencies
a subsequent somersault the 2FL should be lower and such as some counterproductive velocity, less
usually longer to place the feet in an optimal position horizontal displacement distances, and overall poor
for the subsequent take off. The most accomplished abilities in arresting and reversing hands and feet
gymnast showed a marked difference in her second support phases. For example, the transition of the
flight phase (2FL) by falling to her hands support less COM path during the feet eccentric to feet concentric
phases (-0.46 cm and 8.94 cm, respectively) was angle of departure would allow the gymnast to rotate
present only in athletes 1A and 3C. These gymnasts farther during the subsequent flight phase (2 FL) and
used a countermovement action involving a more thus arrive in a better position on her feet for
sophisticated stretching-shortening cycle movement subsequent skills (4,13).
which usually provides more net force with less energy
expenditure (1). This action is evident in the negative
displacements of the COM of -0.46 and -0.008 and CONCLUSIONS
0.30 cm in the two best gymnasts, 1A, 2B and 3C, while
the other gymnasts showed zero displacement during This study demonstrates that biomechanics
the feet eccentric phase. The amortization of the analysis of individual gymnasts is helpful both for
impact and subsequent transition to a jump from the reporting to coaches and to provide detailed feedback
feet is a sophisticated movement pattern that requires that will lead in discovering potential reasons for
years of practice in gymnastics (24,25). However, superior performance. The data obtained indicate that
these movements are optimization problems in that differences in expertise are relatively easy to quantify
too much negative displacement is hard to overcome though 3-dimensional analysis making
and too little negative displacement during impact will communication between coaches and gymnasts
fail to stretch the relevant muscles and connective simpler, easier and more efficient.
tissues (23). In terms of methodology the study shows how is
An additional example of the separation of the more possible to use an optoelectronics system to study in
expert gymnasts from those with less ability comes depth specific gymnastics rotary skills in under control
during the second flight phase (2 FL). The 2 FL phase conditions.
represents the period when the gymnast modifies her
horizontal and vertical displacement and velocity
Every care is taken to assure the accuracy of the information published
characteristics in order to obtain a superior result in within this article. The views and opinions expressed within this article,
the subsequent skill. In this study, the gymnasts did are those of the author/s, and no responsibility can be accepted by The
not perform a skill following the BH, but the potential Gym Press, Gym Coach or the author for the consequences of actions
based on the advice contained herein
for subsequent skills is evident. Only the most
experienced gymnast was able to raise her COM (0.06
m) during the 2 FL. The other gymnasts all showed a
marked descent that would be very difficult to reverse
and thus lift into a subsequent somersault of any type.
The problem outlined above is also evident in the angle
data which showed that the best gymnasts departed
from their hands nearer vertical (96°). The higher

Tables

Table 1. Showing the mass (Kg) and the Height (cm) of the gymnasts.

Gymnasts

Anthropometric
1A 2B 3C 4C 5D
Measurement

Mass (kg) 34.0 37.0 30.0 51.6 27.0

Height (cm) 144.0 145.0 138.0 158.0 124.0

Table 2. Showing the temporal durations of the four phases of the back handspring expressed in seconds (s)
and in percentage of the duration of the whole movement (Tot BH).

Foot Hand
1 Flight 2 Flight TOT
Support Support
BH
s % BH s % BH s % BH s % BH

1A 0.18 0.23 0.22 0.28 0.09 0.11 0.31 0.39 0.80

2B 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.36 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.76

3C 0.16 0.20 0.32 0.40 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.80

4C 0.16 0.20 0.32 0.40 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.80

5D 0.15 0.20 0.24 0.32 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.27 0.74

Mean 0.16 0.21 0.27 0.35 0.12 0.15 0.22 0.29 0.78

StDev 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.03

Table 3. Showing the horizontal displacement of the center of mass (m) and in body height percentage %
during the four phases of the back handspring.

Hand
Feet Support 1Flight Support 2Flight TOT
(m) %Height (m) %Height (m) %Height (m) %Height (m) %Height
1A 0.468 33 0.526 37 0.212 15 0.709 49 1.914 133
2B 0.455 31 0.670 46 0.235 16 0.314 22 1.673 115
3C 0.424 31 0.753 55 0.298 22 0.349 25 1.824 132
4C 0.481 30 0.499 32 0.434 27 0.320 20 1.734 110
5D 0.381 31 0.509 41 0.318 26 0.297 24 1.505 121
Mean 0.442 31 0.591 42 0.299 21 0.398 28 1.73 122
StDev 0.399 1 0.114 9 0.087 6 0.175 12 0.155 10
Table 4. Shows the vertical displacement of the centre of mass (cm) during both the feet and hands support
phases, with each subdivided into respective sub-phases (Eccentric and Concentric). The ECC phase is
characterized by negative displacement (downward) while the CONC phase is characterized by a positive
displacement (upward). The eccentric (ECC) and concentric (CONC) phases are included with their temporal
characteristics (s).

Feet ECC Feet CONC Hands ECC Hands CONC

Dipl(cm) Time(s) Dipl(cm) Time(s) Displ(cm) Time(s) Displ(cm) Time(s)

1A -0.46 0.02 8.94 0.16 -0.14 0.01 4.51 0.08

2B -0.08 0.01 13.33 0.16 -1.15 0.04 0.48 0.07

3C -0.30 0.02 14.72 0.14 -2.43 0.05 0.14 0.07

4C 0.00 0.00 11.63 0.15 -3.12 0.07 1.08 0.05

5D 0.00 0.00 13.05 0.15 -0.59 0.03 3.10 0.12

Mn -0.17 0.01 12.33 0.15 -1.49 0.04 1.86 0.08

SD 0.20 0.01 2.19 0.01 1.25 0.02 1.87 0.03

Table 5. Shows the vertical displacements (m) and phase durations (s) of the centre of mass of the gymnasts
during the first and second flight phases.

1Flight 2 Flight

Up (m) Time(s) Down(m) Time(s) Up(m) Time(s) Down(m) Time(s)

1A 0.009 0.04 -0.069 0.18 0.06 0.10 -0.133 0.21

2B 0.028 0.06 -0.113 0.21 0.00 0.00 -0.089 0.21

3C 0.063 0.12 -0.125 0.18 0.00 0.00 -0.154 0.20

4C 0.001 0.04 -0.066 0.17 0.00 0.00 -0.115 0.17

5D 0.015 0.05 -0.100 0.19 0.00 0.00 -0.159 0.20

Mean 0.023 0.06 -0.095 0.19 0.012 0.02 -0.130 0.20

Stdev 0.024 0.03 0.026 0.02 0.027 0.04 0.029 0.02

Table 6. Showing the horizontal component velocities (m.s-1) of the centre of mass during the instants of
impact and take off relative to feet and hands support phases.

RO Feet IMP Feet TKO Hands IMP Hands TKO Feet IMP

(m.s-1) (m.s-1) (m.s-1) (m.s-1) (m.s-1)

1A 1.5 3.4 2.2 2.5 2.2

2B 1.7 3.4 2.3 2.2 1.8

3C 2.3 3.2 2.1 2.4 1.5

4C 2.6 4.0 1.8 2.2 1.9

5D 1.9 3.0 2.1 2.3 1.4

Mean 2.0 3.4 2.1 2.3 1.8

StDev 0.45 0.37 0.19 0.13 0.32

Table 7. Showing the vertical component velocities (m.s-1) of the centre of mass during the instants of impact
and take off relative to feet and hands support phases.

RO Feet IMP Feet TKO Hands IMP Hands TKO Feet IMP

(m.s-1) (m.s-1) (m.s-1) (m.s-1) (m.s-1)

1A -0.3 0.4 -0.1 1.0 -0.3

2B -0.1 0.9 -0.5 -0.1 -0.1

3C -0.2 1.1 -0.9 -0.2 -0.1

4C -0.1 0.5 -0.7 -0.5 -0.2

5D -0.1 0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2

Mean -0.2 0.7 -0.5 0.0 -0.2

Stdev 0.09 0.29 0.30 0.59 0.08

Table 8. Shows the angles of the body (°) in the sagittal plane with a vertex at the athlete’s toes/hands. It is defined as the
angle of the line connecting the COM to the point of contact which the mat (feet or hands).

RO Feet Feet TKO Hands Hands Feet IMP

IMP (°) (°) IMP (°) TKO (°) (°)

1A 74 113 81 96 55

2B 75 110 75 92 57

3C 69 104 82 106 55

4C 70 105 76 105 57

5D 69 106 77 107 53

Mean 71 108 78 101 55

StDev 2.84 3.74 3.04 6.74 1.66

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thanks the head coach Mauco Ricco` from the gymnastics club CoopCNE in Parma, the AS
Gynnic Club in Bologna and the gymnasts that volunteer in the study.

Address for correspondence: Gabriella Penitente,PhD, Sport Science, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK,
[email protected].
Franco Merni, Department of Histology, Embryology and applied Biology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy,
[email protected].

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