Universe

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For other uses, see Universe (disambiguation).

Universe

The Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image shows some of the most

remote galaxies visible with present technology, each consisting of

billions of stars. (Apparent image area about 1/79 that of a full moon)[1]

Age (within Lambda-CDM 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years[2]

model)

Diameter Unknown.[3] Diameter of

the observable

universe: 8.8×1026 m (28.5 Gpc or 93

Gly)[4]

Mass (ordinary matter) At least 1053 kg[5]

Average density (including the 9.9 x 10−30 g/cm3[6]

contribution from energy)
 Average temperature 2.72548 K (-270.4 °C or -454.8 °F)[7]

Main contents Ordinary (baryonic) matter (4.9%)

Dark matter (26.8%)

Dark energy (68.3%)[8]

Shape Flat with a 0.4% margin of error[9]

The universe (Latin: universus) is all of space and time[a] and their contents,

[10]
 including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. While the
spatial size of the entire universe is unknown,[3] it is possible to measure the size of
the observable universe, which is currently estimated to be 93 billion light-years in
diameter. In various multiverse hypotheses, a universe is one of
many causally disconnected[11] constituent parts of a larger multiverse, which itself
comprises all of space and time and its contents; [12] as a consequence, ‘the universe’
and ‘the multiverse’ are synonymous in such theories.
The earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient
Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center.[13]
[14]
 Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus
Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar
System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon
Copernicus' work as well as Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion and
observations by Tycho Brahe.
Further observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun is one of
hundreds of billions of stars in the Milky Way, which is one of at least two trillion
galaxies in the universe. Many of the stars in our galaxy have planets. At the largest
scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the
universe has neither an edge nor a center. At smaller scales, galaxies are distributed
in clusters and superclusters which form immense filaments and voids in space,
creating a vast foam-like structure.[15] Discoveries in the early 20th century have
suggested that the universe had a beginning and that space has been expanding since
then,[16] and is currently still expanding at an increasing rate. [17]
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of
the universe. According to estimation of this theory, space and time emerged
together 13.799±0.021 billion years ago[2] and the energy and matter initially present
have become less dense as the universe expanded. After an initial accelerated
expansion called the inflationary epoch at around 10−32 seconds, and the separation of
the four known fundamental forces, the universe gradually cooled and continued to
expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. Dark
matter gradually gathered, forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under
the influence of gravity. Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to
the places where dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and
everything else seen today. It is possible to see objects that are now further away than
13.799 billion light-years because space itself has expanded, and it is still expanding
today. This means that objects which are now up to 46.5 billion light-years away can still
be seen in their distant past, because in the past, when their light was emitted, they
were much closer to Earth.
From studying the movement of galaxies, it has been discovered that the universe
contains much more matter than is accounted for by visible objects; stars, galaxies,
nebulas and interstellar gas. This unseen matter is known as dark matter [18] (dark means
that there is a wide range of strong indirect evidence that it exists, but we have not yet
detected it directly). The ΛCDM model is the most widely accepted model of our
universe. It suggests that about 69.2%±1.2% [2015] of the mass and energy in the
universe is a cosmological constant (or, in extensions to ΛCDM, other forms of dark
energy, such as a scalar field) which is responsible for the current expansion of space,
and about 25.8%±1.1% [2015] is dark matter.[19] Ordinary ('baryonic') matter is therefore
only 4.84%±0.1% [2015] of the physical universe.[19] Stars, planets, and visible gas
clouds only form about 6% of ordinary matter, or about 0.29% of the entire universe. [20]
There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and
about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers
refuse to speculate, doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible.
Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses, in which our universe
might be one among many universes that likewise exist. [3][21][22]

Part of a series on

Physical cosmology

 Big Bang · Universe
 Age of the universe
 Chronology of the universe

Early universe[show]

Expansion · Future[show]

Components · Structure[show]

Experiments[show]
  Scientists

[show]

Subject history[show]

  Category

  Astronomy portal

 v
 t
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Contents

 1Definition
 2Etymology
o 2.1Synonyms
 3Chronology and the Big Bang
 4Physical properties
o 4.1Size and regions
o 4.2Age and expansion
o 4.3Spacetime
o 4.4Shape
o 4.5Support of life
 5Composition
o 5.1Dark energy
o 5.2Dark matter
o 5.3Ordinary matter
o 5.4Particles
 5.4.1Hadrons
 5.4.2Leptons
 5.4.3Photons
 6Cosmological models
o 6.1Model of the universe based on general relativity
o 6.2Multiverse hypothesis
 7Historical conceptions
o 7.1Mythologies
o 7.2Philosophical models
o 7.3Astronomical concepts
 8See also
 9References
o 9.1Bibliography
 10External links
Definition

Hubble Space Telescope - Ultra deep field galaxies to Legacy field zoom out
(video 00:50; May 2, 2019)

The physical universe is defined as all of space and time[a] (collectively referred to

as spacetime) and their contents.[10] Such contents comprise all of energy in its various
forms, including electromagnetic radiation and matter, and therefore planets, moons,
stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space.[23][24][25] The universe also includes
the physical laws that influence energy and matter, such as conservation laws, classical
mechanics, and relativity.[26]
The universe is often defined as "the totality of existence", or everything that exists,
everything that has existed, and everything that will exist. [26] In fact, some philosophers
and scientists support the inclusion of ideas and abstract concepts—such as
mathematics and logic—in the definition of the universe. [28][29][30] The word universe may
also refer to concepts such as the cosmos, the world, and nature.[31][32]

Etymology
The word universe derives from the Old French word univers, which in turn derives from
the Latin word universum.[33] The Latin word was used by Cicero and later Latin authors
in many of the same senses as the modern English word is used.[34]
Synonyms
A term for "universe" among the ancient Greek philosophers from Pythagoras onwards
was τὸ πᾶν, tò pân ("the all"), defined as all matter and all space, and τὸ ὅλον, tò
hólon ("all things"), which did not necessarily include the void. [35][36] Another synonym
was ὁ κόσμος, ho kósmos (meaning the world, the cosmos).[37] Synonyms are also found
in Latin authors (totum, mundus, natura)[38] and survive in modern languages, e.g., the
German words Das All, Weltall, and Natur for universe. The same synonyms are found
in English, such as everything (as in the theory of everything), the cosmos (as
in cosmology), the world (as in the many-worlds interpretation), and nature (as in natural
laws or natural philosophy).[39]

Chronology and the Big Bang

Main articles: Big Bang and Chronology of the universe
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(See also: Human timeline, and Life timeline.)

The prevailing model for the evolution of the universe is the Big Bang theory. [40][41] The Big
Bang model states that the earliest state of the universe was an extremely hot and
dense one, and that the universe subsequently expanded and cooled. The model is
based on general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such
as homogeneity and isotropy of space. A version of the model with a cosmological
constant (Lambda) and cold dark matter, known as the Lambda-CDM model, is the
simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of various observations about
the universe. The Big Bang model accounts for observations such as the correlation of
distance and redshift of galaxies, the ratio of the number of hydrogen to helium atoms,
and the microwave radiation background.

In this diagram, time passes from left to right, so at any given time, the universe is represented by a disk-
shaped "slice" of the diagram
The initial hot, dense state is called the Planck epoch, a brief period extending from time
zero to one Planck time unit of approximately 10−43 seconds. During the Planck epoch,
all types of matter and all types of energy were concentrated into a dense state,
and gravity—currently the weakest by far of the four known forces—is believed to have
been as strong as the other fundamental forces, and all the forces may have
been unified. Since the Planck epoch, space has been expanding to its present scale,
with a very short but intense period of cosmic inflation believed to have occurred within
the first 10−32 seconds.[42] This was a kind of expansion different from those we can see
around us today. Objects in space did not physically move; instead the metric that
defines space itself changed. Although objects in spacetime cannot move faster than
the speed of light, this limitation does not apply to the metric governing spacetime itself.
This initial period of inflation is believed to explain why space appears to be very flat,
and much larger than light could travel since the start of the universe. [clarification needed]
Within the first fraction of a second of the universe's existence, the four fundamental
forces had separated. As the universe continued to cool down from its inconceivably hot
state, various types of subatomic particles were able to form in short periods of time
known as the quark epoch, the hadron epoch, and the lepton epoch. Together, these
epochs encompassed less than 10 seconds of time following the Big Bang.
These elementary particles associated stably into ever larger combinations, including
stable protons and neutrons, which then formed more complex atomic
nuclei through nuclear fusion. This process, known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis, only
lasted for about 17 minutes and ended about 20 minutes after the Big Bang, so only the
fastest and simplest reactions occurred. About 25% of the protons and all
the neutrons in the universe, by mass, were converted to helium, with small amounts
of deuterium (a form of hydrogen) and traces of lithium. Any other element was only
formed in very tiny quantities. The other 75% of the protons remained unaffected,
as hydrogen nuclei.
After nucleosynthesis ended, the universe entered a period known as the photon epoch.
During this period, the universe was still far too hot for matter to form neutral atoms, so
it contained a hot, dense, foggy plasma of negatively charged electrons,
neutral neutrinos and positive nuclei. After about 377,000 years, the universe had
cooled enough that electrons and nuclei could form the first stable atoms. This is known
as recombination for historical reasons; in fact electrons and nuclei were combining for
the first time. Unlike plasma, neutral atoms are transparent to many wavelengths of
light, so for the first time the universe also became transparent. The photons released
("decoupled") when these atoms formed can still be seen today; they form the cosmic
microwave background (CMB).
As the universe expands, the energy density of electromagnetic radiation decreases
more quickly than does that of matter because the energy of a photon decreases with
its wavelength. At around 47,000 years, the energy density of matter became larger
than that of photons and neutrinos, and began to dominate the large scale behavior of
the universe. This marked the end of the radiation-dominated era and the start of
the matter-dominated era.
In the earliest stages of the universe, tiny fluctuations within the universe's density led
to concentrations of dark matter gradually forming. Ordinary matter, attracted to these
by gravity, formed large gas clouds and eventually, stars and galaxies, where the dark
matter was most dense, and voids where it was least dense. After around 100 - 300
million years,[citation needed] the first stars formed, known as Population III stars. These were
probably very massive, luminous, non metallic and short-lived. They were responsible
for the gradual reionization of the universe between about 200-500 million years and 1
billion years, and also for seeding the universe with elements heavier than helium,
through stellar nucleosynthesis.[43] The universe also contains a mysterious energy—
possibly a scalar field—called dark energy, the density of which does not change over
time. After about 9.8 billion years, the universe had expanded sufficiently so that the
density of matter was less than the density of dark energy, marking the beginning of the
present dark-energy-dominated era.[44] In this era, the expansion of the universe
is accelerating due to dark energy.

Physical properties
Main articles: Observable universe, Age of the Universe, and Metric expansion of
space
Of the four fundamental interactions, gravitation is the dominant at astronomical length
scales. Gravity's effects are cumulative; by contrast, the effects of positive and negative
charges tend to cancel one another, making electromagnetism relatively insignificant on
astronomical length scales. The remaining two interactions, the weak and strong
nuclear forces, decline very rapidly with distance; their effects are confined mainly to
sub-atomic length scales.
The universe appears to have much more matter than antimatter, an asymmetry
possibly related to the CP violation.[45] This imbalance between matter and antimatter is
partially responsible for the existence of all matter existing today, since matter and
antimatter, if equally produced at the Big Bang, would have completely annihilated each
other and left only photons as a result of their interaction.[46][47] The universe also appears
to have neither net momentum nor angular momentum, which follows accepted physical
laws if the universe is finite. These laws are Gauss's law and the non-divergence of
the stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor.[48]

Constituent spatial scales of the observable universe

 This diagram shows Earth's location in the universe on increasingly larger scales. The images, labeled along their left edge, increase in size from lef
from top to bottom.

Size and regions

See also: Observable universe and Observational cosmology
Television signals broadcast from Earth will never reach the edges of this image.

The size of the universe is somewhat difficult to define. According to the general theory
of relativity, far regions of space may never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the
universe due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For
example, radio messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space,
even if the universe were to exist forever: space may expand faster than light can
traverse it.[49]
Distant regions of space are assumed to exist and to be part of reality as much as we
are, even though we can never interact with them. The spatial region that we can affect
and be affected by is the observable universe. The observable universe depends on the
location of the observer. By traveling, an observer can come into contact with a greater
region of spacetime than an observer who remains still. Nevertheless, even the most
rapid traveler will not be able to interact with all of space. Typically, the observable
universe is taken to mean the portion of the universe that is observable from our
vantage point in the Milky Way.
The proper distance—the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including
the present—between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is 46 billion light-
years[50] (14 billion parsecs),[51] making the diameter of the observable universe about 93
billion light-years (28 billion parsecs).[50] The distance the light from the edge of the
observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the universe times
the speed of light, 13.8 billion light-years (4.2×109 pc), but this does not represent the
distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth
have since moved further apart.[52] For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is
30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and the typical distance between two neighboring
galaxies is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs).[53] As an example, the Milky Way is
roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter, [54][55] and the nearest sister galaxy to the
Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.[56]
Because we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is
unknown whether the size of the universe in its totality is finite or infinite. [3][57][58] Estimates
suggest that the whole universe, if finite, must be more than 250 times larger than the
observable universe.[59] Some disputed[60] estimates for the total size of the universe, if
finite, reach as high as  megaparsecs, as implied by a suggested resolution of the No-
Boundary Proposal.[61][b]
Age and expansion
Main articles: Age of the universe and Metric expansion of space
Astronomers calculate the age of the universe by assuming that the Lambda-CDM
model accurately describes the evolution of the Universe from a very uniform, hot,
dense primordial state to its present state and measuring the cosmological parameters
which constitute the model.[citation needed] This model is well understood theoretically and
supported by recent high-precision astronomical observations such
as WMAP and Planck.[citation needed] Commonly, the set of observations fitted includes
the cosmic microwave background anisotropy, the brightness/redshift relation for Type
Ia supernovae, and large-scale galaxy clustering including the baryon acoustic
oscillation feature.[citation needed] Other observations, such as the Hubble constant, the
abundance of galaxy clusters, weak gravitational lensing and globular cluster ages, are
generally consistent with these, providing a check of the model, but are less accurately
measured at present.[citation needed] Assuming that the Lambda-CDM model is correct, the
measurements of the parameters using a variety of techniques by numerous
experiments yield a best value of the age of the universe as of 2015 of 13.799 ± 0.021
billion years.[2]

Astronomers discovered stars in the Milky Way galaxy that are almost 13.6 billion years old.

Over time, the universe and its contents have evolved; for example, the relative
population of quasars and galaxies has changed[62] and space itself has expanded. Due
to this expansion, scientists on Earth can observe the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-
years away even though that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the very space
between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the
light from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been
stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey. Analyses
of Type Ia supernovae indicate that the spatial expansion is accelerating.[63][64]
The more matter there is in the universe, the stronger the mutual gravitational pull of the
matter. If the universe were too dense then it would re-collapse into a gravitational
singularity. However, if the universe contained too little matter then the self-gravity
would be too weak for astronomical structures, like galaxies or planets, to form. Since
the Big Bang, the universe has expanded monotonically. Perhaps unsurprisingly, our
universe has just the right mass-energy density, equivalent to about 5 protons per cubic
metre, which has allowed it to expand for the last 13.8 billion years, giving time to form
the universe as observed today.[65]
There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the universe which affect the
expansion rate. Before 1998, it was expected that the expansion rate would be
decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the
universe; and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the universe called
the deceleration parameter, which most cosmologists expected to be positive and
related to the matter density of the universe. In 1998, the deceleration parameter was
measured by two different groups to be negative, approximately -0.55, which technically
implies that the second derivative of the cosmic scale factor  has been positive in the
last 5-6 billion years.[17][66] This acceleration does not, however, imply that the Hubble
parameter is currently increasing; see deceleration parameter for details.
Spacetime
Main articles: Spacetime and World line
See also: Lorentz transformation
Spacetimes are the arenas in which all physical events take place. The basic elements
of spacetimes are events. In any given spacetime, an event is defined as a unique
position at a unique time. A spacetime is the union of all events (in the same way that a
line is the union of all of its points), formally organized into a manifold.[67]
The universe appears to be a smooth spacetime continuum consisting of
three spatial dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension (an event in the spacetime
of the physical universe can therefore be identified by a set of four
coordinates: (x, y, z, t) ). On the average, space is observed to be very nearly flat (with
a curvature close to zero), meaning that Euclidean geometry is empirically true with high
accuracy throughout most of the Universe.[68] Spacetime also appears to have a simply
connected topology, in analogy with a sphere, at least on the length-scale of the
observable universe. However, present observations cannot exclude the possibilities
that the universe has more dimensions (which is postulated by theories such as
the string theory) and that its spacetime may have a multiply connected global topology,
in analogy with the cylindrical or toroidal topologies of two-dimensional spaces.[69][70] The
spacetime of the universe is usually interpreted from a Euclidean perspective, with
space as consisting of three dimensions, and time as consisting of one dimension, the
"fourth dimension".[71] By combining space and time into a
single manifold called Minkowski space, physicists have simplified a large number
of physical theories, as well as described in a more uniform way the workings of the
universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels.
Spacetime events are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally but rather are
known to be relative to the motion of an observer. Minkowski space approximates the
universe without gravity; the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe
spacetime with matter and gravity.
Shape
Main article: Shape of the universe

The three possible options for the shape of the universe

General relativity describes how spacetime is curved and bent by mass and energy
(gravity). The topology or geometry of the universe includes both local geometry in
the observable universe and global geometry. Cosmologists often work with a
given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates. The section of
spacetime which can be observed is the backward light cone, which delimits
the cosmological horizon. The cosmological horizon (also called the particle horizon or
the light horizon) is the maximum distance from which particles can have traveled to
the observer in the age of the universe. This horizon represents the boundary between
the observable and the unobservable regions of the universe. [72][73] The existence,
properties, and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the
particular cosmological model.
An important parameter determining the future evolution of the universe theory is
the density parameter, Omega (Ω), defined as the average matter density of the
universe divided by a critical value of that density. This selects one of three
possible geometries depending on whether Ω is equal to, less than, or greater than 1.
These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes. [74]
Observations, including the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), and Planck maps of the CMB, suggest that the universe is
infinite in extent with a finite age, as described by the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–
Walker (FLRW) models.[75][69][76][77] These FLRW models thus support inflationary models
and the standard model of cosmology, describing a flat, homogeneous universe
presently dominated by dark matter and dark energy.[78][79]
Support of life
Main article: Fine-tuned universe
The universe may be fine-tuned; the Fine-tuned universe hypothesis is the proposition
that the conditions that allow the existence of observable life in the universe can only
occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow
range of values, so that if any of several fundamental constants were only slightly
different, the universe would have been unlikely to be conducive to the establishment
and development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is
understood.[80] The proposition is discussed among philosophers, scientists, theologians,
and proponents of creationism.

Composition
See also: Galaxy formation and evolution, Galaxy cluster, Illustris project, and Nebula
The universe is composed almost completely of dark energy, dark matter, and ordinary
matter. Other contents are electromagnetic radiation (estimated to constitute from
0.005% to close to 0.01% of the total mass-energy of the universe) and antimatter.[81][82][83]
The proportions of all types of matter and energy have changed over the history of the
universe.[84] The total amount of electromagnetic radiation generated within the universe
has decreased by 1/2 in the past 2 billion years. [85][86] Today, ordinary matter, which
includes atoms, stars, galaxies, and life, accounts for only 4.9% of the contents of the
Universe.[8] The present overall density of this type of matter is very low, roughly 4.5 ×
10−31 grams per cubic centimetre, corresponding to a density of the order of only one
proton for every four cubic metres of volume. [6] The nature of both dark energy and dark
matter is unknown. Dark matter, a mysterious form of matter that has not yet been
identified, accounts for 26.8% of the cosmic contents. Dark energy, which is the energy
of empty space and is causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate, accounts for
the remaining 68.3% of the contents.[8][87][88]

The formation of clusters and large-scale filaments in the cold dark matter model with dark energy. The frames
show the evolution of structures in a 43 million parsecs (or 140 million light-years) box from redshift of 30 to the
present epoch (upper left z=30 to lower right z=0).
A map of the superclusters and voids nearest to Earth

Matter, dark matter, and dark energy are distributed homogeneously throughout the
universe over length scales longer than 300 million light-years or so. [89] However, over
shorter length-scales, matter tends to clump hierarchically; many atoms are condensed
into stars, most stars into galaxies, most galaxies into clusters, superclusters and,
finally, large-scale galactic filaments. The observable universe contains more than 2
trillion (1012) galaxies[90] and, overall, as many as an estimated 1×1024 stars[91][92] (more
stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).[93] Typical galaxies range
from dwarfs with as few as ten million[94] (107) stars up to giants with one trillion[95] (1012)
stars. Between the larger structures are voids, which are typically 10–150 Mpc (33
million–490 million ly) in diameter. The Milky Way is in the Local Group of galaxies,
which in turn is in the Laniakea Supercluster.[96] This supercluster spans over 500 million
light-years, while the Local Group spans over 10 million light-years. [97] The Universe also
has vast regions of relative emptiness; the largest known void measures 1.8 billion ly
(550 Mpc) across.[98]

Comparison of the contents of the universe today to 380,000 years after the Big Bang as measured with 5 year
WMAP data (from 2008).[99] (Due to rounding errors, the sum of these numbers is not 100%). This reflects the
2008 limits of WMAP's ability to define dark matter and dark energy.

The observable universe is isotropic on scales significantly larger than superclusters,

meaning that the statistical properties of the universe are the same in all directions as
observed from Earth. The universe is bathed in highly isotropic microwave radiation that
corresponds to a thermal equilibrium blackbody spectrum of roughly 2.72548 kelvins.
[7]
 The hypothesis that the large-scale universe is homogeneous and isotropic is known
as the cosmological principle.[100] A universe that is both homogeneous and isotropic
looks the same from all vantage points[101] and has no center.[102]
Dark energy
Main article: Dark energy
An explanation for why the expansion of the universe is accelerating remains elusive. It
is often attributed to "dark energy", an unknown form of energy that is hypothesized to
permeate space.[103] On a mass–energy equivalence basis, the density of dark energy (~
7 × 10−30 g/cm3) is much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within
galaxies. However, in the present dark-energy era, it dominates the mass–energy of the
universe because it is uniform across space. [104][105]
Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant, a constant energy
density filling space homogeneously,[106] and scalar fields such
as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time
and space. Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also
included in the cosmological constant. The cosmological constant can be formulated to
be equivalent to vacuum energy. Scalar fields having only a slight amount of spatial
inhomogeneity would be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant.
Dark matter
Main article: Dark matter
Dark matter is a hypothetical kind of matter that is invisible to the entire electromagnetic
spectrum, but which accounts for most of the matter in the universe. The existence and
properties of dark matter are inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter,
radiation, and the large-scale structure of the universe. Other than neutrinos, a form
of hot dark matter, dark matter has not been detected directly, making it one of the
greatest mysteries in modern astrophysics. Dark matter neither emits nor absorbs light
or any other electromagnetic radiation at any significant level. Dark matter is estimated
to constitute 26.8% of the total mass–energy and 84.5% of the total matter in the
universe.[87][107]
Ordinary matter
Main article: Matter
The remaining 4.9% of the mass–energy of the universe is ordinary matter, that
is, atoms, ions, electrons and the objects they form. This matter includes stars, which
produce nearly all of the light we see from galaxies, as well as interstellar gas in
the interstellar and intergalactic media, planets, and all the objects from everyday life
that we can bump into, touch or squeeze.[108] As a matter of fact, the great majority of
ordinary matter in the universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies
and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the
mass-energy density of the universe.[109]
Ordinary matter commonly exists in four states (or phases): solid, liquid, gas,
and plasma. However, advances in experimental techniques have revealed other
previously theoretical phases, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic
condensates.
Ordinary matter is composed of two types of elementary particles: quarks and leptons.
[110]
 For example, the proton is formed of two up quarks and one down quark; the neutron
is formed of two down quarks and one up quark; and the electron is a kind of lepton. An
atom consists of an atomic nucleus, made up of protons and neutrons, and electrons
that orbit the nucleus. Because most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its
nucleus, which is made up of baryons, astronomers often use the term baryonic
matter to describe ordinary matter, although a small fraction of this "baryonic matter" is
electrons.
Soon after the Big Bang, primordial protons and neutrons formed from the quark–gluon
plasma of the early universe as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A few minutes later,
in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis, nuclei formed from the primordial
protons and neutrons. This nucleosynthesis formed lighter elements, those with small
atomic numbers up to lithium and beryllium, but the abundance of heavier elements
dropped off sharply with increasing atomic number. Some boron may have been formed
at this time, but the next heavier element, carbon, was not formed in significant
amounts. Big Bang nucleosynthesis shut down after about 20 minutes due to the rapid
drop in temperature and density of the expanding universe. Subsequent formation
of heavier elements resulted from stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova
nucleosynthesis.[111]
Particles

Standard model of elementary particles: the 12 fundamental fermions and 4 fundamental bosons. Brown loops
indicate which bosons (red) couple to which fermions (purple and green). Columns are three generations of
matter (fermions) and one of forces (bosons). In the first three columns, two rows contain quarks and two
leptons. The top two rows' columns contain up (u) and down (d) quarks, charm (c) and strange (s) quarks, top
(t) and bottom (b) quarks, and photon (γ) and gluon (g), respectively. The bottom two rows' columns contain
electron neutrino (νe) and electron (e), muon neutrino (νμ) and muon (μ), tau neutrino (ντ) and tau (τ), and the
Z0 and W± carriers of the weak force. Mass, charge, and spin are listed for each particle.

Main article: Particle physics

Ordinary matter and the forces that act on matter can be described in terms
of elementary particles.[112] These particles are sometimes described as being
fundamental, since they have an unknown substructure, and it is unknown whether or
not they are composed of smaller and even more fundamental particles. [113][114] Of central
importance is the Standard Model, a theory that is concerned
with electromagnetic interactions and the weak and strong nuclear interactions.[115] The
Standard Model is supported by the experimental confirmation of the existence of
particles that compose matter: quarks and leptons, and their corresponding "antimatter"
duals, as well as the force particles that mediate interactions: the photon, the W and Z
bosons, and the gluon.[113] The Standard Model predicted the existence of the recently
discovered Higgs boson, a particle that is a manifestation of a field within the universe
that can endow particles with mass.[116][117] Because of its success in explaining a wide
variety of experimental results, the Standard Model is sometimes regarded as a "theory
of almost everything".[115] The Standard Model does not, however, accommodate gravity.
A true force-particle "theory of everything" has not been attained. [118]
Hadrons
Main article: Hadron
A hadron is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force.
Hadrons are categorized into two families: baryons (such as protons and neutrons)
made of three quarks, and mesons (such as pions) made of one quark and
one antiquark. Of the hadrons, protons are stable, and neutrons bound within atomic
nuclei are stable. Other hadrons are unstable under ordinary conditions and are thus
insignificant constituents of the modern universe. From approximately 10 −6 seconds after
the Big Bang, during a period is known as the hadron epoch, the temperature of the
universe had fallen sufficiently to allow quarks to bind together into hadrons, and the
mass of the universe was dominated by hadrons. Initially the temperature was high
enough to allow the formation of hadron/anti-hadron pairs, which kept matter and
antimatter in thermal equilibrium. However, as the temperature of the universe
continued to fall, hadron/anti-hadron pairs were no longer produced. Most of the
hadrons and anti-hadrons were then eliminated in particle-
antiparticle annihilation reactions, leaving a small residual of hadrons by the time the
universe was about one second old.[119]:244–66
Leptons
Main article: Lepton
A lepton is an elementary, half-integer spin particle that does not undergo strong
interactions but is subject to the Pauli exclusion principle; no two leptons of the same
species can be in exactly the same state at the same time. [120] Two main classes of
leptons exist: charged leptons (also known as the electron-like leptons), and neutral
leptons (better known as neutrinos). Electrons are stable and the most common
charged lepton in the universe, whereas muons and taus are unstable particle that
quickly decay after being produced in high energy collisions, such as those
involving cosmic rays or carried out in particle accelerators.[121][122] Charged leptons can
combine with other particles to form various composite particles such
as atoms and positronium. The electron governs nearly all of chemistry, as it is found
in atoms and is directly tied to all chemical properties. Neutrinos rarely interact with
anything, and are consequently rarely observed. Neutrinos stream throughout the
universe but rarely interact with normal matter.[123]
The lepton epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe in which
the leptons dominated the mass of the universe. It started roughly 1 second after
the Big Bang, after the majority of hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilated each other at
the end of the hadron epoch. During the lepton epoch the temperature of the universe
was still high enough to create lepton/anti-lepton pairs, so leptons and anti-leptons were
in thermal equilibrium. Approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang, the temperature of
the universe had fallen to the point where lepton/anti-lepton pairs were no longer
created.[124] Most leptons and anti-leptons were then eliminated in annihilation reactions,
leaving a small residue of leptons. The mass of the universe was then dominated
by photons as it entered the following photon epoch.[125][126]
Photons
Main article: Photon epoch
See also: Photino
A photon is the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is
the force carrier for the electromagnetic force, even when static via virtual photons. The
effects of this force are easily observable at the microscopic and at
the macroscopic level because the photon has zero rest mass; this allows long
distance interactions. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained
by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties
of waves and of particles.
The photon epoch started after most leptons and anti-leptons were annihilated at the
end of the lepton epoch, about 10 seconds after the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei were
created in the process of nucleosynthesis which occurred during the first few minutes of
the photon epoch. For the remainder of the photon epoch the universe contained a hot
dense plasma of nuclei, electrons and photons. About 380,000 years after the Big Bang,
the temperature of the Universe fell to the point where nuclei could combine with
electrons to create neutral atoms. As a result, photons no longer interacted frequently
with matter and the universe became transparent. The highly redshifted photons from
this period form the cosmic microwave background. Tiny variations in temperature and
density detectable in the CMB were the early "seeds" from which all
subsequent structure formation took place.[119]:244–66

show

Timeline of the Big Bang

Cosmological models
Model of the universe based on general relativity
Main article: Solutions of the Einstein field equations
See also: Big Bang and Ultimate fate of the universe
General relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in
1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. It is the basis of
current cosmological models of the universe. General relativity generalizes special
relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of
gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular,
the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of
whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field
equations, a system of partial differential equations. In general relativity, the distribution
of matter and energy determines the geometry of spacetime, which in turn describes
the acceleration of matter. Therefore, solutions of the Einstein field equations describe
the evolution of the universe. Combined with measurements of the amount, type, and
distribution of matter in the universe, the equations of general relativity describe the
evolution of the universe over time.[127]
With the assumption of the cosmological principle that the universe is homogeneous
and isotropic everywhere, a specific solution of the field equations that describes the
universe is the metric tensor called the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric,
where (r, θ, φ) correspond to a spherical coordinate
system. This metric has only two undetermined
parameters. An overall dimensionless length scale
factor R describes the size scale of the universe as a
function of time; an increase in R is the expansion of the
universe.[128] A curvature index k describes the geometry.
The index k is defined so that it can take only one of three
values: 0, corresponding to flat Euclidean geometry; 1,
corresponding to a space of positive curvature; or −1,
corresponding to a space of positive or negative curvature.
[129]
 The value of R as a function of time t depends
upon k and the cosmological constant Λ.[127] The
cosmological constant represents the energy density of the
vacuum of space and could be related to dark energy.
[88]
 The equation describing how R varies with time is known
as the Friedmann equation after its inventor, Alexander
Friedmann.[130]
The solutions for R(t) depend on k and Λ, but some
qualitative features of such solutions are general. First and
most importantly, the length scale R of the universe can
remain constant only if the universe is perfectly isotropic
with positive curvature (k=1) and has one precise value of
density everywhere, as first noted by Albert Einstein.
[127]
 However, this equilibrium is unstable: because the
universe is known to be inhomogeneous on smaller
scales, R must change over time. When R changes, all the
spatial distances in the universe change in tandem; there is
an overall expansion or contraction of space itself. This
accounts for the observation that galaxies appear to be
flying apart; the space between them is stretching. The
stretching of space also accounts for the apparent paradox
that two galaxies can be 40 billion light-years apart,
although they started from the same point 13.8 billion years
ago[131] and never moved faster than the speed of light.
Second, all solutions suggest that there was a gravitational
singularity in the past, when R went to zero and matter and
energy were infinitely dense. It may seem that this
conclusion is uncertain because it is based on the
questionable assumptions of perfect homogeneity and
isotropy (the cosmological principle) and that only the
gravitational interaction is significant. However,
the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems show that a
singularity should exist for very general conditions. Hence,
according to Einstein's field equations, R grew rapidly from
an unimaginably hot, dense state that existed immediately
following this singularity (when R had a small, finite value);
this is the essence of the Big Bang model of the universe.
Understanding the singularity of the Big Bang likely
requires a quantum theory of gravity, which has not yet
been formulated.[132]
Third, the curvature index k determines the sign of the
mean spatial curvature of spacetime[129] averaged over
sufficiently large length scales (greater than about a
billion light-years). If k=1, the curvature is positive and the
universe has a finite volume.[133] A universe with positive
curvature is often visualized as a three-dimensional
sphere embedded in a four-dimensional space.
Conversely, if k is zero or negative, the universe has an
infinite volume.[133] It may seem counter-intuitive that an
infinite and yet infinitely dense universe could be created in
a single instant at the Big Bang when R=0, but exactly that
is predicted mathematically when k does not equal 1. By
analogy, an infinite plane has zero curvature but infinite
area, whereas an infinite cylinder is finite in one direction
and a torus is finite in both. A toroidal universe could
behave like a normal universe with periodic boundary
conditions.
The ultimate fate of the universe is still unknown, because
it depends critically on the curvature index k and the
cosmological constant Λ. If the universe were sufficiently
dense, k would equal +1, meaning that its average
curvature throughout is positive and the universe will
eventually recollapse in a Big Crunch,[134] possibly starting a
new universe in a Big Bounce. Conversely, if the universe
were insufficiently dense, k would equal 0 or −1 and the
universe would expand forever, cooling off and eventually
reaching the Big Freeze and the heat death of the universe.
[127]
 Modern data suggests that the rate of expansion of the
universe is not decreasing, as originally expected, but
increasing; if this continues indefinitely, the universe may
eventually reach a Big Rip. Observationally, the universe
appears to be flat (k = 0), with an overall density that is very
close to the critical value between recollapse and eternal
expansion.[135]
Multiverse hypothesis
Main articles: Multiverse, Many-worlds
interpretation, Bubble universe theory, and Parallel
universe (fiction)
See also: Eternal inflation
Some speculative theories have proposed that our universe
is but one of a set of disconnected universes, collectively
denoted as the multiverse, challenging or enhancing more
limited definitions of the universe. [21][136] Scientific multiverse
models are distinct from concepts such as alternate planes
of consciousness and simulated reality.
Max Tegmark developed a four-part classification
scheme for the different types of multiverses that scientists
have suggested in response to various Physics problems.
An example of such multiverses is the one resulting from
the chaotic inflation model of the early universe.[137] Another
is the multiverse resulting from the many-worlds
interpretation of quantum mechanics. In this interpretation,
parallel worlds are generated in a manner similar
to quantum superposition and decoherence, with all states
of the wave functions being realized in separate worlds.
Effectively, in the many-worlds interpretation the multiverse
evolves as a universal wavefunction. If the Big Bang that
created our multiverse created an ensemble of multiverses,
the wave function of the ensemble would be entangled in
this sense.[138]
The least controversial, but still highly disputed, category of
multiverse in Tegmark's scheme is Level I. The multiverses
of this level are composed by distant spacetime events "in
our own universe". Tegmark and others[139] have argued
that, if space is infinite, or sufficiently large and uniform,
identical instances of the history of Earth's entire Hubble
volume occur every so often, simply by chance. Tegmark
calculated that our nearest so-called doppelgänger, is
1010  metres away from us (a double exponential
115

function larger than a googolplex).[140][141] However, the

arguments used are of speculative nature.[142] Additionally, it
would be impossible to scientifically verify the existence of
an identical Hubble volume.
It is possible to conceive of disconnected spacetimes, each
existing but unable to interact with one another. [140][143] An
easily visualized metaphor of this concept is a group of
separate soap bubbles, in which observers living on one
soap bubble cannot interact with those on other soap
bubbles, even in principle.[144] According to one common
terminology, each "soap bubble" of spacetime is denoted
as a universe, whereas our particular spacetime is denoted
as the universe,[21] just as we call our moon the Moon. The
entire collection of these separate spacetimes is denoted
as the multiverse.[21] With this terminology,
different universes are not causally connected to each
other.[21] In principle, the other unconnected universes may
have different dimensionalities and topologies of
spacetime, different forms of matter and energy, and
different physical laws and physical constants, although
such possibilities are purely speculative.[21] Others consider
each of several bubbles created as part of chaotic
inflation to be separate universes, though in this model
these universes all share a causal origin.[21]

Historical conceptions
See also: Cosmology, Timeline of cosmological
theories, Nicolaus Copernicus §  Copernican system,
and Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
§  Beginnings of the Scientific Revolution
Historically, there have been many ideas of the cosmos
(cosmologies) and its origin (cosmogonies). Theories of an
impersonal universe governed by physical laws were first
proposed by the Greeks and Indians.[14] Ancient Chinese
philosophy encompassed the notion of the universe
including both all of space and all of time.[145] Over the
centuries, improvements in astronomical observations and
theories of motion and gravitation led to ever more
accurate descriptions of the universe. The modern era of
cosmology began with Albert Einstein's 1915 general
theory of relativity, which made it possible to quantitatively
predict the origin, evolution, and conclusion of the universe
as a whole. Most modern, accepted theories of cosmology
are based on general relativity and, more specifically, the
predicted Big Bang.[146]
Mythologies
Main articles: Creation myth, Cosmogony, and Religious
cosmology
Many cultures have stories describing the origin of the
world and universe. Cultures generally regard these stories
as having some truth. There are however many differing
beliefs in how these stories apply amongst those believing
in a supernatural origin, ranging from a god directly
creating the universe as it is now to a god just setting the
"wheels in motion" (for example via mechanisms such as
the big bang and evolution).[147]
Ethnologists and anthropologists who study myths have
developed various classification schemes for the various
themes that appear in creation stories. [148][149] For example, in
one type of story, the world is born from a world egg; such
stories include the Finnish epic poem Kalevala,
the Chinese story of Pangu or the Indian Brahmanda
Purana. In related stories, the universe is created by a
single entity emanating or producing something by him- or
herself, as in the Tibetan Buddhism concept of Adi-Buddha,
the ancient Greek story of Gaia (Mother Earth),
the Aztec goddess Coatlicue myth, the ancient
Egyptian god Atum story, and the Judeo-Christian Genesis
creation narrative in which the Abrahamic God created the
universe. In another type of story, the universe is created
from the union of male and female deities, as in the Maori
story of Rangi and Papa. In other stories, the universe is
created by crafting it from pre-existing materials, such as
the corpse of a dead god—as from Tiamat in
the Babylonian epic Enuma Elish or from the
giant Ymir in Norse mythology—or from chaotic materials,
as in Izanagi and Izanami in Japanese mythology. In other
stories, the universe emanates from fundamental
principles, such as Brahman and Prakrti, the creation
myth of the Serers,[150] or the yin and yang of the Tao.
Philosophical models
Further information: Cosmology
See also: Pre-Socratic philosophy, Physics
(Aristotle), Hindu cosmology, Islamic cosmology,
and Philosophy of space and time
The pre-Socratic Greek philosophers and Indian
philosophers developed some of the earliest philosophical
concepts of the universe.[14][151] The earliest Greek
philosophers noted that appearances can be deceiving,
and sought to understand the underlying reality behind the
appearances. In particular, they noted the ability of matter
to change forms (e.g., ice to water to steam) and several
philosophers proposed that all the physical materials in the
world are different forms of a single primordial material,
or arche. The first to do so was Thales, who proposed this
material to be water. Thales' student, Anaximander,
proposed that everything came from the
limitless apeiron. Anaximenes proposed the primordial
material to be air on account of its perceived attractive and
repulsive qualities that cause the arche to condense or
dissociate into different forms. Anaxagoras proposed the
principle of Nous (Mind),
while Heraclitus proposed fire (and spoke
of logos). Empedocles proposed the elements to be earth,
water, air and fire. His four-element model became very
popular. Like Pythagoras, Plato believed that all things
were composed of number, with Empedocles' elements
taking the form of the Platonic solids. Democritus, and later
philosophers—most notably Leucippus—proposed that the
universe is composed of indivisible atoms moving through
a void (vacuum), although Aristotle did not believe that to
be feasible because air, like water, offers resistance to
motion. Air will immediately rush in to fill a void, and
moreover, without resistance, it would do so indefinitely
fast.[14]
Although Heraclitus argued for eternal change, his
contemporary Parmenides made the radical suggestion
that all change is an illusion, that the true underlying reality
is eternally unchanging and of a single nature. Parmenides
denoted this reality as τὸ ἐν (The One). Parmenides' idea
seemed implausible to many Greeks, but his student Zeno
of Elea challenged them with several famous paradoxes.
Aristotle responded to these paradoxes by developing the
notion of a potential countable infinity, as well as the
infinitely divisible continuum. Unlike the eternal and
unchanging cycles of time, he believed that the world is
bounded by the celestial spheres and that cumulative
stellar magnitude is only finitely multiplicative.
The Indian philosopher Kanada, founder of
the Vaisheshika school, developed a notion of atomism and
proposed that light and heat were varieties of the same
substance.[152] In the 5th century AD, the Buddhist
atomist philosopher Dignāga proposed atoms to be point-
sized, durationless, and made of energy. They denied the
existence of substantial matter and proposed that
movement consisted of momentary flashes of a stream of
energy.[153]
The notion of temporal finitism was inspired by the doctrine
of creation shared by the three Abrahamic
religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Christian
philosopher, John Philoponus, presented the philosophical
arguments against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite
past and future. Philoponus' arguments against an infinite
past were used by the early Muslim philosopher, Al-
Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia
Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-
Ghazali (Algazel).[154]
Astronomical concepts
Main articles: History of astronomy and Timeline of
astronomy

3rd century BCE calculations by Aristarchus on the relative sizes of,

from left to right, the Sun, Earth, and Moon, from a 10th-century AD
Greek copy.

Astronomical models of the universe were proposed soon

after astronomy began with the Babylonian astronomers,
who viewed the universe as a flat disk floating in the ocean,
and this forms the premise for early Greek maps like those
of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus.
Later Greek philosophers, observing the motions of the
heavenly bodies, were concerned with developing models
of the universe-based more profoundly on empirical
evidence. The first coherent model was proposed
by Eudoxus of Cnidos. According to Aristotle's physical
interpretation of the model, celestial
spheres eternally rotate with uniform motion around a
stationary Earth. Normal matter is entirely contained within
the terrestrial sphere.
De Mundo (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and
200 BC), stated, "Five elements, situated in spheres in five
regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the
greater—namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air,
air by fire, and fire by ether—make up the whole universe".
[155]

This model was also refined by Callippus and after

concentric spheres were abandoned, it was brought into
nearly perfect agreement with astronomical observations
by Ptolemy. The success of such a model is largely due to
the mathematical fact that any function (such as the
position of a planet) can be decomposed into a set of
circular functions (the Fourier modes). Other Greek
scientists, such as the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus,
postulated (according to Stobaeus account) that at the
center of the universe was a "central fire" around which
the Earth, Sun, Moon and Planets revolved in uniform
circular motion.[156]
The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first
known individual to propose a heliocentric model of the
universe. Though the original text has been lost, a
reference in Archimedes' book The Sand
Reckoner describes Aristarchus's heliocentric model.
Archimedes wrote:
You, King Gelon, are aware the universe is the name given
by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is
the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the
straight line between the center of the Sun and the center
of the Earth. This is the common account as you have
heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a
book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears,
as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the
universe is many times greater than the universe just
mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the
Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the
Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the
middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars,
situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that
the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears
such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the
center of the sphere bears to its surface
Aristarchus thus believed the stars to be very far away, and
saw this as the reason why stellar parallax had not been
observed, that is, the stars had not been observed to move
relative each other as the Earth moved around the Sun.
The stars are in fact much farther away than the distance
that was generally assumed in ancient times, which is why
stellar parallax is only detectable with precision
instruments. The geocentric model, consistent with
planetary parallax, was assumed to be an explanation for
the unobservability of the parallel phenomenon, stellar
parallax. The rejection of the heliocentric view was
apparently quite strong, as the following passage
from Plutarch suggests (On the Apparent Face in the Orb
of the Moon):
Cleanthes [a contemporary of Aristarchus and head of
the Stoics] thought it was the duty of the Greeks to indict
Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in
motion the Hearth of the Universe [i.e. the Earth], ...
supposing the heaven to remain at rest and the Earth to
revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same
time, about its own axis

Flammarion engraving, Paris 1888

The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name

who supported Aristarchus's heliocentric model
was Seleucus of Seleucia, a Hellenistic astronomer who
lived a century after Aristarchus.[157][158][159] According to
Plutarch, Seleucus was the first to prove the heliocentric
system through reasoning, but it is not known what
arguments he used. Seleucus' arguments for a heliocentric
cosmology were probably related to the phenomenon
of tides.[160] According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the
first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the
Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the
Moon's position relative to the Sun.[161] Alternatively, he may
have proved heliocentricity by determining the constants of
a geometric model for it, and by developing methods to
compute planetary positions using this model, like
what Nicolaus Copernicus later did in the 16th century.
[162]
 During the Middle Ages, heliocentric models were also
proposed by the Indian astronomer Aryabhata,[163] and by
the Persian astronomers Albumasar[164] and Al-Sijzi.[165]

Model of the Copernican Universe by Thomas Digges in 1576, with the

amendment that the stars are no longer confined to a sphere, but spread
uniformly throughout the space surrounding the planets.

The Aristotelian model was accepted in the Western

world for roughly two millennia, until Copernicus revived
Aristarchus's perspective that the astronomical data could
be explained more plausibly if the Earth rotated on its axis
and if the Sun were placed at the center of the universe.
In the center rests the Sun. For who would place this lamp
of a very beautiful temple in another or better place than
this wherefrom it can illuminate everything at the same
time?

— Nicolaus Copernicus, in Chapter 10, Book 1 of De

Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestrum (1543)
As noted by Copernicus himself, the notion that the Earth
rotates is very old, dating at least to Philolaus (c. 450
BC), Heraclides Ponticus (c. 350 BC) and Ecphantus the
Pythagorean. Roughly a century before Copernicus, the
Christian scholar Nicholas of Cusa also proposed that the
Earth rotates on its axis in his book, On Learned
Ignorance (1440).[166] Al-Sijzi[167] also proposed that the Earth
rotates on its axis. Empirical evidence for the Earth's
rotation on its axis, using the phenomenon of comets, was
given by Tusi (1201–1274) and Ali Qushji (1403–1474).[168]
This cosmology was accepted by Isaac Newton, Christiaan
Huygens and later scientists.[169] Edmund Halley (1720)
[170]
 and Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux (1744)[171] noted
independently that the assumption of an infinite space filled
uniformly with stars would lead to the prediction that the
nighttime sky would be as bright as the Sun itself; this
became known as Olbers' paradox in the 19th century.
[172]
 Newton believed that an infinite space uniformly filled
with matter would cause infinite forces and instabilities
causing the matter to be crushed inwards under its own
gravity.[169] This instability was clarified in 1902 by the Jeans
instability criterion.[173] One solution to these paradoxes is
the Charlier Universe, in which the matter is arranged
hierarchically (systems of orbiting bodies that are
themselves orbiting in a larger system, ad infinitum) in
a fractal way such that the universe has a negligibly small
overall density; such a cosmological model had also been
proposed earlier in 1761 by Johann Heinrich Lambert.[53][174] A
significant astronomical advance of the 18th century was
the realization by Thomas Wright, Immanuel Kant and
others of nebulae.[170]
In 1919, when the Hooker Telescope was completed, the
prevailing view still was that the universe consisted entirely
of the Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker
Telescope, Edwin Hubble identified Cepheid variables in
several spiral nebulae and in 1922–1923 proved
conclusively that Andromeda
Nebula and Triangulum among others, were entire galaxies
outside our own, thus proving that universe consists of a
multitude of galaxies.[175]
The modern era of physical cosmology began in 1917,
when Albert Einstein first applied his general theory of
relativity to model the structure and dynamics of the
universe.[176]
 Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical
objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward
the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to
appreciate their shapes.

See also

 Astronomy portal

 Space portal

 Chronology of the universe

 Cosmic Calendar (scaled down timeline)
 Cosmic latte
 Cosmos
 Detailed logarithmic timeline
 Earth's location in the universe
 Esoteric cosmology
 False vacuum
 Future of an expanding universe
 Galaxy And Mass Assembly survey
 Heat death of the universe
 History of the Center of the Universe
 Illustris project
 Multiverse (religion)
 Multiverse (set
theory) (Hyperverse, Megaverse or Omniverse)
 Non-standard cosmology
 Nucleocosmochronology
 Panspermia
 Rare Earth hypothesis
 Religious cosmology
 Space and survival
 Terasecond and longer
 Timeline of the far future
 Timeline of the formation of the universe
 Timeline of the near future
 Vacuum genesis
 Zero-energy universe

References
Footnotes

1. ^ Jump up to:    According to modern physics, particularly the theory of

a b

relativity, space and time are intimately intertwined

and physically meaningless if taken separately from each other.
2. ^ Although listed in megaparsecs by the cited source, this number
is so vast that its digits would remain virtually unchanged for all
intents and purposes regardless of which conventional units it is
listed in, whether it to be nanometres or gigaparsecs, as the
differences would disappear into the error.

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as many in kind as the various elements. The Jains more nearly
approximated to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were of
the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of
combinations. Kanada believed light and heat to be varieties of
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of Substance and Quality,... and of the relation of Inference
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manifestation of a subtle entity. To every new unit of quality
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