ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

Introduction

One of the major achievements of Maxwell was the correct prediction of electromagnetic
waves from considerations of the forms of the four equations which bear his name.

Wave equation

We will consider a linear, isotropic, homogeneous medium. Moreover, the net free charge
in the source free region is zero (ρv=0) and that any currents in the region are conduction
currents (J=σE). This type of regions are quite general ones and include the practical
cases of free space (σ=0) as well as most conductors and dielectrics. Maxwell’s equations
for this region:

Sl No. In time domain In phasor form

1) ∇•E=0 ∇•E ˆ =0 (93)
2) ∇•H=0 ∇•H ˆ =0 (94)
3)
∇ × E = −µ
dH ∇ × Eˆ = − jωµHˆ (95)
dt
4) dE ˆ = (σ + jωε )E
∇×H ˆ (96)
∇×H =σ E +ε
dt

Taking curl of (95) and substituting (93) and (96) we have

In time domain In phasor form
d (∇ × H ) ∇×∇×E ˆ = − jωµ (∇ × H ˆ)
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ
dt ˆ = − jωµ (σ + jωε )E
2
∇(∇ • Eˆ ) − ∇ 2E ˆ
d E d E
∇(∇ • E) − ∇ 2 E = − µσ − µε 2 ∇ 2Eˆ = jωµ (σ + jωε )E ˆ (97b)
dt dt
dE d 2E
∇ 2 E = µσ + µε 2 (97 a )
dt dt

Similarly, by taking curl of (96) and substituting (94) and (95) we have
In time domain In phasor form
d (∇ × E) ∇×∇×H ˆ = (σ + jωε )(∇ × E
ˆ)
∇ × ∇ × H = σ (∇ × E) + ε
dt ˆ = − jωµ (σ + jωε )H
2
∇(∇ • Hˆ ) − ∇2H ˆ
dH d H
∇(∇ • H ) − ∇ 2 H = − µσ − µε ∇2H ˆ = jωµ (σ + jωε )H ˆ (97 d )
dt dt 2
dH d 2H
∇ 2 H = µσ + µε (97c)
dt dt 2

The equations in (97) are called electromagnetic wave equations or Helmholtz equations.
Equations (97a) and (97c) are given in time domain, and equations (97b) and (97d) are in
terms of the phasor form. The wave equations in E and in H have exactly the same form.
In absence of source, the wave equation for E in time domain as obtained from (97a) is
given by
d 2E 1 d 2E
∇ E = µε 2 = 2
2
(98)
dt u dt 2
One dimensional general solution of the scalar form of the above differential equation is
given by E=f1(z-ct)+ f2(z+ct). The first term represents a wave travelling in the +ve z-
direction while the second term represents a wave travelling in the -ve z-direction.

In the following we will consider the phasor form of wave equation for its simplicity.

Uniform plane wave

An electromagnetic wave originates from a point in space, spreads out uniformly in all
directions and it forms a spherical wave. An observer, however, at a great distance from
the source is able to observe only the small part of the wave in his immediate vicinity and
it appears to him as plane wave. Strictly speaking, a uniform plane wave does not exist in
practice because a source infinite in extent would be required to creat it, and practical
wave sources are always finite in extent.
A uniform plane wave satisfy the following conditions:
(i) At every point in space E and H are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation. No fields, therefore, in the direction of wave
propagation.
(ii) Everywhere in space, the fields vary harmonically with time and at the same
frequency;
(iii) Each field has the same direction, magnitude and phase at every point in any
plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. The fields,
therefore, are only function of the coordinate that represents the direction of
wave propagation.

Assume the fields lie in the xy-plane. Again, with the assumption that the wave
propagates in the z-direction, the fields those only present are given by
Eˆ = Ê ( z )a and H
ˆ = Ĥ ( z )a .
x x y y

The following wave equations in phasor forms:

∇ 2 Eˆ = jωµ (σ + jωε )E
ˆ = γ 2E
ˆ (99a )
∇ H =γ H
2 ˆ 2 ˆ
(99b)
where γ2=jωµ(σ+jωε), for this particular case take the following form
d 2 Ê x
2
= γ 2 Ê x (100a )
dz
d 2 Ĥ y
2
= γ 2 Ĥ y (100b) .
dz
The solutions of (100) are given by
Ê x = Ê m+ e −γz + Ê m− e γz = Ê m+ e −αz e − jβz + Ê m− e αz e jβz (101a )
Ĥ y = Ĥ +m e −γz + Ĥ m− e γz = Ĥ m+ e −αz e − jβz + Ĥ −m e αz e jβz (101b)
where γ = jωµ (σ + jωε ) = α + jβ and Ê +m , Ê −m , Ĥ +m , Ĥ −m are undetermined complex
constants. γ, α and β are, respectively, called the propagation constant, attenuation
constant and phase constant. The unit of α is neper per meter (Np/m). α=1Np/m means
the wave magnitude decreases to 36.8% of its magnitude if it travels a distance of 1m.
The unit of the phase constant β is radians per meter (rad/m). The phase constant
expresses the amount of phase shift that occurs as the wave travels one meter.
The constants Ê m+ , Ê m− , Ĥ m+ , Ĥ m− are related to each other by (95) and (96). From
∇×E ˆ = − jωµH ˆ we have
dÊ z dÊ y dÊ dÊ z dÊ y dÊ x
( − )a x + ( x − )a y + ( − )a z = − jωµH
ˆ
dy dz dz dx dx dy
dÊ x ˆ ⇒ dÊ x = − jωµĤ
⇒ a y = − jωµH y
dz dz
∴ −γÊ +m e −γz + γÊ −m e γz = − jωµ (Ĥ +m e −γz + Ĥ −m e γz )
Matching appropriate terms from both sides in this equation we have
Ê m+ jωµ Ê m− jωµ
= = η and
ˆ =− = −ηˆ
Ĥ m+
γ Ĥ m−
γ
jωµ jωµ jωµ
ηˆ = = = = η∠θη
γ jωµ (σ + jωε ) (σ + jωε )
η̂ , the intrinsic impedance of the medium, has a unit of ohm since it is a ratio of electric
field intensity (volt/m) to magnetic field intensity (Amp/m).
Assume Ê +m and Ê −m as Ê m+ = E m+ ∠θ + and Ê m− = E m− ∠θ − , as they are in general, the fields
in time domain are given by
E x = Re(Ê x e jωt )
= E +m e −αz cos(ωt − βz + θ + ) + E −m eαz cos(ωt + β z + θ − ) (102a)
H y = Re(Ĥ y e jωt )
E +m −αz E m−
= e cos(ωt − β z + θ − θη ) −
+
e αz cos(ωt + βz + θ − − θη ) (102b)
η η
As the fields E and H are perpendicular to each other and lie in a plane perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation, they are called TEM waves (Transverse Electro-
Magnetic waves). The first term of both fields, E and H, represent the waves traveling in
the positive z-direction, while the second term of both of them represents the wave
traveling in the negative z-direction.

Uniform plane wave in lossless media

In lossless media, σ=0. Therefore the propagation constant γ and the intrinsic impedance
η̂ for such a media are given by
 ω
γ= jωµ (σ + jωε ) = α + jβ = jω µε ⇒ α = 0 and β = ω µε = where u is the
u
jωµ jωµ µ 0
velocity of light in the considered media; and ηˆ = = = ∠0 .
γ jω µε ε
The fields in the lossless media is, therefore, given by
E x = E +m cos(ωt − βz + θ + ) + E −m cos(ωt + βz + θ − ) (103a)
E +m E −m
Hy = cos(ωt − βz + θ + ) − cos(ωt + βz + θ − ) (103b)
η η
First term of (103a) has been plotted in the following for two different values of time, t1
and t2>t1. At successive times the curve effectively travels in the positive z-direction.
Thus it is a traveling wave. λ

1.5

1
t= t2
magnitude of Ex

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 t=t1
-0.5

-1

-1.5
beta*z

Note that corresponding points on the waveforms occur at positions and times such that
the argument of the cosine has the same value; that is
(z − z ) ω
ωt1 − βz1 + θ + = ωt 2 − βz 2 + θ + ⇒ ω (t 2 − t1 ) = β ( z 2 − z1 ) ⇒ 2 1 =
(t 2 − t1 ) β
dz ω ω
⇒ = ⇒u=
dt β β
Here u is referred to as the phase velocity of the wave. From the equation of phase
velocity, we have β=2πf/u=2π/λ. β is therefore also known as wave number. Similar
result for the phase velocity with opposite polarity can be obtained for the wave traveling
in the negative z-direction.
For typical material µ>µ0 and ε>ε0, thus, the phase velocity of the wave in material media
is slower than in free space and the wavelength is shorter.
The phase velocity, intrinsic impedance, wave number and wavelength in lossless
material media can be expressed in terms to those for free space as follows:
1 1 c µ0 µr 0 µr µ
u= = , ηˆ = ∠0 = η 0 = 377 r , β = β 0 µ r ε r and
µε µ 0 µ r ε 0ε r µrε r ε 0ε r εr εr
λ0 ω
λ= where β 0 = , λ0 = 2π /β 0 and c is the light velocity in free space.
µrε r c
Uniform plane wave in lossy media

In lossy media, σ≠0. Thus, two important differences between wave natures in lossy and
lossless media have been observed. The first difference is that the propagation constant γ
has a nonzero real part
γ = jωµ (σ + jωε ) = α + jβ
The fields in the lossy media is, therefore, given by
E x = E m+ e -αz cos(ωt − βz + θ + ) + E m− eαz cos(ωt + βz + θ − ) (104a)
E m+ -αz E m−
Hy = e cos(ωt − βz + θ − θη ) − +
e αz cos(ωt + βz + θ − − θη ) (104b)
η η
The first and second terms of the field equations are still forward and backward traveling
waves; however, their magnitude decreases as the waves move away from their origin as
shown in the following figures:

1.2
1.2
1
1
0.8
0.8
magnitude of Ex

magnitude of Ex
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 0 2 4 6 8 10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 -0.2 0
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
beta*z
beta*z

Forward traveling wave Backward traveling wave

The second difference is in the intrinsic impedance of the medium:

jωµ jωµ jωµ
ηˆ = = = = η∠θη
γ jωµ (σ + jωε ) (σ + jωε )
η̂ is a complex quantity in this case and θη ≠ 0. This non-zero value of θη results in the
electric and magnetic fields of both forward and backward traveling waves being out of
time phase by the phase angle θη(0≤ θη ≤450). In case of a good conducting media where
(σ⁄ωε)>>1 γ = jωµ (σ + jωε ) = j 2ω 2 µε (1 + σ jωε ) ≈ jωµσ
1+ j ωµσ ωµσ
= ωµσ = (1 + j ) = α + jβ where α =β = . The intrinsic
2 2 2
impedance of a good conducting media is therefore given by
jωµ jωµ jωµ ωµ
ηˆ = = = = (1 + j ).
γ jωµσ σ 2σ
The presence of the term e-αz(eαz) in the field equations (104) in case of lossy and good
conducting medium signifies that the wave attenuates as it propagates in the +ve(-ve) z-
direction as is shown in the above figures. The attenuation factor α depends upon the
conductivity of the medium. The higher the conductivity of the medium, the more
pronounced the attenuation. Then the question arises: How far can the wave propagate in
a conducting medium before its amplitude becomes insignificant? The answer is skin
depth that is defined as the distance traveled by the wave in a conducting medium at
which its amplitude falls to 1/e of its value on the surface of that conducting medium. If
we denote the skin depth by δ, the amplitude of the wave falls to 1/e when αδ=1.
Therefore δ=1/α. The most remarkable feature is that the phase velocity of the wave in a
conducting medium is frequency and conductivity dependent term. Thus the shape of a
wave comprising many different frequencies will keep on changing as it progresses; i.e.,
the signal is distorted by time it reaches its destination. A medium in which the signal
becomes distorted is said to be dispersive medium. The velocity of propagation of the
signal comprises a group of frequencies is defined as the group velocity.
Consider a signal that consists of two forward traveling waves having equal amplitude
and slightly different angular frequencies ω+∆ω and ω-∆ω. The phase constants, being
functions of frequency, will also be slightly different. Say the phase constants for two
different frequencies be β+∆β and β-∆β. We have from (104) with θ=0 for simplicity
E x = E 0 e -αz cos[(ω + ∆ω )t − ( β + ∆β ) z ] + E 0 e -αz cos[(ω − ∆ω )t − ( β − ∆β ) z ]
= 2E 0 e -αz cos(ωt − βz ) cos(∆ωt − ∆βz )
The term cos( ∆ωt − ∆β z ) represents an envelope the velocity of propagation of which is
known as group velocity ug and can be determined by setting its argument equal to a
constant: ∆ωt − ∆β z =Const from which we obtain
dz ∆ω dω
ug = = = .
dt ∆β dβ
The group velocity ug can be related with the phase velocity as follows:
1 dβ d ω 1 ω du p 1 ⎛⎜ ω du p ⎞⎟
= = ( )=. − 2 = 1−
u g dω dω u p u p u p dω u p ⎜⎝ u p dω ⎟⎠
up
ug = .
⎛ ω du p ⎞
⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ u dω ⎟
⎝ p ⎠

Power flow

The average power density is given by

1 ˆ ∗ ] = 1 Re[ Ê a × Ĥ ∗ a ] = 1 Re[ Ê Ĥ ∗ ]a
Pav = Re[E ˆ ×H
x x y y x y z
2 2 2
Ê x and Ĥ ∗y can be obtained from (104) as
Ê x = E m+ e -αz ∠(ωt − β z + θ + ) + E m− eαz ∠(ωt + βz + θ − )
E m+ E m−
Ĥ y = e -αz ∠(ωt − βz + θ + − θη ) − e αz ∠(ωt + β z + θ − − θη )
η η
⎡ (E + ) 2 (E − ) 2 (E + E − ) ⎤
∴ Pav = ⎢ m e -2αz cos θη − m e 2αz cos θη − m m sin θη sin( 2βz + θ − − θ + )⎥a z
⎣ 2η 2η η ⎦
The first term is denoted as the average power density in the forward traveling wave and
the second term is denoted as the average power density in the backward traveling wave.
The third term is a cross-coupling term that disappears for lossless media where θη=0.
Polarization of UPW

The polarization of a UPW describes the time varying behavior of the electric field
vector at a given point in space. It is the locus of the tip of the electric field E at a given
point as a function of time. A wave is said to be linearly polarized when at some point in
the medium of propagation E oscillates along a straight line as a function of time. If the
tip of E vector traces a circle, the wave is said to be circularly polarized. The wave is
elliptically polarized when the electric field follows an elliptical path. The
circularly/elliptically polarized wave may be classified into right handed and left handed
polarized waves depending on the rotating nature of the tip of E field as a function of
time. If it rotates in the clockwise (anticlockwise) direction, it is said be left handed (right
handed) polarized wave.
The electric field of a UPW in a propagating medium described by
E( z , t ) = E 0 e −αz cos(ωt − β z )a x is an example of linearly polarized wave as the field varies
along x-axis only with the change of time whatever be the value of βz.
Assume the E field is given by E( z , t ) = E1 ( z , t )a x + E 2 ( z , t )a y where
E1 ( z, t ) = E10 cos(ωt − βz ) and E 2 ( z, t ) = E 20 cos(ωt − βz − π / 2) = E 20 sin(ωt − βz ). In this
case [ E1 ( z , t ) / E10 ] 2 = cos 2 (ωt − β z ) and [ E 2 ( z , t ) / E 20 ] 2 = sin 2 (ωt − β z ). Therefore,
[ E1 ( z , t ) / E10 ] 2 + [ E 2 ( z , t ) / E 20 ] 2 = 1. This is an equation of ellipse and the wave is said to
be right handed elliptically polarized because with the variation of time it rotates in the
anticlockwise direction. However, if E( z , t ) = E1 ( z , t )a x − E 2 ( z , t )a y the will be left
handed elliptically polarized wave. In the above equation if E10= E20, the wave is said to
be circularly polarized wave.
The polarization of a wave depends upon the transmitting source such as an antenna. In
the standard AM broadcast frequency band, the vertical antenna is designed to transmit a
ground wave, which is vertically polarized because the E field from the antenna to
ground is vertical. In other applications including TV signals, the antennas are placed in a
horizontal plane to transmit a horizontally polarized wave. Both vertically and
horizontally polarized waves are examples of linearly polarized waves. This is why the
wires of rooftop TV receiving antennas are horizontal. The waves radiated by FM
broadcast stations are generally circularly polarized; hence the orientation of an FM
receiving antenna is not critical as long as it lies in a plane normal to the direction of the
signal.

Incidence of UPW on a plane boundary

(a) Normal incidence

In the previous sections, we have focused our attention on the propagation of UPW in an
unbounded medium. Here we consider a UPW that travels through one medium and then
enters into another medium of infinite extent. We assume that the interface between the
two media is normal to the direction of propagation of the incoming wave. We further
presume that (a) the incoming wave, called the incident wave, is propagating in the z-
direction; (b) the interface is an infinite plane at z=0; and (c) the region to the left of the
interface (z ≤ 0) is medium 1 and the region to the right of the interface (z ≥ 0) is medium
2. At the interface, we expect a part of the wave to penetrate the boundary and continue
its propagation in medium 2. This wave is referred to as the transmitted wave. The
remainder of the incident wave is reflected at the interface and then propagates in
medium 1 in the negative z-direction. This wave is called the reflected wave. Thus, both
the incident and the transmitted waves propagate in the positive z-direction, whereas the
reflected propagates in the negative z-direction. The incident and the reflected waves are
in medium 1, and the transmitted wave is in medium 2. If we treat the incident and
transmitted waves as the forward-traveling waves, the reflected wave is then the
backward traveling wave.
For the system shown in the following figure, the E field of the incident wave in phasor
)
form is assumed to be given by E i ( z ) = E i 0 e −γ 1 z a x ; the associated magnetic field H is
) E
then H i ( z ) = )i 0 e −γ 1z a y . The corresponding fields for reflected and transmitted waves
η1
are given by:
) ) E ) ) E
E r ( z ) = E r 0 e γ 1 z a x , H r ( z ) = − )r 0 e γ 1z a y , E t ( z ) = Et 0 e −γ 2 z a x , H t ( z ) = )t 0 e −γ 2 z a y .
η1 η2
Here the subscripts i, r and t stand for the incident, reflected and transmitted waves
respectively. And the subscripts 1 and 2 are used to refer medium 1 and 2, respectively.

At the interface (z=0), the tangential components (the x and y components) of electric
and magnetic fields in medium 1 are equal to their corresponding terms in medium 2. We
therefore have
) ) )
E i ( z = 0) + E r ( z = 0) = E t ( z = 0) ⇒ Ei 0 + E r 0 = Et 0 (105)
) ) ) E E E
H i ( z = 0) + H r ( z = 0) = H t ( z = 0) ⇒ )i 0 - )r 0 = )t 0 (106)
η1 η1 η2

If we replace Et0 from (106) by substituting its value from (105) we obtain
Ei 0 E r 0 Ei 0 + E r 0 E E E E ) ) ) )
) - ) = ) ⇒ )i 0 - )i 0 = )r 0 + )r 0 ⇒ Ei 0 (η 2 - η1 ) = E r 0 (η 2 + η1 )
η1 η1 η2 η1 η 2 η1 η2
) )
(η - η )
E r 0 = Ei 0 ) 2 )1 (107)
(η 2 + η1 )

Again by replacing Er0 from (106) by substituting its value from (105) we have
 ) ) )
Ei 0 Et 0 − Ei 0 Et 0 2 η 2 + η1 2η 2
) - ) = ) ⇒ ) i0E = ) ) E ⇒ E = ) ) Ei 0 (108)
η1 η1 η2 η1 η1η 2 η 2 + η1
t0 t0

The ratios Er0/ Ei0 and Et0/ Ei0 are called reflection coefficient and transmission
coefficient, respectively. They are given in terms of the intrinsic impedances of the media
by
) )
Er 0 (η 2 - η1 )
Γ= = ) ) (109)
Ei 0 (η 2 + η1 )
)
Et 0 2η 2
T= = ) ) (110)
E i 0 η 2 + η1
From (109) and (110) we may prove that 1+Γ=T.
In terms of the reflection coefficient, the E field in medium 1 is
) ) ) )
E1 ( z ) = E i ( z ) + E r ( z ) ⇒ E1 ( z ) = Ei 0 e −γ 1 z a x + ΓEi 0 e γ 1 z a x = (1 + Γe 2γ 1 z ) Ei 0 e −γ 1z a x (111)
(i) When both media are non-conducting
In this case σ1=0 and hence α1=0, and γ1 =jβ1. The remarkable feature of this system is
that η, Γ and T are all real.
From (111) we have
)
E1 ( z ) = (1 + Γe j 2 β1z ) Ei 0 e − jβ1z a x
)
The magnitude of E1 ( z ) is given by
(1 + Γe j 2 β1z ) Ei 0 = Ei 0 (1 + Γ cos 2 β1 z ) 2 + (Γ sin 2β 1 z ) 2 = Ei 0 (1 + Γ 2 + 2Γ cos 2β 1 z )
It becomes maximum for Γ>0 when 2β1z=-2nπ where n=0, 1, 2, ……and is given by
)
E1 = Ei 0 (1 + Γ 2 + 2Γ) = Ei 0 (1 + Γ) .
max
)
The magnitude of E1 ( z ) becomes minimum for Γ>0 when 2β1z=-(2n+1)π where n=0, 1,
)
2, ……and is given by E1 = E i 0 (1 + Γ 2 − 2Γ) = Ei 0 (1 − Γ) .
min
) )
The maximum and minimum values of E1 ( z ) for Γ<0 are given by E1 = Ei 0 (1 − Γ)
max
)
and E1 = Ei 0 (1 + Γ) .
min
)
In generalized form, the maximum and minimum values of E1 ( z ) are therefore given by
) )
E1 = Ei 0 (1 + Γ ) and E1 = Ei 0 (1 − Γ ) .
max min
The ratio of maximum value of electric field to its minimum value is defined as the
standing wave ratio (SWR) S and is then given by
)
E1 (1 + Γ )
S = ) max = . (112)
E1 (1 − Γ )
min

S -1
From this equation we obtain Γ = .
S +1
(ii) When media 1 is non-conducting and media 2 is good conductor
The equations of reflection and transmission coefficients and SWR remain same, but in
)
this case Γ=-1 and T=0 as η 2 = 0 .

(b) Oblique incidence

When an electromagnetic wave strikes a plane boundary any arbitrary angle, we refer to
it as oblique incident. We again consider that a xy-plane at z=0 separates two media;
media 1 is on the left side on the plane and media 2 is on the right side. In our following
discussion we will limit to two special cases: i) First we will assume a perpendicularly
polarized wave in which E field of the incident wave is normal to the plane on incident
and ii) In the second case a parallel polarized wave where E field lies on the incident
plane will be considered.

Perpendicular Polarization
Now the plane that includes the unit vector an normal to the boundary and the
propagation constant of the incidence wave is called the plane of incidence as shown in
the following figure.

(a) Oblique incidence on a plane boundary (b) Perpendicularly polarized wave

Assume the incident wave propagates in the z’ direction and makes an angle θI with an
unit vector. If Ei0 is the amplitude of the incident E field, we can express it at any point in
)
medium 1 as E i = E io e −γ 1z′ a x . From the following figure, the exponent ϒ1z’ can be
expressed as

γ 1 z ′ = γ 1a z′ • z ′a z′
= [γ 1 cos θ i a z + γ 1 sin θ i a y ] • [za z + ya y ]
= γ 1 [z cos θ i + y sin θ i ]
)
∴ E i = Eio e −γ 1 ( z cos θ i + y sin θ i ) a x
) )
Therefore from ∇ × E i = − jωµ1 H i and
) 1
[
H i = − ) E io e −γ 1 ( z cos θ i + y sin θ i ) − cos θ i a y + sin θ i a z
η1
]
(c)
Let us assume that the reflected wave propagates in the z” direction and makes an angle
θr with an as shown in figure (b). If Er0 is the amplitude of the reflected E field, we can
)
express it at any point in medium 1 as E r = E ro e −γ 1 z′′ a x . From the following figure, the
exponent ϒ1z” can be expressed as

γ 1 z ′′ = γ 1a z′′ • z ′′a z′′

= [− γ 1 cos θ r a z + γ 1 sin θ r a y ] • [− z (−a z ) + ya y ]
= γ 1 [− z cos θ r + y sin θ r ]

)
∴ E r = E ro e γ 1 ( z cos θ r − y sin θ r ) a x
) )
Therefore from ∇ × E r = − jωµ1 H r and
) 1
[
H r = − ) E ro e γ 1 ( z cos θ r − y sin θ r ) cos θ r a y + sin θ r a z
η1
]

The transmitted electric and magnetic fields are of similar expressions to those of
incidence wave; the exception is in the angle. The fields for transmitted wave are,
therefore,
)
E t = E to e −γ 2 ( z cos θ 2 + y sin θ 2 ) a x
) 1
[ ]
H t = − ) E to e −γ 2 ( z cos θ 2 + y sin θ 2 ) − cos θ 2 a y + sin θ 2 a z
η2
At z=0, we obtain from the boundary conditions that
Eio e −γ 1 y sin θ i + E ro e −γ 1 y sin θ r = Eto e −γ 2 y sin θ 2 and
1 −γ 1 y sin θ i 1 1
) Eio e cos θ i − ) E ro e −γ 1 y sin θ r cos θ r = ) Eto e −γ 2 y sin θ 2 cos θ 2
η1 η1 η2
For any values of y to satisfy the above equations the following conditions must fulfill:
γ 1 y sin θ i = γ 1 y sin θ r = γ 2 y sin θ 2
⇒ θ i = θ r and γ 1 sin θ i = γ 2 sin θ 2 (113)
Equation (113) is known as Snell’s law of reflection.
The boundary conditions at z=0 are given with the help of Snell’s law by
E io + E ro = Eto and (114a)
1 1 1
) Eio cos θ i − ) E ro cos θ i = ) Eto cos θ 2 (114b)
η1 η1 η2
Replacing Eto from (114b) by (114a) we have
) ) ) )
Eio (η 2 cos θ i − η1 cos θ 2 ) = E ro (η 2 cos θ i + η1 cos θ 2 )
) )
E ro (η 2 cos θ i − η1 cos θ 2 ) (115)
⇒ Γ⊥ = = ) )
Eio (η 2 cos θ i + η1 cos θ 2 )
Replacing Ero from (114b) by (114a) we have
 ) )
(η 2 cos θ i + η1 cos θ 2 )
2 E io cos θ i = E to )
η2
) (116)
E to 2η 2 cos θ i
⇒ T⊥ = = ) )
E io (η 2 cos θ i + η1 cos θ 2 )
Equations (115) and (116) are known as Fresnel equations. Again we find that 1+Γ⊥=T⊥
as was the case for normal incidence.

Parallel Polarization

The case where the Ei field is parallel to

the plane of incidence (yz-plane) is
shown in the adjacent figure. As the
direction Ei field will be perpendicular to
az’, the unit vector along it can be
resolved into (-cosθi ay+ sinθi az). Again
from the previous article we have
γ 1 z ′ = γ 1 [z cos θ i + y sin θ i ]
)
∴ E i = Eio e −γ 1 ( z cos θ i + y sin θ i )
( − cos θ i a y + sin θ i a z )
)
The corresponding H i can be obtained
) )
from ∇ × E i = − jωµH i and is
) E
H i = )io e −γ 1 ( z cos θ i + y sin θ i ) a x
(a) η1
The direction of propagation of the
reflected wave is az” and the Er field is
assumed to be as shown in figure (c). The
unit vector along Er can be given by
(cosθr ay+ sinθr az). Again from the
previous article
γ 1 z ′′ = γ 1 [− z cos θ r + y sin θ r ]
)
∴ E r = E ro e −γ 1 ( − z cos θ r + y sin θ r )
(b) (cos θ r a y + sin θ r a z )
)
The corresponding H r is obtained from
) )
∇ × E r = − jωµH r and is
) E
H r = )ro e −γ ( − z cos θ + y sin θ ) a x
1 r r

η1
The equation of transmitted electric and
magnetic fields are similar to those of
Er incident fields with an exception in
angle.
(c)

These are given by

)
E t = E to e −γ 2 ( z cos θ 2 + y sin θ 2 ) (− cos θ 2 a y + sin θ 2 a z )
) E
H t = )to e −γ 2 ( z cos θ 2 + y sin θ 2 ) a x
η2
Applying the Snell’s law we obtain from the boundary conditions at z=0
− Eio e −γ 1 y sin θi cosθ i + E ro e −γ 1 y sin θi cosθ i = − Eto e −γ 1 y sin θ i cosθ 2
⇒ − Eio cosθ i + E ro cosθ i = − Eto cosθ 2 (117)
and
Eio −γ 1 y sin θi E ro −γ 1 y sin θ r Eto −γ 2 y sin θ 2
) e + ) e = ) e
η1 η1 η2
E E E
⇒ )io + )ro = )to (118)
η1 η1 η2
From (117) and (118) we obtained
) )
E ro η1 cosθ i − η 2 cosθ 2
Γ|| = = ) ) (119)
E io η1 cos θ i + η 2 cosθ 2
and
)
E to 2η 2 cosθ i
T|| = = ) ) (120)
E io η1 cos θ i + η 2 cosθ 2
From (119) and (120) it can prove that

⎛ cosθ 2 ⎞
1 − Γ|| = T|| ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (121)
⎝ cosθ i ⎠
Critical Angle

Let us consider the Snell’s law γ 1 sin θ i = γ 2 sin θ 2 for two non-conducting media; in
this case we have
γ jβ β ω ε 2µ2 ε2
sin θ i = 2 sin θ 2 = 2 sin θ 2 = 2 sin θ 2 = sin θ 2 = sin θ 2
γ1 jβ 1 β1 ω ε 1 µ1 ε1
We have assumed here the typical non-ferromagnetic dielectric media for which µr ≈1. If
a wave in media 1 is incident on a less dense media 2(ε1> ε2), in this case θ2 becomes
greater than θi. The value of θi that makes θ2=900 is called the critical angle in which the
transmitted wave will propagate entirely parallel to the interface. Simply stated, there will
be no power propagating in the z direction in media 2. This is called total reflection. This
is why the critical angle is also called the angle of total reflection. The critical angle is
given by
ε2
θ c = sin -1 .
ε1

Brewster Angle

For both perpendicular and parallel polarization, there is a value of the incidence angle
for which the reflection coefficient becomes zero. This angle of incidence is called the
Brewster angle. No reflection occurs, i.e., all the waves transmitted into the second
media.
For perpendicular polarization Γ⊥=0 if
) )
η 2 cos θ i = η1 cos θ 2
) ) 2 ) 2
η1 ⎛ η1 ⎞ ⎛ η1 ⎞
⇒ cos θ i = ) cos θ 2 ⇒ cos θ i = ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ cos θ 2 ⇒ 1 − sin θ i = ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ (1 − sin 2 θ 2 )
2 2 2

η2 ⎝η2 ⎠ ⎝η2 ⎠
) 2 ) 2
⎛ η1 ⎞ ⎛ η1 ⎞
⇒ sin θ i − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ sin θ 2 = 1 − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟
2 2
(122)
⎝η2 ⎠ ⎝η2 ⎠
.
Using the Snell’s law θ i = θ r and γ 1 sin θ i = γ 2 sin θ 2 we have for non-conducting media
γ β ω / u1
sin θ 2 = 1 sin θ i ⇒ sin θ 2 = 1 sin θ i ⇒ sin θ 2 = sin θ i
γ2 β2 ω / u2
µ1ε 1
⇒ sin θ 2 = sin θ i
µ 2ε 2
Using this value of sinθ2 in (122) we obtain
) 2 ) 2
⎛ η1 ⎞ µ1ε 1
sin θ i − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟
2 ⎛ η1 ⎞
sin θ i = 1 − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟
2
[ ] µε
⇒ sin 2 θ i 1 − (µ1 / µ 2 ) = 1 − 1 2
2

⎝ η 2 ⎠ µ 2ε 2 ⎝η2 ⎠ µ 2ε 1
1 − ( µ1ε 2 / µ 2 ε 1 )
⇒ sin 2 θ i =
1 − (µ1 / µ 2 )
2

The incidence angle satisfying this equation is referred to as the Brewster angle and is
denoted by θB⊥. However, for non-ferromagnetic matter µ1=µ2=µ0, therefore the Brewster
angle for perpendicular polarization does not exist.

For parallel polarization Γ||=0 if

) )
η1 cos θ i = η 2 cos θ 2
) ) 2 ) 2
η2 ⎛η2 ⎞ ⎛η2 ⎞
⇒ cos θ i = ) cos θ 2 ⇒ cos θ i = ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ cos θ 2 ⇒ 1 − sin θ i = ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ (1 − sin 2 θ 2 )
2 2 2

η1 ⎝ η1 ⎠ ⎝ η1 ⎠
) 2 ) 2
⎛η2 ⎞ ⎛η2 ⎞
⇒ sin θ i − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ sin θ 2 = 1 − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟
2 2
(123)
⎝ η1 ⎠ ⎝ η1 ⎠
.
Using the Snell’s law θ i = θ r and γ 1 sin θ i = γ 2 sin θ 2 we have for non-conducting media
γ β ω / u1
sin θ 2 = 1 sin θ i ⇒ sin θ 2 = 1 sin θ i ⇒ sin θ 2 = sin θ i
γ2 β2 ω / u2
µ1ε 1
⇒ sin θ 2 = sin θ i
µ 2ε 2
Using this value of sinθ2 in (123) we obtain for non-ferromagnetic materials
 ) 2 ) 2
⎛η2 ⎞ ε1 ⎛η2 ⎞ ⎡ µ 2⎤ µε
sin θ i − ⎜ )
2
⎜ ⎟⎟ sin θ i = 1 − ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟
2
⇒ sin 2 θ i ⎢1 − 2 (ε 1 / ε 2 ) ⎥ = 1 − 2 1
⎝ η1 ⎠ ε2 ⎝ η1 ⎠ ⎣ µ1 ⎦ µ1ε 2
1 − ( µ 2 ε 1 / µ1ε 2 ) 1 − (ε 1 / ε 2 ) 1
⇒ sin 2 θ i = = =
1 + (ε 1 / ε 2 )
(ε 1 / ε 2 )2 ⎥ 1 − (ε 1 / ε 2 )
⎡ µ2 ⎤ 2

⎢1 −
⎣ µ1 ⎦
ε1 / ε 2
⇒ cos 2 θ i = 1 − sin 2 θ i =
1 + (ε 1 / ε 2 )
tan θ i = ε 2 / ε 1 ⇒ θ i = θ B|| = tan −1 ε 2 / ε 1
The incidence angle satisfying this equation is referred to as the Brewster angle and is
denoted by θB||.
Thus when an incident wave having both parallel and perpendicular components
impinges upon a plane boundary between two dielectric media at the Brewster angle θB||,
the transmitted wave will have only parallel component where as the reflected wave
contains only the perpendicular component. That is an elliptically or circularly polarized
wave will become a linearly polarized wave upon reflection. For this reason, the Brewster
angle is also called the polarizing angle.

See the Examples 8-13 & 8-14 of Cheng