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Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000
ScienceDirect www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy
EnergyProcedia
Procedia122 (2017) 000–000
00 (2017) 499–504
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

CISBAT 2017 International Conference – Future Buildings & Districts – Energy Efficiency from
Nano to Urban Scale, CISBAT 2017 6-8 September 2017, Lausanne, Switzerland
CISBAT 2017 International Conference – Future Buildings & Districts – Energy Efficiency from
Distributed
Nano Urban Energy Systems (Urban Form, Energy and Switzerland
Technology,
Effects oftourban
Urban Hub)
Urban Scale,
The 15th CISBAT
compactness
International 2017
on6-8the
SymposiumSeptember
building
on 2017,
District Lausanne,
energy
Heating and performance
Cooling in
Effects of urban the
Assessing Mediterranean
compactness
feasibility on climate
the building
of using the heatenergy performance in
demand-outdoor
temperatureAgnese
function Mediterranean
for
Salvati a, Helena
a,b,*
Cochclimate
long-term a
,district heat demand
Michele Morganti a,b
forecast
a
Architecture and Energy
a,b,c Research Group
a - School
a,b,* of Architecture of Barcelona,UPC,
a Av. Diagonal 649,c a,b
08028 Barcelona, Spain
I. Andrić Agnese
b Salvati
*, A. Pina , Helena
, P. Ferrão , J. Coch , Michele
Fournier a Morganti, O. Le Corre
., B. Lacarrière b
SosUrban_lab - DICEA department, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy
c

Architecture
a a
IN+ Center for and Energy Research
Innovation, Group
Technology - School
and Policy of Architecture
Research of Superior
- Instituto Barcelona,UPC, Av.Diagonal
Técnico,Av. 649, 1,
Rovisco Pais 08028 Barcelona,
1049-001 Spain
Lisbon, Portugal
b
SosUrban_lab
b - DICEA
Veolia department,
Recherche Sapienza291
& Innovation, University of Rome, Daniel,
Avenue Dreyfous Via Eudossiana 18, 00184
78520 Limay, Rome, Italy
France
c
Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France

This work explores the double effect of urban compactness on building energy performance in a Mediterranean
Abstract
climate, namely the increase of urban heat island (UHI) intensity and the decrease of solar radiation availability on
Abstract
building
This work façades.
exploresThethe
energy demand
double effectofof
a test apartment
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energyvarying conditions
performance in aofMediterranean
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and solarnamely
climate, radiation for different urban textures. Results show robustand
relationships between theradiation
energy demand and the
District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasingon
the increase of urban heat island (UHI) intensity the decrease of solar availability the
‘site coverage
building ratio’ of the buildings. This demonstrates that compact
has been urban
calculated textures are
under varying more energy efficient than
façades.
greenhouse The energy
gas emissions fromdemand of a test
the building apartment
sector. These systems require high investments whichconditions of through
are returned UHI intensity
the heat
less solar
and denseradiation
urban patterns in a Mediterranean
for different urban textures.climate.
Results show robust relationships
sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heatbetween
demand the energy
in the demand
future could and the
decrease,
© 2017
‘site The Authors.
coverage Published by Elsevier Ltd.
prolonging the ratio’ of the
investment buildings.
return period. This demonstrates that compact urban textures are more energy efficient than
Peer-review
less under patterns
responsibility of the scientific committee of the scientific committee of the CISBAT 2017 International
Thedense urban
main scope in is
of this paper a Mediterranean climate.
to assess the feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand
Conference
2017 The–Authors.
©forecast. Future Buildings
Published &byDistricts
Elsevier–Ltd.
Energy Efficiency from Nano to Urban Scale.
© 2017 TheThe districtPublished
Authors. of Alvalade, locatedLtd.
by Elsevier in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
Peer-review under
buildings that responsibility
vary of the scientific
in both construction committee
periodcommittee
and typology.of theThree
scientific committee of the
weather CISBAT 2017 International
Keywords: Urban compactness; Mediterranean climate; Heat island;of
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific the radiation;
Solar CISBAT 2017 scenarios (low,
International
Heating
medium,
Conference
demand, Cooling –high) andBuildings
Future
demand, Urban energy
three district
&
modelling
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renovation – Future
scenariosBuildings
were & Districts
developed – Energy
(shallow,
Districts – Energy Efficiency from Nano to Urban Scale Efficiency
intermediate, from
deep).Nano
To to Urban
estimate Scale.
the error, obtained heat demand values were
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
Keywords: Urban
The results compactness;
showed that whenMediterranean
only weatherclimate; Heatisisland;
change Solar radiation;
considered, Heating
the margin demand,
of error Cooling
could demand, Urban
be acceptable energyapplications
for some modelling
1. Introduction
(the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered).
Urban
1.The valueareas
Introduction are the
of slope main source
coefficient of emissions
increased on averageresponsible
within the for climate
range of 3.8%change,
up to the
8% major part ofthat
per decade, which is due totothe
corresponds the
energy consumption for heating and cooling needs of buildings. The challenge of reducing the
decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather environmental impact
and
Urban areas
renovation are the
scenarios main source
considered). On oftheemissions
other hand,responsible for climate
function intercept change,
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for 7.8-12.7% partdecade
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challenge for the
of reducing thescenarios considered,
environmental and
impact
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 -06-44585665; fax: +39-06-44585186.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
* Corresponding
Cooling. author. Tel.: +39 -06-44585665; fax: +39-06-44585186.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the CISBAT 2017 International Conference – Future Buildings & Districts –
Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change
Energy Efficiency from Nano to Urban Scale.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the CISBAT 2017 International Conference – Future Buildings & Districts –
Energy Efficiency from Nano to Urban Scale.

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the CISBAT 2017 International Conference – Future Buildings &
Districts – Energy Efficiency from Nano to Urban Scale
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.07.303
500 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 499–504
2 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

of the built environment has thus boosted research into the modelling of building energy consumption at the urban
scale [1,2], considering the energy phenomena that affect the energy performance of buildings in urban environments.
This is aimed at developing urban analysis tools able to inform decision makers on the most effective policies and
design strategies to improve the performance of the built environment at urban scale, instead of focusing on retrofitting
the single building.
This paper contributes to this wider aim through the assessment of the impact of urban compactness on the energy
performance of buildings in a Mediterranean climate. Urban compactness modifies building energy demand in two
ways; on the one hand, it may contribute to the increase of the UHI effect [3,4], which entails an indirect impact on
the energy demand. On the other hand, it modifies the solar radiation availability on the building façade, which is a
key variable of energy demand in a Mediterranean context [5].
Several studies have investigated the relationship between compactness and solar access in urban textures [6–11]
highlighting the possibility of enhancing solar collection on the building’s envelope through the optimization of urban
form. Many other studies have analysed the relationship between urban compactness and heat island intensity, using
both experimental data and modelling tools [4,12–15]. According to these results, it is generally agreed that an increase
of urban compactness entails a decrease of solar energy availability within the urban texture and an increase of heat
island intensity in the urban area, especially at night.
Notwithstanding the extensive knowledge developed on this topic, a quantitative analysis of the global impact of
urban compactness on building energy performance is still lacking. Urban compactness may have contrasting
outcomes as regards the energy performance of buildings, especially in a Mediterranean climate, where cooling and
heating demand are equally significant. The increase of urban compactness enhances the UHI intensity, which is
positive for the heating and negative for the cooling; conversely, the decrease of solar radiation due to the increase of
urban compactness has a positive impact on the cooling demand but is detrimental to the heating demand [5].
It is generally accepted that the UHI effect causes an overall increase of the energy demand in both hot and
temperate climates [15–19], however the combined effect of increased UHI intensity and decreased solar gains has
not yet been investigated. This paper aims at filling this gap, presenting an analysis of the global impact of urban
compactness on the annual energy demand of residential buildings in a Mediterranean urban context.

2. Materials and method

The analysis is based on calculations of the energy demand for heating and cooling of a test apartment in different
urban contexts, considering both the solar obstructions and the heat island intensity determined by the compactness
of the urban structure.
A sample of urban textures was identified in Rome (Italy) and Barcelona (Spain) to represent the range of urban
compactness in Mediterranean urban areas. The reference textures are: Borrel y Soler, Gracia and Raval in Barcelona
and Centocelle and Don Bosco in Rome (Figure 1).
The compactness of the textures was measured using the ‘Site Coverage Ratio’ (ρbld), given by the ratio of the
ground surface occupied by buildings to the total site area.
A normalised model was built for each urban texture; the normalised models are theoretical homogenous textures
composed of simplified urban blocks repeated in a regular urban structure [20], with the same values of 'site coverage
ratio' of the real urban textures. The simplified textures were modelled in Design Builder in order to perform energy
simulation of the test apartment with EnergyPlus (v 8.1) as follows:
1) without urban context and using the standard weather file of Rome-Ciampino
2) within the different urban textures and using a specific weather file for each texture
The first simulation is representative of an apartment in a rural environment; the second takes into account the solar
radiation obstruction and the UHI intensity determined by the urban context. To carry out the latter set of simulations,
an urban weather file was created for each urban texture using the Urban Weather Generator (UWG) model [21,22].
The calculation of UWG model is based on a rural weather file (Rome-Ciampino in this case) and a parametric
description of the urban area, which considers the morphological features of the fabric. Therefore, different urban
weather files have been created using constant average values for all the urban parameters except the morphological
ones, which were changed according to the different urban textures [5].
 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 499–504 501
Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 3

In either kind of simulation, the energy demand was calculated considering the test apartment at the first floor
(+4.00m from ground level) in 4 orientations: NW-NE, NE-SE, SE-SW and SW-NW. Results have been analysed in
relation to the texture’s site coverage ratio, in order to investigate the existence of significant relationships between
the energy demands and the compactness of the urban structure. The comparative analysis of results is based on the
average demands among the four orientations, so as to be representative of an average oriented apartment in an urban
area. The values for the main parameters of the energy model are reported in Table 1.

Fig. 1. (a) Orthographic pictures of the real urban textures, (b) Values of “Site Coverage ratio” and top view of the normalised models of the
urban textures modelled in Design Builder; the test apartment was in the four corners of the yellow buildings, surrounded by the blue buildings to
consider the effect of shadows on the energy demand

Table 1. Values of the main parameters of the energy model

Parameter Value
Density 0.03 person m2
Occupancy schedule weekday: 12-9am; 4pm-12am– Weekend: on
Heating Set point 20 °C
Heating schedule November-March - Weekday: 7-9am; 4-23pm, Weekend: 7am-23pm
Cooling Set point 26 °C
Cooling schedule April- October; - Weekday: 7-9am; 4-23pm, Weekend: 7am-23pm
Natural ventilation 2 ac/h
Infiltration 0.5 ac/h
Wall type and Transmittance Masonry wall - 1.59 W/m2 K
Glazing ratio 20%
Glazing type and Transmittance Single glazing – 4.5 W/m2 K
Shading device None

3. Results and discussion

In Table 2 the average solar obstruction and the UHI intensities for the five urban textures are reported. The
percentage of solar obstruction was obtained as the ratio of the apartment’s solar gains without urban context to the
ones within the urban textures (with the apartment at 4.0 m from ground level). The average values of UHI intensity
in summer, winter and during the entire year have been calculated using data from the weather files generated with
UWG.
502 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 499–504
4 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Table 2. Site coverage ratio, average UHI intensity and energy demand for the apartment for the five case studies
Urban texture Site Coverage Solar Avg Avg Avg Heating Cooling Annual
Ratio (ρbld), Obstruction Summer Winter Annual Demand Demand Demand
UHI UHI UHI kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2
Rural Environment 0.0 0% 0 0 0 18.56 -16.01 34.57
Borrel Y Soler 0.2 17% 1.5 0.9 1.0 16.92 -20.72 37.64
Centocelle 0.34 36% 2.0 1.0 1.3 17.77 -19.26 37.03
Don Bosco 0.43 59% 3.0 1.2 1.5 19.18 -18.86 38.04
Gracia 0.64 55% 2.5 1.9 2.1 16.18 -18.18 34.36
Raval 0.80 80% 3.4 2.7 3.0 13.36 -16.51 29.87

Results confirm that an increase of urban compactness determines a proportional decrease of solar radiation on the
building façades. The direct proportion between site coverage ratio and solar obstruction is clear for Borrel Y Soler,
Centocelle and Raval. The cases of Don Bosco and Gracia show different ratios, due to the height of the buildings in
the two textures: in Don Bosco buildings are very tall, so the solar obstruction is enhanced, while in Gracia the
buildings are low and the obstruction of solar radiation is reduced despite the high compactness of the texture. With
regard to the UHI intensity, a proportion with the site coverage ratio is also recognisable; the UHI intensity is higher
in the most compact textures. However, there are some exceptions, in particular on the summer UHI intensity, that
may be explained in the light of other morphological features of the textures, such as 'vertical surface density'. This
parameter measures the density of façades in urban area, which varies a lot for different typology and height of the
buildings and highly affects UHI intensity during summer, as commented in other works [4].

3.1. Urban compactness and building's energy demands

The trend lines in Figure 2 represent the variability of the average heating and cooling demands of the apartment
as a function of the urban compactness. The red line identifies the energy demand of the same apartment located in
the rural environment, without UHI effect or solar obstructions. The variation of the demand due to the increase of
the site coverage ratio is thus the result of decreasing solar radiation and increasing UHI intensity and identifies the
overall impact of the urban compactness on the energy demand.

Fig. 2. Relationships between the texture’s site coverage ratio and the apartment’s heating demand and cooling demand for five case studies.

Urban compactness and cooling demand are linearly correlated, with a robust R2 =0.95. The increase of urban
compactness entails a proportional decrease of the cooling demand for the test apartment. Therefore, according to
these findings, a high degree of compactness is beneficial during summer in a Mediterranean climate, due to the
importance of the reduced solar radiation being greater than the increased heat island. However, the cooling demand
 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 499–504 503
Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

for the apartment in the urban context is necessarily higher than the corresponding one in a rural environment, because
of the impact of the UHI intensity.
As regards the heating demand, a nonlinear relationship has been found with respect to the texture’s compactness
(R2= 0.95). The heating demand is generally lower in the urban textures than in the rural environment, due to the
beneficial effect of the UHI intensity, even in the texture with the lowest value of site coverage ratio. An increase of
the texture’s compactness entails, at the beginning, a similar increase of the heating demand, because of the
progressive decrease of solar radiation. However, there is a threshold value of the texture’s coverage ratio (ρ bld=0.4)
beyond which the heating demand resumes decreasing. This happens because the energy saving deriving from a strong
UHI intensity becomes more important than the reduction of solar gains during winter time.

Fig. 3. Relationship between the texture’s site coverage ratio and the apartment’s annual energy demand for five case studies

Figure 3 shows the trend of the annual energy demand in relation to the texture’s site coverage ratio; the annual
demand is the sum of the heating and cooling demands.
These results indicate that the urban context is detrimental to the energy performance of the buildings if the urban
structure is scattered. For low values of site coverage ratio, the apartment's energy demand is higher than in a rural
environment. However, the increase of urban compactness determines a decrease of the annual energy demand in the
urban context. Furthermore, the contrasting impacts of urban compactness on energy demand compensate themselves
in very compact urban textures (ρbld around 0.63), determining the same energy demand of a rural environment. In the
most compact urban texture among the case studies (Raval, ρbld=0.8), the annual energy demand is even lower than a
rural environment. Therefore, these findings demonstrate that compact urban textures (ρbld higher than 0.5) are more
energy efficient in a Mediterranean climate compared to scattered and discontinuous urban patterns, because
compactness allows UHI intensity to be taken advantage of during winter time, while reducing the cooling demand
thanks to a huge reduction of solar radiation on the building façades.
The validity of the results is affected by the limitation of the energy model, the assumptions on the test apartment
and the simplified modelling of the urban textures; further research would be required to provide empirical validation
of these findings.

4. Conclusion

This work explores the contrasting effects of urban compactness on building energy demand in a Mediterranean
climate. The energy demand of a test apartment has been calculated considering concurrently the UHI intensity and
the solar obstruction determined by different urban textures.
The results confirm that compact urban textures, with a site coverage ratio above 0.5, contribute to reduce energy
consumption in a Mediterranean climate, by decreasing annual energy demand as opposed to the performance of an
isolated building; this holds true despite the UHI intensity determined by compact urban structures, because the
increase of air temperature is counterbalanced by a decrease of solar radiation during summer time. Therefore, this
analysis suggests that the most compact and dense urban textures, such as the historic fabric of many city centres, are
more energy efficient than sparser and less dense urban patterns, typical of more recent urban developments.
504 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 499–504
6 Agnese Salvati et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

The relationships identified in this study allow for a preliminary assessment of the energy performance of urban
textures, based on a common density parameter such as the ‘site coverage ratio’. The opportunity of performing rapid
assessments at the district scale and providing maps of the energy vulnerability within the city would certainly ease
the work of designers, planners and decision makers in identifying a priority of interventions on the built environment.
Future lines of investigation would concern the identification of the most appropriate and effective interventions at
the building scale, according to the solar access and the climatic performance expressed by each urban texture. In this
way, the analysis of the energy performance at the urban scale could translate into operational tools for design at the
building scale, fostering the work of architects and urban planners in the field of urban renewal and energy efficiency.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Spanish Ministry of Economy for having supported the work under the project
code: BIA 2016-77675-r and Sapienza University of Rome for the PhD scholarship granted to Dr. Agnese Salvati.

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