I.

Basic Terminologies of Statistics

Statistics

 It is a branch of Science that deals with the collection, organization, analysis,

interpretation and presentation of data.

Main Division of Statistics

 Descriptive Statistics
 Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics

 It is a simple way to describe data. It is a process of analyzing, describing, or

summarizing data in a meaningful way. It does not allow to make conclusions
beyond the data being analyzed, or reach a conclusion regarding any hypothesis.

Inferential Statistics

 It refers to the process of describing the characteristics of the population using

the sample.

 It is a process of making inferences and predictions about a population based on

a sample of data taken from the population under investigation.

Population

 It refers to the totality of objects, individuals, or reactions having common

characteristics

 It includes all members of a defined group that is subject for investigation.

Sample

 It refers to the representative of the population

Parameter

 It refers to the numerical characteristics of the Population

Statistic

 It refers to the numerical characteristics of the Sample

Variable

 It refers to the observable characteristics of objects or persons under

investigation

Types of Variables According to Category

 Categorical or Qualitative Variable

 Quantitative Variable

Qualitative Variable

 Expressed in words

Quantitative Variables

 Expressed in numbers

Types of Variables According to Counting

 Discrete Variable
 Continuous Variable

Discrete Variable

 A variable that can only take on a certain number of values. It has a fixed or
countable number of observation.

Continuous Variable

 A variable with infinite number of values, like “time” or “weight”.

 Variables that are obtained by using measuring instruments
 The values are approximation of the actual values

Types of Variables According to Relationship

 Independent Variable
 Dependent Variable

Independent Variable

 The variables that are used in predicting

 Variables that can stand alone
 Variables that causes the other variables to change or vary
Dependent Variable

 The variables that are predicted

 Variables that cannot stand alone
 Variables that may vary due to the changes or variation of the other variables

Other Types of Variables

Latent Variable: A hidden variable that cannot be measured or observed directly. It is

measured through its manifestations.

Manifest Variable: A variable that can be measured or observed directly.

Categorical variable: A variable than can be put into categories.

Endogenous variable: similar to dependent variables, they are affected by other

variables in the system..

Exogenous variable: variables that affect others in the system.

Confounding variable: It is the extra variables that have a hidden effect on your
experimental results.

Control variable: It is a factor in an experiment which must be held constant.

Moderating variable: It changes the strength of an effect between independent and

dependent variables.

Intervening variable: It is variable that is used to explain the relationship between

variables.

Covariate variable: similar to an independent variable, it has an effect on the

dependent variable but is usually not the variable of interest.

Mediating variable: variables that explain how the relationship between variables
happens. For example, it could explain the difference between the predictor and
criterion

Nuisance Variable: an extraneous variable that increase variability overall.

Measurement

 It is the assignment of numerals according to specified rules

 It is the process of translating qualitative variables into quantitative variables
 It refers to the categorizing of quantifiable variables. It describes the nature of
information within the numbers assigned to variables.

Levels of Measurement

 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio

Nominal

 Numbers are used in giving descriptions or classifications

 Numbers do not have numerical values
 The assigned numbers are not according to magnitude

Ordinal

 Numbers are used in giving ranks or orders

 It does not establish a uniform unit in the scale
 It does not measure the degree of differences between any two classes

Interval

 It establishes a uniform unit in the scale

 It measures the degree of differences between any two classes
 There is no absolute zero

Ratio

 It has an absolute zero

 It can be plotted in a straight line
 it allows comparison such as the ratio and proportion.
 It is the measurement scale used in Physical Sciences
II. Collection of Data

Collection of Data

 It is the process of obtaining the necessary information in an investigation

Methods of Collecting Data

 Interview Method (Direct and Indirect Method)

 Questionnaire Method
 Empirical Observation Method (Participant and Non-Participant Observation)
 Test Method
 Registration Method
 Mechanical Devices
 Experiment Method
 Social Media
 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
 Key Informant Interview (KII)

Interview Method

 It is considered as one of the most effective methods in collecting data

 The interview must be conducted by well-trained interviewers.
 It is expensive and need longer time

Direct Interview Method

 There is a face to face interaction between the interviewer and interviewee

Indirect Interview Method

 The interviewer uses communication gadgets in interviewing participants such as

telephone, mobile phone, etc.

Questionnaire Method

 It uses survey questionnaire in getting information from the participants of the

study
 It is less expensive and can be accomplished in shorter time
 The questionnaire must be checked and validated thoroughly
Empirical Observation Method

 It is commonly used in psychological and anthropological study

 It gathers data through the use of the human senses: seeing, touching, smelling,
tasting, and hearing.
 Ethical considerations must be considered

Participant Observation Method

 The observer is actively engaging or participating in the group while conducting

the observation

Non-Participant Observation Method

 The observer is a by-stander

Test Method

 It uses standard test or psychological tests in order to get data

 The test questionnaire shall undergo validity and reliability testing

Registration Method

 It refers to the data obtained from a certain office or agency.

 The data collected using the registration method is called secondary data
 The credibility of the source is very important in establishing the reliability and
validity of the data

Mechanical Devices

 It refers to the use of mechanical devices in collecting information, such as

camera, projector, x-ray machines, satellites, etc.

Experiment Method

 It refers to collecting information by controlling some variables

 Not all experiment is conducted inside the laboratory
III. Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques

 It is the process of obtaining representatives of the Population

Types of Sampling Techniques

 Probability or Random Sampling Technique

 Non-Probability or Nonrandom Sampling Technique

Probability Sampling Technique

 Every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the
study

Non-Probability Sampling Technique

 Every member of the population does not have an equal chance of being
included in the study

Types of Probability Sampling Technique

 Simple Random Sampling

 Systematic Random Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling Technique

Simple Random Sampling

 It is the simplest way of doing random sampling

 It ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance to be
included in the study

Methods of Simple Random Sampling

 Lottery Method (Fish bowl Technique)

 Table of Random Numbers
 Using the Random Key of the Calculator
 Using Computer

Systematic Random Sampling

 It is the process of using a number to be used as fixed interval in the list of

participants.
 It is also known as the nth element sampling technique
Formula: nth element = Population size / sample size

eg. N = 400, n = 40 ; then

nth element = 400 / 40

= 10

 It means that, every 10th person in the list will be taken until 40 participants
is reached.

Stratified Random Sampling Technique

 It is used if the appropriate number of participants in every cluster or group is

needed.
 It is done by dividing the population into categories or strata and drawing the
members at random proportionate to each stratum or sub-group.

Assuming 50 Mothers is needed out of the 500 mothers in a certain Barangay.

Purok No. of Mothers Sample size

1 200 20
2 200 20
3 100 10
Total 500 50

First, compute the appropriate proportion.

Proportion = sample size / Population size

Proportion = 50 / 500
= 0.10

Second, multiply the proportion to the number of mothers per purok

Purok 1: 200 x 0.10 = 20 mothers

Purok 2: 200 x 0.10 = 20 mothers
Purok 3: 100 x 0.10 = 10 mothers
Total 50 mothers
Non-Probability Sampling Technique

 Every member of the population does not have an equal chance of being
included in the study

Types of Non-Probability Sampling Technique

 Purposive Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling

Purposive Sampling

 The respondents are selected based on their knowledge about the topics under
investigation

Convenience Sampling

 The selection of the respondents is based on the researcher’s prerogative

 The researcher resorts to the easiest and convenient way of collecting
information

Quota Sampling

 It is the counterpart of the stratified sampling technique

 It is unnecessary to make the number of respondents per group in proportionate
 The researcher will just determine the number of participants needed

Snowball Sampling

 It is also known as the referral method

 It is used if there are no available list of the target participants.
IV. Methods of Presenting Data

 Tabular Method
 Textural Method
 Semi-tabular Method
 Graphical Presentation

Tabular Method

 The use of tables in presenting data

Textural Method

 The use of texts or words in presenting data

Semi-tabular Method

 It is the combination of the tabular and the textural method

Graphical Presentation

 It uses graphs, illustrations, and diagrams in presenting data

Commonly Used Type of Graphs

 Bar Graph
 Histogram
 Pie Chart/ Circle Graph
 Stem-and-Leaf
 Line Graph
 Scatter Plot