HIGHWAY

ENGINEERING
ECG354
CHAPTER 2
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
STUDIES

CONTENT:

2.1 speed studies, analysis and application- spot

speed studies, running speed, space mean
speed, design speed, operating speed and
speed limit
2.2 Traffic volume characteristics, flow rate,
highway capacity and Level of service (LOS)

2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of chapter 2, students should be able to:

 Understand the concept of traffic engineering

 Carry out Spot speed studies and get values of Design
speed, Speed Limit, Median Speed, etc.
 Understand the concept of ADT

 Understand Traffic rate of flow.

 Understand the concept and calculation of Passenger

Car Unit (PCU).
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

• Deals with the planning, geometric design &

traffic operations of roads, street, their
networks & terminals in order to achieve safe
& efficient movements of goods, people &
services.

4
 The Scope of Traffic Engineering Practice
Divided into 5 major sections:-
i. Traffic Operations – include regulations, traffic
control devices, traffic segregation and channelisation
facilities
ii. Transportation Planning – traffic planning function
include regional studies, long range plan for highway
networks, parking facilities terminals, etc.
iii. Traffic characteristics - Average weight of vehicles,
Average speed of vehicles, Mental limitations of drivers,
their skill, hearing and vision ability, impatience,
ability to follow rules, etc.
iv. Geometric Design – designing new facilities,
upgrading existing highway, etc.
v. Traffic Administration – organization to plan, 5

regulates, control & monitor.

WHY WE NEED TRAFFIC
MEASUREMENT?
 To plan or to improve road or road system
 To know distribution and performance of the
existing traffic
 Measurement on traffic flow and speeds
 Most needed for traffic planning studies
 The various function of traffic engineering is
implemented with the help of Engineering,
Enforcement and Education (3 E’s)
MICROSCOPIC VS. MACROSCOPIC MEASURES
Microscopic measures: individual vehicle
1. Time headway: hi (sec/veh)
2. Space headway: si (ft/veh or km/veh)
3. Speed of individual vehicle: ui (mi/hr or
km/hr)
Macroscopic measures: average of n vehicles
1. Flow: q (veh/hr or vph)
q = uk
2. Density: k (veh/mi or veh/km)
3. Speed: u (mi/hr or km/hr)
MICROSCOPIC MEASURES: INDIVIDUAL VEHICLE

Time headway: hi (sec/veh)

It is defined as the time between successive vehicles past a
point. We measure the headway between two vehicles when the
front bumper of the first vehicle crosses the reference point, and
subsequently recording the time that the second vehicle’s front
bumper crosses over the designated point.

Space headway: si (km/veh)

Distance between the front bumper of the leading vehicle
and the front bumper of the following vehicle.
MACROSCOPIC MEASURES: AVERAGE OF N VEHICLE
Speed : u (km/hr)
the distance it travels per unit of time

Flow: q (veh/hr or vph)

Define as the number of vehicles passing a specific
reference point on a road section within a specified period
of time.

Density: k (veh/mi or veh/km)

 the number of vehicles occupying in a given length of

roadway or a lane
 TRAFFIC
SURVEY & DATA
ANALYSIS
 Traffic Survey Methods for
Speed Studies & Volume

Information from traffic survey data used for:-

i. Intersection design

ii. Evaluate the effectiveness of before-and after

upgrading of the road (road safety & delay)

iii. Economic justification for new road construction or

upgrading.
 Choice of traffic data collection technique depends on:-

i. Data usage
ii. The accuracy required
iii. The cost occur (economic)
iv. Indirectly – size of the traffic study, which may be
done manually/automatically.

 Period of count – the durations of count requirement

 12 hour counts start from 7 a.m. – 7 p.m.

 16 hour counts start from 6 a.m. – 10 p.m.
 24 hour counts start from mid-night to mid-night.
SPOT SPEED
STUDIES
SPOT SPEED STUDIES 60
 Study of speed of traffic at one point
or spot on a traffic way km/j
 Aims – 110
1. To estimate the speed distribution of
the traffic stream 80
2. to determine the enforceable speed km/j
limits
km/j
90
30
km/j
km/j
PURPOSE:

1. Establish posted speed limits Traffic is free-

2. Observe speed trends flowing, usually
3. Collect basic data off-peak hours

4. Response to citizen complaints

→ reflects the nature of complaints

Time of day & duration

 Duration at least 1 hour and the sample size is at

least 30 vehicles.
WHERE TO MAKE SPEED SPOT STUDIES?

 If not state a specified requirement of spot speed

study, avoid the following location which cause
accelerating/decelerating of vehicles;
 Traffic signal or junction
 Insersection
 Work zone
 Curve
 Active crosswalk.
 HIGH ACCIDENT FREQUENCY PURPOSES:
• At points where the installation of traffic signals & traffic
signs is contemplated.
• Other locations that important for traffic operations.
1. Driver

 including the distance of the trip, the

number of passengers & driver’s age

vs
.
 2. Vehicle

 including type, age, weight, manufacturer & horse

power

vs
.
 3. The
Roadway
 Including the graphic location, type, grade,
sight distance, number of lanes, frequency &
spacing of intersections.

vs
.
 4. Traffic

 including volume, density, passing movements,

speed regulations, no. of heavy vehicles.

vs
 5. Environment

 including time of day, month, season & weather

vs
.

22
 Application of Spot Speed Data (Cont.)

• Speed is a primary factor in all modes of transportation & it

is a basic measure of traffic performance. Spot speed data
have many application such as:-

i. For trends in the operating speeds of the different

vehicle types, which are obtained from data collected
through periodic sampling at the selected locations.
ii. For speed at the problem locations, to determine
whether speeds are too high & if complaints received
are justified.
 Application of Spot Speed Data (Cont.)

iii. For traffic operation:-

 Establish speed limits

Determining safe speeds at curves

iv. For geometric design features

v. Research studies
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
FOR SPOT SPEED STUDIES

1. Road detectors
2. Radar speed meter
Or Sonic detector
3. Time laps camera
MANUAL

 To observe the time required by a vehicle to

cover a short distance.
 With the direct timing procedure.
 The reference points are located at a roadway
at a fixed distance apart.
 Observer starts & stops a stopwatch as a
vehicle enters & leaves the test sections.
 It is most uncomplicated way.
 Disadvantages – parallax effect.
 MANUAL METHOD?

Stopwatch
Measuring Tape

SPEED UNIT ?

km Distance
hr Time
 200m

0 sec
8 sec

Speed = distance/time
= 200m/8sec
V = 25m/s = 90kph
 AUTOMATIC METHOD
1. ROAD DETECTORS

Classified into two general categories:

a)An inductive loop

rectangular wire loop buried

under the roadway surface.
b) Pneumatic road tubes

 two tubes laid across the lane

 an impulse is recorded when the front wheels pass over the first
tube, second impulse is recorded when the front wheels pass over
the second tube.
 time elapsed between the two impulses & distance between the
tubes are used to compute the speed.
 Advantages :
a) human errors are reduced
b) accurate results
c) not required specialized
d) portable

 Disadvantages:
a) devices rather expensive
b) vandalism
c) wear & tear
d) may disrupts traffic during installation
e) street cleaners and snow ploughs
2. RADAR SPEED METER METHOD

 Using reflected waves.

 transmit signal onto a moving
vehicle
 The wave which is directly
measurable is proportional to the
speed at which the vehicle is
moving.
 change in frequency between
transmitted signal & reflected signal
= speed.
 Operating distance about 45m.
Advantages disadvantages

 Easy to use  Difficult for two-

 Portable lane road
 Reduced the  Expensive
influence on driver  Experienced
behavior personal needed
 Freedom from (for permanent
vehicular damage type)
 No electromagnetic
interference
HOW THE RADAR SPEED METER FUNCTIONED…

A position was selected

from where the drivers will
not be aware that their
speeds are being recorded

The speeds of the vehicles

will appear on the radar
meter & will be recorded on
the field data sheet
SONIC-DETECTOR METHOD

 Similar to radar speed meter but using

ultrasonic tone (18 -20 kHz)
 Output in current voltage that is proportional
to vehicle speed.
 Advantages/disadvantages proportion to
radar speed meter.
ELECTRONIC-PRINCIPLE DETECTORS
EX: TIME-LAPS CAMERA METHOD

 Vehicles is detected through electronic means.

 Traffic characteristics can be obtained – speed,
volume, queues & headways.
 Consists of an electronic camera &
microprocessor.
TIME-LAPS CAMERA METHOD (CONT.)

 For a very crowded highways.

 Photograph taken at every
fixed interval of time.

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
 Permanent visual  Time required
record is obtained  Expense involved for
processing film & analyzing
data
DEFINATIONS:

Speed
Rate of movement of a vehicle expressed in (km/h)

distance
time

Average Spot Speed

The arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds at a
specific point

 speed
n no. of observation
Overall Travel Time
The time of travel including stops & delays.

Overall Travel Speed/Journey Speed

The speed over a specified section of highway. Summation of
distance divided by the summation of overall travel time.

Operating Speed
the highest overall speed a driver can travel under a favorable
weather condition without exceeds the speed limits.

Running Speed
the average speed maintained over a particular distance which the
vehicle is in motion.  distance
 (time travel – time delay)
Running Delay
Delay caused by interference between components of
traffic (stream flow, parking)

Design Speed

 the speed determined for design as related to the

physical features of a highway that might influence
vehicle operation.
 the max safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of highway when conditions are so
favorable.
Time Mean Speed
The arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles passing a point during
a specified interval of time.

Time mean speed, Ut =  speed

n

Space mean speed

The arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles occupying a relatively
long section of street or highway at a given instant. It also equals
the average speeds over a length of roadway.
Space mean speed, Us = distance
mean time
Mean time =
 ₍ distance
speed
₍
n
Median Speed P50
Middle values when all speed values are arrayed in ascending
order

Modal Speed/mode
Speed value with the highest frequency of observations.

Standard Deviation
Which measure of the spread of the individual speeds.

Pace
Pace is the speed range increment in speed within the highest
frequency of vehicle travel. For some increment of speed (usually
10km/h) which contains the most vehicles
EXAMPLE 2.1:
Evaluate journey & running speeds for the following
situation & interpret the result:

Total travel time including delay due to traffic = 32 minutes

Total delays at each junction: J1 = 5 min, J2 = 5 min, J3 = 3

min, J4 = 4 min, & J5 = 6 min.
Answer:
Average Journey Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min) /32 min = 15 km/h.
Average Running Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min)/(32 – 23)min = 53.3 km/h.

Interpretation:
Since Journey speed < running speed  drivers experience
heavy traffic flow & inefficient traffic control system at
junctions. System requires improvements.
 EXAMPLE 2.2: TIME-MEAN SPEED & SPACE-MEAN SPEED

Get 4 cars traveling from point A to Point B about 2 km lengths,

with speed 40 km/hr, 50 km/hr, 60 km/hr & 80 km/hr. Calculate
the time-mean speed & space-mean speed.
 Time mean speed, Ut =  speed = 40 + 50+ 60 + 80 = 57.5 km/hr
n 4

Space mean speed, Us = distance

mean time

Mean time =
₍ distance
speed
n
₍
=
₍ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
40 50
4
60 80
₍ = 0.0371 hr

Space mean speed, Us = 2 / 0.371 = 53.93 km/hr

 Spot Speed Studies
Analysis and presentationof data

where:

f : frequency of observation
v : mean speed
n : number of observation
where:

n : total number of observation

L : lower bound of the median group
fL : cumulative number of observation up to the lower
bound of the group in which median has
fm : number of observation in the group in which median
lies
C : speed interval of the group
where:

f : frequency of observation
v : mean speed
n : number of observation
GRAPH

• Frequency histogram (3 vs 1)
Value may be obtain - Mode speed

• Frequency distribution curve (5 vs 2)

Value may be obtain – Pace

• Cumulative frequency curve (6 vs 2)

Value may be obtain - P95, P85, P50, P15
ANALYSIS OF DATA
1. 95TH percentile – design speed
2. 85th percentile – measure the upper limit of
speed distribution. Also known as speed limit.
3. 50th percentile - a center of distribution.
Middle value when all speed values are arrayed
in ascending order. Divided the distribution
into two sections. ½ vehicles faster than this
speed and ½ travel slower. Also known as
median speed.
4. 15th percentile – measure the lower limit of
speed distribution. The slower vehicles whose
speed may be causing interference within the
traffic stream
EXAMPLE
 A spot speed study was conducted on a stretch of urban road
for duration of one hour. The resulting data is tabulated as
follows. Calculate the arithmetic mean, median, mode and
standard deviation for the data set.

Speed (km/hr) Frequency

10 – 19 4
 F
20 – 29 7
30 – 39 13
F
40 – 49 28


50 – 59 78
60 – 69 68
 F
70 – 79 66
80 – 89 48
 F 90 – 99 22
 SOLUTIONS:
Speed Mid- Number of Percentage of Cumulative fv fv²
(km/hr) speed ,v Observations Observations Percentage of
(km/hr) ,f ,% Observations,
%

10 – 19 14.5 4 1.198 1.198 58 841

20 – 29 24.5 7 2.096 3.294 171.5 4201.75

30 – 39 34.5 13 3.892 7.186 448.5 15473.25

40 – 49 44.5 28 8.383 15.569 1246 55447

50 – 59 54.5 78 23.353 38.922 4251 231679.5

60 – 69 64.5 68 20.359 59.281 4386 282897

70 – 79 74.5 66 19.760 79.041 4917 366316.5

80 – 89 84.5 48 14.371 93.412 4056 342732

90 – 99 94.5 22 6.587 100 2079 196465.5

TOTAL 334 100 21613 1496053.5

Arithmetic mean speed, v

v = 64.71 km/hr
Median speed, v

= 64.9 km/hr

Standard deviation, s

= 17.11 km/hr
FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM &
DISTRIBUTION CURVE
FREQUENCY VERSUS SPEED HISTOGRAM
90 Frequency distribution curve
80
70
FREQUENCY

60
50 Pace = 53 km/hr – 63 km/hr

40
30
20
10
0
4.5 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5 104.5
SPEED(km/hr)
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE
FREQUENCY CURVE (OGIVES)
120
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE

100
P95
FREQUENCY (%)

80 P85

60
P50
40
76.5 km/hr
20 59.5 km/hr
P15
45 km/hr
90 km/hr
0
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5
SPEED (km/hr)
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE
FREQUENCY CURVE (OGIVES)
120
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE

100
P95
FREQUENCY (%)

80 P85

60
P50
40
76.5 km/hr
20 59.5 km/hr
P15
45 km/hr
90 km/hr
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
SPEED (km/hr)
ANALYSIS OF VALUES:
 Central tendency or known as average speed,
Arithmetic mean speed = 64.71 km/hr
 Central tendency, is that speed below which 50% of
vehicles are moving, Median speed = 64.9 km/hr
 Value with highest frequency of observation, Mode
speed = 54.5 km/hr
 A measure of dispersion, Standard deviation = 17.11
km/hr
 The speed range Pace = 53 km/hr – 63 km/hr
ANALYSIS OF VALUES:
 Design speed, P95 = 90 km/hr
 The upper limit of speed distribution. Also known
as speed limit, P85 = 76.5 km/hr
 A center of distribution. Middle value when all
speed values are arrayed in ascending order.
Divided the distribution into two sections. ½
vehicles faster than this speed and ½ travel
slower. Also known as median speed. P50 = 59.5
km/hr
 The lower limit of speed distribution. The slower
vehicles whose speed may be causing interference
within the traffic stream , P15 = 45 km/hr
Exercise 2.3: Calculate arithmetic mean speed, standard deviation, median
and mode. Draw frequency histogram, distribution curve, and cummulative
distribution curve.
Speed Mean Frequen v² f.v f. v ² % of % cumulative
group speed,v cy, f frequency frequency

10-14.9 12.5 0 156.25 0 0 0.00 0.00

15-19.9 17.5 6 306.25 105 1837.5 2.00 2.00

20-24.9 22.5 8 506.25 180 4050 2.67 4.67

25-29.9 27.5 29 756.25 797.5 21931.25 9.67 14.44

30-34.9 32.5 60 1056.25 1950 63375 20.00 34.33

35-39.9 37.5 63 1406.25 2362.5 88593.75 21.00 55.33

40-44.9 42.5 74 1806.25 3145 133622.5 24.67 80.00

45-49.9 47.5 29 2256.25 1377.5 65431.25 9.67 89.67

50-54.9 52.5 19 2756.25 997.5 52368.75 6.33 96.00

55-59.9 57.5 10 3306.25 575 33062.5 3.33 99.33

60-64.9 62.5 2 3906.25 125 7812.5 0.67 100.00

65-69.9 67.5 0 4556.25 0 0 0.00

Total = 300 22775 11615 472125

ANSWER:
∑𝑓.𝑣 11615
Arithmetic mean speed = = = 38.72km/h
𝑛 300

𝑛 300
[ − 𝐹𝐿 ] −103
Median = L + 2
× 𝐶 = 35 + 2
× 4.9 =38.66km/h
𝐹𝑚 63

Standard deviation
472125 116152
√ [ 299 − 300 299
] = 8.66km/h

Mode = 40km/h to 44km/h

 EXAMPLE 2.4

1. The raw data in Table 1 were obtained using a radar speed meter for 50 cars in km/hr at
Persiaran Idaman. Calculate the arithmetic mean speed, median speed, modal speed, and the
standard deviation for the data set.
Table 1
73 73 79 67 71 82 79 82 78 84
74 83 70 78 80 73 70 76 71 68
70 68 68 85 75 68 72 82 82 88
71 65 69 73 78 69 75 67 65 85
83 61 67 73 84 65 69 68 78 75
(10 Marks)
TRAFFIC VOLUME
STUDIES
• Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data
on the number of vehicles that pass a point on a
highway facility during a specified time period.
 Time period – little as 15 min to as much as a year,
depends on the use of the data.
 Data collected – put into subclasses.
APPLICATION OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA
1. To investigate traffic flow trend over time for
planning purposes.
2. To assess potential impacts including traffic and
environment impact due to new development
3. To evaluate performance of traffic control
system after implementation of purpose
upgrading
4. To calibrate the basic mathematical model
relationships or parameter such lane utilization
 Method of
measurement for
traffic volume

Manual automatic
 MANUAL METHOD
 Involves 1/more persons recording observed vehicles using a
counter.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Not required specialized  Labour-intensive- can be expensive

 Accurate results  Limitations of human factors
 Easy to observed types of
vehicles  Cannot be use for long periods
counting
TYPICAL
TRAFFIC
VOLUME
SURVEY
FORM
 AUTOMATIC METHOD

PNEUMATIC ROAD TUBE AND RECORDER

• Laying of surface detectors (pneumatic road tubes) or subsurface

detectors (magnetic or electric contact devices) on the road. (365
days)
• Detect the passing vehicle & transmit the information to a
recorder.

Advantages;
a) not required specialized
b) accurate results

Disadvantages;
a) wear & tear
b) disrupts traffic during installation
ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC
DATA

TRAFFIC VOLUME
Definition of traffic flow or volume (q)

 Define as the number of vehicles passing a specific

reference point on a road section within a specified
period of time.

Typical units:
 vehicles/hour (hourly traffic)

 vehicles/day (daily traffic),

 vehicles/year (annual traffic), etc

TYPES OF TRAFFIC DAILY VOLUME
 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
Average 24 hour volume over a year
 Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)
Average 24 hr volume occurring on weekdays over a
year
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Same as AADT, but average over period less than a
year, say, a month
 Average Weekday Traffic (AWT)
Same as AAWT, but average over period less than a
year, say, a month
 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES
 Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the
number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway facility
during a specified time period.
 Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain
volume characteristics are needed:-

a) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

 is the average of 24 hr. counts collected every day in the

year.
 AADT are used in several traffic & transportation analysis: such
as estimation of highway revenue establishment traffic volume
trends
 b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

 Is the average of 24 hr. counts collected over a number

of days >1 but <1 year. ADT may be used:-
a) Planning of highway activities.

b) Evaluation of existing traffic flow.

c) Measurement of current demand

However, the direct use of ADT in geometric design is not appropriate because it
does-not indicate the significant variation in the traffic occurring during various
months of the year, days of the week and hours of the day. A more appropriate
measurement is by hourly volume which is used to deter mine the capacity
requirement of the road

Hourly traffic volume

 (i) To determine peak periods

 (ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies

 (iii) To establish traffic controls

 (iv) To determine geometric design parameters

EXAMPLE
Evaluate the following traffic data obtained for 7
consecutive days on a stretch of road section.
Day Traffic volume (veh/day)
Monday 3231
Tuesday 3011
Wednesday 3137
Thursday 3247
Friday 3065
Saturday 3240
Sunday 1530
SOLUTION
Day Traffic volume  By definition, the average
(veh/day) volume of 2923 veh/day can
Monday 3231 be reported as the ADT or
Tuesday 3011 the Average Daily Traffic
for the road.
Wednesday 3137
 But, certain traffic analyst
Thursday 3247
may remove the data
Friday 3065 taken on Sunday because
Saturday 3240 we have 6 data points with
Sunday 1530 more than 3000 & only 1
data is much lesser. ADT is
Average= total traffic /7 not representative.
= 20461/7  The reported ADT would
=2923 veh/day be
 = 18931/6 = 3155 veh/day
 Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

 PEAK HOUR VOLUME (PHV) – is the maximum

number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway
during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.

 PEAK HOUR FACTOR (PHF) – is the volume

observed over the full hour is the sum of four 15-min
volumes comprising the hour.
PHF = Hourly Volume = V
Max. Rate of Flow 4 x V15
Mainly used for urban:
• Highway design (e.g. highway classification, no of
lanes, signalization)
• Traffic management (e.g. capacity analysis,
parking)
EXAMPLE 2.4

 Determine
(a) the hourly volume,
(b) the peak rate of flow within the hour (𝑉15 )
(c) the peak hour factor (PHF)

Time Period Volume

8:00 – 8:15 AM 1000
8:15 – 8:30 AM 1100
8:30 – 8:45 AM 1200
8:45 – 9:00 AM 900
 Time Period Volume
8:00 – 8:15 AM 1000
8:15 – 8:30 AM 1100
8:30 – 8:45 AM 1200
8:45 – 9:00 AM 900
V= 4200 veh/h

ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 4200

PHF =𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 4×𝑉15
= 4×1200
= 0.875
VOLUME CHARACTERISTICS

1)

2)

3)

4)
1) Traffic Flow

• Three basis of traffic flow:

1. Hourly
The traffic flow mostly for a day – traffic
volume varies from hour to hour.
2. Daily
Distribution of traffic flow every day from
Sunday to Saturday in a week.
3. Monthly
Distribution of traffic flow for each month
from January to December in a year
a) Hourly Volume Characteristic

Figure 1: Weekday & Weekend Flow

 Figure 1 is a typical hourly volume characteristic of a two-
lane trunk road of a weekday.
 The graph shows that the daily time pattern has a wide
variation in traffic volume over the 24-hours period.
 About 75 % of the daily travel occurs in the 12-hour period
from 7.00 a.m. to 7.00 p.m..
 There are two distinct daytime peaks resulting from the
repetitive travel from home to centers of employment or
business.
 The morning peak is about 8.00 a.m. & the evening
peak is around 5.00 p.m.
b) Daily Volume Characteristics

Figure 2: The Average Daily Flow in a Week

 Figure 2 shows the pattern of a daily traffic volume.
 Generally there is a very little different in traffic flow on each
weekday.
 But traffic on Saturday & Sunday are very considerably
different.
 The weekday variation is negligible because most trips
are home to work trips, while as Saturday & Sunday is
public holiday.
 The flow pattern is able to give some indication the activities
of the trip makers.
 Daily counts may be approximated from 16-hour counts by
adding 7-8% of the 16-hour counts.
 A peak hour volume may be approximated by adding 10% to
the 16-hour counts.
c) Annually Volume Characteristic

 Figure 3 shows an increase of traffic volume year by year.

 Rate of annual variation of different class of vehicle are
different.
 Cars & motorcycles always show the highest rate of growth
as compared to the other vehicle types.
 Thus increase in traffic is mainly due to the increase in
vehicles.
 The average kilometers in a year for every vehicle are almost
constant.

Figure 3: The Vehicle Annually Flow

 2) DURATION OF TRAFFIC COUNT
I. The classified volume count for calibration of
equipment normally 1 hour count
II. The classified and directional volume count at
the intersection for traffic operation studies at
peak hours is usually between 1 to 3 hours
III. The classified and directional count on roads
may be used for traffic management assessment
exercises, period count is 12 hours
IV. For planning purposes 16 to 24 hours.
3) TRAFFIC COMPOSITION

vehicles can be grouped into six (6) categories:

a) motor cycles
b) cars and taxis
c) light vans and utility vehicles
d) medium lorries (2 axle)
e) heavy lorries (3 or more axles)
f) buses

Vehicles of different sizes and weights have different operating

characteristics, which must be considered in geometric design.
Commercial vehicles generally are heavier, slower and occupy
more roadway space and give a greater traffic effect on the
road than the passenger vehicles.
 AXLE
• Single axle has sole set of wheels
• 18,000 lb (80 kN) equivalent single axle load

2 AXLE

3 AXLE

4 AXLE

5 AXLE
 4) Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

• The standard unit of measurement which is designed to give the

effect of an equivalent numbers of passenger cars.

• Size of transportation involved influence the number of traffic on a

stretch of road.

• A vehicle is converted into an Equivalent Passenger Car unit (PCU)

For consistency in interpreting road traffic performance, congestion,
road geometry and traffic signal analysis and design.

• Conversation factor from vehicle types to PCU for various types of

vehicles at different locations are given in .
 Source: Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86, JKR

VEHICLE EQUIVALENT VALUE IN PCU’S

CLASSIFICATION Rural Urban Roundabout Traffic
Roads Roads Design Signal
Design
Passenger Cars 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Pedal Cycles 0.50 0.33 0.20 0.20
Motor Cycles 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.33
Light Vans 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Medium Lorries 2.50 2.50 2.80 1.75
Heavy Lorries 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25
Buses 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25

Table: Conversion Factors of Passenger Car Unit (pcu)

From Table of Conversion Factors of Passenger Car Unit (pcu) - Rural
Roads

1 Bus = 3 Passenger Cars

From Table of Conversion Factors of Passenger Car Unit (pcu) - Rural
Roads

1 Medium Lorry = 2.5 Passenger Cars

EXAMPLE 2.4

Traffic volume study was conducted for 1 hour at a

roundabout. Convert the following data in the table below to
PCU per hour.
Vehicles Veh/h Pcu value PCU/h
Passenger 1568
Cars
Vans 572
Heavy 199
Lorries
Motorcycles 666
Buses 97
TOTAL
SOLUTION:

Refer to Table of Conversion Factors of Passenger Car Unit (pcu) –

Roundabout Design

Vehicle No. of PCU PCU/hr

veh/hr Value
Passenger Cars 1568 1.00 1568
Vans 572 2.00 1144
Heavy Lorries 199 2.80 557.2
Motorcycles 666 0.75 499.5
Buses 97 2.80 271.6
TOTAL 3102 4040.3

This means that traffic volume 3102 veh/hr has the same
Effect in relation to space usage as 4040.3 PCU/hr
 Exercise: PCU/HR TO VEH/HR
Convert saturation traffic flow from pcu/hr to veh/hr. Assume that
traffic flow in a road heading towards a junction is 1972 pcu/hr.

Vehicle Percentage PCU No. of veh/h Veh/h

(%) value

Car/taxi 58 1.00 Q 0.58Q

Motorcycle 9 0.33 Q 0.03Q

Bus 4 2.25 Q 0.09Q

Lorry 12 1.75 Q 0.21Q

Truck 7 2.25 Q 0.16Q

Van 10 2.00 Q 0.20Q

TOTAL 1.27Q

1972 pcu/h = 1.27Q veh/h

Q = 1553 veh/h
 Design Volume
 The volume of traffic estimated to use the road during the design year,
which is taken as 20 years after the completion of the road.
 Considerations should be given to the traffic expected to use the facilities.

Service Volume
 The maximum volume of traffic that a designed road would be able to
serve without undue congestion falling below prescribed level of service
(LOS) at the time the traffic is at design hourly volume.

Highway Capacity

• Measured by its ability to accommodate traffic & usually

expressed as number of vehicles that can pass a given point in a
certain period of time at a given speed. Highway capacity is
usually stated in terms of passenger car unit (pcu).
Level of Service (LOS)

 Is a term used to classify the varying conditions of traffic

flow that take place on highway.
 The various level of service range from the highest level, which
is found at a flow where drivers are able to travel at their
desired speed with freedom to maneuver, to the lowest level of
service which is obtained during congested stop-start
conditions.
 LOS concept can be simplified into volume to capacity ratio
(V/C) for the purpose of design ranging from 0 to 1.
 The LOS will drop when the volume to capacity ratio (V/C)
approaching 1.
 It may be used as a ‘yardstick’ to indicate the status of the
highway in terms of its service volume.
 Each road has its own capacity depending
on:
a) speed
b) travel time
c) safety
d) traffic interruption

 LOS = volume/capacity
LEVELS OF SERVICE
LOS A
- Free-flow operation
- Low volume & density
- High speed
- Little or no delay

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

LOS B
- Reasonably free flow
- Ability to maneuver is only
slightly restricted
- Effects of minor incidents still
easily absorbed
LEVELS OF SERVICE
LOS C
- Speeds at or near FFS
- Presence of other vehicles begin
to restrict maneuverability
within the traffic stream
- Queues may form behind any
significant blockage.

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

LOS D
- Speeds decline slightly with
increasing flows
- Density increases more quickly
- Freedom to maneuver is more
noticeably limited
- Minor incidents create queuing
 LEVELS OF SERVICE
LOS E
- Operation near or at capacity
- No usable gaps in the traffic
stream
- Operations extremely volatile
- Any disruption causes queuing

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

LOS F
- Breakdown in flow
- Queues form behind
breakdown points
- Demand > capacity

Adapted from Steve Muench, 2006 slides

 Relationship of Level of Service (LOS) to Operating
Speed & Volume/Capacity Ratio (V/C)

Operating Free Flow

Speed Stable Flow
Approaching
A Unstable Flow
B
C E
D
Unstable Flow
Forced Flow F

0 1.0 Volume/
Capacity
Ratio
LOS Remarks

A Free Flow with low volumes, densities and high speeds.

Drivers can maintain their desired speed with little or no delay.
B Stable Flow. Operating speeds beginning to be restricted
somewhat controlled by higher volumes. Acceptable delay.
C Stable Flow, speeds and maneuverability are more closely
controlled by higher volumes. Acceptable delay.
D Approaching Unstable Flow. Tolerable operating speeds which
are considerably affected by operating conditions. Tolerable
delay.
E Unstable Flow. Yet lower operating speeds and perhaps
stoppages of momentary duration. Volumes are at or near
capacity congestion and tolerable delay.
F Forced Flow. Speeds and volume can drop to zero. Stoppages
can occur for long periods. Queues of vehicles backing up from,
a restriction downstream.
RELATIONSHIP OF LOS TO
SPEED & VOLUME/CAPACITY
THANK YOU