Masud_ EEE-DU_ 11-12_FH-38

Md. Masud Rana

Dept. Of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
University Of Dhaka.
Session: 2011-2012; Roll-F.H.38 Radio and TV Engineering

Fundamentals of Television
(Scanning, Synchronization, Video signals etc.)
Class lectures – Vol – 6
 Describe in brief the basic elements of a television (TV) system.
 Television system:
The elements of a simple broadcast monochrome television system are:

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1. An image source. This is the electrical signal representing the visual image,
and may be from a professional video camera in the case of live television, a
video tape recorder for playback of recorded images, or telecine with a flying
spot scanner for the transfer of motion pictures to video).
2. A sound source. This is an electrical signal from a microphone or from the
audio output of a video tape recorder.
3. A transmitter, which generates radio signals (radio waves) and encodes them
with picture and sound information.
4. A television antenna coupled to the output of the transmitter for broadcasting
the encoded signals.
5. A television antenna to receive the broadcast signals.
6. A receiver (also called a tuner), which decodes the picture and sound
information from the broadcast signals, and whose input is coupled to the
antenna of the television set.
7. A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visual images.
8. An audio amplifier and loudspeaker, which turns electrical signals into sound
waves (speech, music, and other sounds) to accompany the images.

 Describe the scanning mechanism in TV system to produce

video image.
 Scanning mechanism in TV system:
Video systems form pictures by scanning. The image is divided into a number of
horizontal lines, which are traced in synchronously by the receiver and transmitter.
The North American standard is 525 lines. European standard is 625 lines. To
reproduce an image, the lines must be drawn quickly. The more quickly the lines
are drawn, the less flicker that is present. Scan rates are:
North America = approximately 30 frames per second
Europe = 25 frames per second

 Scanning mechanism in black and white television:

In a black-and-white TV, the screen is coated with white phosphor and the electron
beam "paints" an image onto the screen by moving the electron beam across the
phosphor a line at a time. To "paint" the entire screen, electronic circuits inside the
TV use the magnetic coils to move the electron beam in a "raster scan" pattern

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across and down the screen. The beam paints one line across the screen from left to
right. It then quickly flies back to the left side, moves down slightly and paints
another horizontal line, and so on down the screen.

In the above figure, the blue lines represent lines that the electron beam is
"painting" on the screen from left to right, while the red dashed lines represent the
beam flying back to the left. When the beam reaches the right side of the bottom
line, it has to move back to the upper left corner of the screen, as represented by
the green line in the figure. When the beam is "painting," it is on, and when it is
flying back, it is off so that it does not leave a trail on the screen. The term
horizontal retrace is used to refer to the beam moving back to the left at the end
of each line, while the term vertical retrace refers to its movement from bottom to
top.
As the beam paints each line from left to right, the intensity of the beam is changed
to create different shades of black, gray and white across the screen. Because the
lines are spaced very closely together, our brain integrates them into a single
image. A TV screen normally has about 480 lines visible from top to bottom.
 There are two types of scanning approaches:
1. Progressive (also called sequential) and
2. Interlaced.

 Progressive scanning:
The television picture is scanned in a sequential series of horizontal lines, one
under the other as shown in figure. This scanning makes it possible for one video
signal to include all the elements for the entire picture. At one instant of time, the
video signal can show only one variation. In order to have one video signal for all

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the variations of light and shade, all the picture details are scanned in a sequential
order of time.

Fig: Horizontal Linear Scanning

The scanning makes reproduction of a television picture different from that
of a photographic print. In a photograph, the entire picture is reproduced at one
time. In television, the picture is reassembled line after line and frame after frame.
This time factor explains why a television picture can appear with the line structure
form apart in diagonal segments and the frames rolling up or down the screen.
The TV picture is scanned in the same way as you would read a text page to
cover all the words in one line and all the lines on the page starting at the top left in
figure all the picture elements are scanned in successive order, from left to right
and from top to bottom, one line at a time. This method is called horizontal linear
scanning. It is used in the camera tube at the transmitter to divide the image into
picture elements and in the picture tube at the receiver to reassemble the
reproduced image.
The sequence for scanning all the picture elements is as follows:
1. The electron beam sweeps across one horizontal line, covering all the picture
elements in that line.
2. At the end of each line, the beam returns very quickly to the left side to begin
scanning the next horizontal line. The return time is called retrace, or flyback.
No picture information is scanned during retrace because both the camera tube
and the picture tube are blanked out for this period. Thus the retraces must be
very rapid, since they are wasted time in terms of picture information.
3. When the beam has returned to the left side, its vertical position is lowered so
that the beam will scan the next line down and not repeat the same line. This is

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accomplished by the vertical scanning motion of the beam, which is provided in

addition to horizontal scanning.
As a result of the vertical scanning, all the horizontal lines slope downward slightly
from top to bottom. When the beam is at the bottom, vertical retrace returns the
beam to the top to start the scanning sequence again.

 Interlaced scanning:
Standard TVs use an interlacing technique when painting the screen. In this
technique, the screen is painted 60 times per second but only half of the lines are
painted per frame. The beam paints every other line as it moves down the screen --
for example, every odd-numbered line. Then, the next time it moves down the
screen it paints the even-numbered lines, alternating back and forth between even-
numbered and odd-numbered lines on each pass. The entire screen, in two passes,
is painted 30 times every second.

Fig: Interlaced scanning.

One principal benefit of interlaced scanning is to reduce the scan rate (or the
bandwidth) but less flicker.
Frame rates of 25 or 30 Hz cause flicker. To reduce this, most television
systems use a technique known as interlaced scan, which involves transmitting
alternate lines of the picture, then returning and filling in the missing lines. Each
half of the picture is called a field, with the field rate being twice the frame rate.
The electron beam that traces the picture is blanked during the time intervals in
which the beam retraces its path. The time intervals where blanking takes place are
called the horizontal and vertical blanking intervals.
The composite video signal combines all the picture information, along with
synchronizing pulses. The time duration of one line of a monochrome signal is
63.5 µs, which is the simply the period corresponding to a horizontal-line
frequency of 15.75 kHz. About 10 µs of this is used by the horizontal synch pulse

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The rest of the time represents the variation of brightness (luminance) level along
the line.

 Advantages of Interlaced Scanning:

i. Avoids flicker
ii. It is better than sequential scanning.
iii. Conserves bandwidth.
 What is the differences between progressive scanning and
interlaced scanning?
 Differences between Progressive and Interlaced Scanning:
No: Progressive Scanning Interlaced Scanning
01 In this every successive line is being In this the electron beam first scans odd
scanned. lines from top to bottom and then it
scans the lines those are skipped in the
previous scanning.
02 The effective no: of pictures scanned The effective no: of fields scanned per
per second are 25 frames/sec. second are 50 frames/sec.
03 Flicker problem will occur. Flicker problem is avoided.
04 Total no: of lines scanned at a time Total no: of lines scanned at a time
from top to bottom are 625 lines. from top to bottom are 312 ½ lines.

 Discuss about the structure of a video signal.

 Structure of a video signal:
The video carrier is demodulated to give a composite video signal; this contains
luminance, chrominance and synchronization signals; this is identical to the video
signal format used by analog video devices such as VCRs or CCTV cameras. Note
that the RF signal modulation is inverted compared to the conventional AM: the
minimum video signal level corresponds to maximum carrier amplitude, and vice
versa. To ensure good linearity (fidelity), consistent with affordable manufacturing
costs of transmitters and receivers, the video carrier is never shut off altogether.

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Fig: Video signal.

Each line of the displayed image is transmitted using a signal as shown above. The
same basic format (with minor differences mainly related to timing and the
encoding of color) is used for PAL (Phase alternating line), NTSC and SECAM
(Sequential Color with Memory) television systems. A monochrome signal is
identical to a color one, with the exception that the elements shown in color in the
diagram (the color burst, and the chrominance signal) are not present.
The front porch is a brief (about 1.5 microsecond) period inserted between the end
of each transmitted line of picture and the leading edge of the next line sync pulse.
Its purpose was to allow voltage levels to stabilize in older televisions, preventing
interference between picture lines. The front porch is the first component of the
horizontal blanking interval which also contains the horizontal sync pulse and the
back porch.
The back porch is the portion of each scan line between the end (rising edge) of the
horizontal sync pulse and the start of active video. It is used to restore the black
level (300 mV.) reference in analog video. In signal processing terms, it
compensates for the fall time and settling time following the sync pulse.

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 Monochrome video signal extraction:

The luminance component of a composite video signal varies between 0 V and
approximately 0.7 V above the "black" level. In the NTSC system, there is a
blanking signal level used during the front porch and back porch, and a black
signal level 75 mV above it; in PAL and SECAM these are identical.
In a monochrome receiver the luminance signal is amplified to drive the control
grid in the electron gun of the CRT. This changes the intensity of the electron
beam and therefore the brightness of the spot being scanned. Brightness and
contrast controls determine the DC shift and amplification, respectively.

 How to synchronize the scanning image by a television?

 Synchronization of scanning image:
It is essential that the same coordinates be scanned at any instant both at the
camera tube target plate and at the raster of the picture tube, otherwise, the picture
details would split and get distorted. To ensure perfect synchronization between
the scenes being televised and the picture produced on the raster, synchronizing
pulses are transmitted during the retrace, i.e., fly-back intervals of horizontal and
vertical motions of the camera scanning beam. Thus, in addition to carrying picture
detail, the radiated signal at the transmitter also contains synchronizing pulses.
These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical motion control, are
processed at the receiver and fed to the picture tube sweep circuitry thus ensuring
that the receiver picture tube beam is in step with the transmitter camera tube
beam.
To synchronize the scanning of a scene, two types of pulses are used:

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(i) Horizontal sync at the end of each line

(ii) Vertical sync at the end of each field
Interlaced scan is accomplished by using two slightly different types of vertical
sync—one for odd-numbered and one for even-numbered fields.

 Horizontal synchronization:
The horizontal synchronization pulse, separates the scan lines. The horizontal sync
signal is a single short pulse which indicates the start of every line. The rest of the
scan line follows, with the signal ranging from 0.3 V (black) to 1 V (white), until
the next horizontal or vertical synchronization pulse.
The format of the horizontal sync pulse varies. In the 525-line NTSC (National
television System Committee) system it is a 4.85 µs-long pulse at 0 V. In the 625-
line PAL system the pulse is 4.7 µs synchronization pulse at 0 V. This is lower
than the amplitude of any video signal (blacker than black) so it can be detected by
the level-sensitive "sync stripper" circuit of the receiver.

 Vertical synchronization
For the graphic option provided by video games, see Frame rate and Refresh rate.
Vertical synchronization separates the video fields. In PAL and NTSC, the vertical
sync pulse occurs within the vertical blanking interval. The vertical sync pulses are
made by prolonging the length of HSYNC pulses through almost the entire length
of the scan line.
The vertical sync signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a
new field. The sync pulses occupy the whole of line interval of a number of lines at
the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during
vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to
continue during vertical retrace; it also indicates whether each field represents even
or odd lines in interlaced systems (depending on whether it begins at the start of a
horizontal line, or mid-way through).
The format of such a signal in 525-line NTSC is:
 pre-equalizing pulses (6 to start scanning odd lines, 5 to start scanning
even lines)
 long-sync pulses (5 pulses)
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 post-equalizing pulses (5 to start scanning odd lines, 4 to start scanning

even lines)
Each pre- or post- equalizing pulse consists in half a scan line of black signal: 2 µs
at 0 V, followed by 30 µs at 0.3 V.

Each long sync pulse consists in an equalizing pulse with timings inverted:
30 µs at 0 V, followed by 2 µs at 0.3 V.
In video production and computer graphics, changes to the image are often kept in
step with the vertical synchronization pulse to avoid visible discontinuity of the
image. Since the frame buffer of a computer graphics display imitates the
dynamics of a cathode-ray display, if it is updated with a new image while the
image is being transmitted to the display, the display shows a mishmash of both
frames, producing a page tearing artifact partway down the image.
Vertical synchronization eliminates this by timing frame buffer fills to coincide
with the vertical blanking interval, thus ensuring that only whole frames are seen
on-screen. Software such as video games and computer aided design (CAD)
packages often allow vertical synchronization as an option, because it delays the
image update until the vertical blanking interval. This produces a small penalty in
latency, because the program has to wait until the video controller has finished
transmitting the image to the display before continuing. Triple buffering reduces
this latency significantly.

 What is Horizontal and Vertical Blanking Interval?

 Horizontal Blanking Interval:
Horizontal blanking interval refers to a part of the process of displaying images
on a computer monitor or television screen via raster scanning. CRT screens
display images by moving beams of electrons very quickly across the screen. Once
the beam of the monitor has reached the edge of the screen, the beam is switched
off, and the deflection circuit voltages (or currents) are returned to the values they
had for the other edge of the screen; this would have the effect of retracing the
screen in the opposite direction, so the beam is turned off during this time. This
part of the line display process is the Horizontal Blank.

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In detail, the Horizontal blanking interval consists of:

1. Front porch – blank while still moving right, past the end of the scan
line,
2. Sync pulse – blank while rapidly moving left; in terms of amplitude,
"blacker than black".
3. Back porch – blank while moving right again, before the start of the next
scan line. Color burst occurs during the back porch, and unblinking
happens at the end of the back porch.

Fig: Horizontal blanking interval.

In the PAL television standard, the blanking level corresponds to the black level,
whilst other standards, most notably NTSC, set the black level slightly above the
blanking level on a 'pedestal'.

 Vertical blanking interval:

In a raster graphics display, the vertical blanking interval (VBI), also known as the
vertical interval or VBLANK, is the time between the end of the final line of a
frame or field and the beginning of the first line of the next frame. It is present in
analog television, VGA, DVI and other signals. During the VBI the incoming data
stream is not displayed on the screen. In raster cathode ray tube displays, the beam
is blanked to avoid displaying the retrace line. The signal source, such as a
television broadcast, does not supply image information during the blanking
period.

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Fig: Vertical time interval.

 How can we determine the number of scanning lines in a TV

system? Final – 2012
 Determination of the number of scanning lines:
Most scenes have brightness gradations in the vertical direction. The ability of the
scanning beam to allow reproduction of electrical signals according to these
variations and the capability of the human eye to resolve these distinctly, while
viewing the reproduced picture, depends on the total number of lines employed for
scanning.
It is possible to arrive at some estimates of the number of lines necessary by
considering the bar pattern shown in the following Fig, where alternate lines are
black and white.

Fig - a: Scanning spot perfectly aligned with black and white lines.
If the thickness of the scanning beam is equal to the width of each white and black
bar, and the number of scanning lines is chosen equal to the number of bars, the
electrical information corresponding to the brightness of each bar will be correctly
reproduced during the scanning process. Obviously the greater the number of lines
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into which the picture is divided in the vertical plane, the better will be the
resolution. However, the total number of lines that need be employed is limited by
the resolving capability of the human eye at the minimum viewing distance.

Fig- b: Critical viewing distance as determined by the ability of the eye to resolve
two separate picture elements.

Fig - c: Scanning beam focused on the junction of black and white lines.
The maximum number of alternate light and dark elements (lines) which can be
resolved by the eye is given by –

Where, Nv = total number of lines (elements) to be resolved in the vertical

direction, α = minimum resolving angle of the eye expressed in radians, and ρ =
D/H = viewing-distance/picture height.
For the eye this resolution is determined by the structure of the retina, and
the brightness level of the picture. it has been determined experimentally that with
reasonable brightness variations and a minimum viewing distance of four times the
picture height (D/H = 4), the angle that any two adjacent elements must subtend at

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the eye for distinct resolution is approximately one minute (1/60 degree). This is
illustrated in Fig (b). Substituting these values of α and ρ we get –

Thus if the total number of scanning lines is chosen close to 860 and the
scanning beam as illustrated in Fig (a) just passes over each bar (line) separately
while scanning all the lines from top to bottom of the picture frame, a distinct pick
up of the picture information results and this is the best that can be expected from
the system. This perhaps explains the use of 819 lines in the original French TV
system.
In practice however, the picture elements are not arranged as equally spaced
segments but have random distribution of black, grey and white depending on the
nature of the picture details or the scene under consideration. Statistical analysis
and subjective tests carried out to determine the average number of effective lines
suggest that about 70 per cent of the total lines or segments get separately scanned
in the vertical direction and the remaining 30 percent get merged with other
elements due to the beam spot falling equally on two consecutive lines. This is
illustrated in Fig (c). Thus the effective number of lines distinctly resolved,
i.e., Nr = Nv × k,
Where, k is the resolution factor whose value lies between 0.65 to 0.75.
Assuming the value of k = 0.7 we get,
Nr = Nv × k = 860 × 0.7 = 602.
However, there are other factors which also influence the choice of total
number of lines in a TV system. Tests conducted with many observers have shown
that though the eye can detect the effective sharpness provided by about 800
scanning lines, but the improvement is not very significant with line numbers
greater than 500 while viewing pictures having motion. Also the channel
bandwidth increases with increase in number of lines and this not only adds to the
cost of the system but also reduces the number of television channels that can be
provided in a given VHF or UHF transmission band. Thus as a compromise
between quality and cost, the total number of lines inclusive of those lost during
vertical retrace has been chosen to be 625 in the 625-B monochrome TV system. In

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the 525 line American system, the total number of lines has been fixed at 525
because of a somewhat higher scanning rate employed in this system.

 What is the resolution of video system in TV? Discuss briefly.

 Resolution of video system in TV:
The ability of the image reproducing system to represent the fine structure of an
object is known as its resolving power or resolution. It is necessary to consider this
aspect separately in the vertical and horizontal planes of the picture.
Resolution of a video system is a function of the number of details that can be
seen both horizontally and vertically.

 Vertical resolution:
The extent to which the scanning system is capable of resolving picture details
in the vertical direction is referred to as its vertical resolution. It has already been
explained that the vertical resolution is a function of the scanning lines into which
the picture is divided in the vertical plane. Based on that discussion the vertical
resolution in the 625 lines system can then be expressed as –

Where Vr is the vertical resolution expressed in number of lines, Na is the active

number of lines and k is the resolution factor (also known as Kell factor).

It is of interest to note that the corresponding resolution of 35 mm motion

pictures is about 515 lines and thus produces greater details as compared to
television pictures.

 Horizontal resolution:
The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture elements
along the scanning lines determines horizontal resolution. This can be evaluated by
considering a vertical bar pattern as shown in the following Fig.

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Fig - a: Determination of horizontal resolution.

It would be realistic to aim at equal vertical and horizontal resolution and as
such the number of alternate black and white bars that should be considered is
equal to –

For equal vertical and horizontal resolution, the same resolution factor may be
used while determining the effective number of distinct picture elements in a
horizontal line. Therefore, the effective number of alternate black and white
segments in one horizontal line for equal vertical and horizontal resolution are:

To resolve these 533 squares or picture elements the scanning spot must develop a
video signal of square wave nature switching continuously along the line between
voltage levels corresponding to black and peak white. This is shown along the bar
pattern drawn in Fig (a).
Since along one line there are 533/2 ≈ 267 complete cyclic changes, 267
complete square wave cycles get generated during the time the beam takes to travel
along the width of the pattern. Thus the time duration th of one square wave cycle
is equal to –

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Since the consideration of both vertical and horizontal resolutions is based

on identical black and white bars in the horizontal and vertical planes of the picture
frame, it amounts to considering a chessboard pattern as the most stringent case
and is illustrated in the following Fig. –

Fig: Chess-board pattern for studying vertical and horizontal resolution.

Here each alternate black and white square element takes the place of bars
for determining the capability of the scanning system to reproduce the fine
structure of the object being televised. The actual size of each square element in
the chess pattern is very small and is equal to thickness of the scanning beam. It
would be instructive to know as an illustration that the size of such a square
element on the screen of a 51 cm picture tube is about 0.5 mm2 only.
In a NTSC system, the actual maximum resolution is about 483 lines;
however, an ordinary picture has only about 70% of the vertical resolution that can
be used. This is called the utilization factor.

 Why a bandwidth of 5 MHz is not necessary for the colour

video signals?
 Colour resolution and bandwidth:

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A bandwidth of 5 MHz (4 MHz in the American system) is needed for

transmission of maximum horizontal detail in monochrome. However, this
bandwidth is not necessary for the colour video signals. The reason is that the
human eye’s colour response changes with the size of the object. For very small
objects the eye can perceive only the brightness rather than the colours in the
scene. Perception of colours by the eye is limited to objects which result in a video
frequency output up to about 1.5 MHz. Thus the colour information needs much
less bandwidth than monochrome details and can be easily accommodated in the
channel bandwidth allotted for monochrome transmission.

 Show that a total channel bandwidth of 7 MHz is necessary for

successful transmission of both picture and sound signals in the
625 line TV system. Sketch frequency distribution of the channel
and mark the location of picture and sound signal carrier
frequencies. Why the sound carrier is located 5.5 MHz away from
the picture carrier? Final – 2012
 Channel Bandwidth:
The FM sound signal occupies a frequency spectrum of about ± 75 KHz around
the sound carrier. However, a guard band of 0.25 MHz is allowed on the sound
carrier side of the television channel to allow for adequate inter-channel separation.
The total channel bandwidth thus occupies 7 MHz and this represents a band space
saving of 4.25 MHz per channel, when compared with the 11.25 MHz space,
which would be required by the corresponding double sideband signal. The
following Figure show the complete channel and frequency distribution for video
and sound signals.

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The frequency axis is scaled relative to the picture carrier, which is marked as
0 MHz. This makes the diagram very informative, since details such as the widths
of the upper and lower sidebands and the relative position of the sound carrier are
easily read off.
The colour video signal does not extend beyond about 1.5 MHz. Therefore, the
colour information can be transmitted with a restricted bandwidth much less than 5
MHz. This feature allows the narrow band chrominance (colour) signal to be
multiplexed with the wideband luminance (brightness) signal in the standard 7
MHz television channel. This is achieved by modulating the colour signal with a
carrier frequency which lies within the normal channel bandwidth. This is called
colour subcarrier frequency and is located towards the upper edge of the video
frequencies to avoid interference with the monochrome signal.

 Reason for sound carrier is located 5.5 MHz away from the picture carrier:
The colour video signal does not extend beyond about 1.5 MHz. Therefore, the
colour information can be transmitted with a restricted bandwidth much less than 5
MHz. Again, the sound carrier is always positioned at the extremity of the fully
radiated upper sideband and hence is 5.5 MHz away from the picture carrier.

 How a color television controls the color of the video?

 Color control by a color TV:
Colour television is based on the theory of additive colour mixing, where all
colours including white can be created by mixing red, green, and blue lights. The
colour camera provides video signals for the red, green, and blue information.
These are combined and transmitted along with the brightness (monochrome)
signal.
A color TV screen differs from a black-and-white screen in three ways:
 There are three electron beams that move simultaneously across the screen.
They are named the red, green and blue beams.
 The screen is not coated with a single sheet of phosphor as in a black-and-
white TV. Instead, the screen is coated with red, green and blue phosphors

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arranged in dots or stripes. If you turn on your TV or computer monitor and

look closely at the screen with a magnifying glass, you will be able to see
the dots or stripes.
 On the inside of the tube, very close to the phosphor coating, there is a thin
metal screen called a shadow mask. This mask is perforated with very small
holes that are aligned with the phosphor dots (or stripes) on the screen.

When a color TV needs to create a red dot, it fires the red beam at the red
phosphor. Similarly for green and blue dots. To create a white dot, red, green and
blue beams are fired simultaneously -- the three colors mix together to create
white. To create a black dot, all three beams are turned off as they scan past the
dot. All other colors on a TV screen are combinations of red, green and blue.
In order to maintain compatibility, a composite color system includes a
luminance signal. Two other signals are multiplexed onto it to provide color. Only
two are needed because the original luminance signal is a combination of red,
green, and blue.
Two additional signals, each a linear, independent combination of the three
colors, provide enough information to reconstruct the original signals.

• Three signals that make up the color composite signal are:

– Y = luminance signal
– I = in-phase component of the color signal
– Q = quadrature component of the color signal

• In-phase and quadrature refer to the process by which the chrominance (color)
signal is combined with the luminance signal

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• The I and Q signals are modulated onto a subcarrier at approximately 3.58 MHz
using suppressed-carrier quadrature AM.

Following these eight cycles, a phase shift in the chrominance signal indicates the
color to display. The amplitude of the signal determines the saturation. Here is the
relationship between color and phase:

 Burst = 0 degrees
 Yellow = 15 degrees
 Red = 75 degrees
 Magenta = 135 degrees
 Blue = 195 degrees
 Cyan = 255 degrees
 Green = 315 degrees

A black-and-white TV filters out and ignores the chrominance signal. A color TV

picks it out of the signal and decodes it, along with the normal intensity signal, to
determine how to modulate the three color beams.

 What is color burst and aspect ratio? Final -2009

 Color burst:
In colour TV transmission a short sample (8 to 10 cycles) of the colour
subcarrier oscillator output is sent to the receiver for proper detection of colour
signal sidebands. This is known as colour burst and is located at the back porch of
the horizontal blanking pedestal.

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Fig: Location of colour burst on the back porch of each horizontal sync
pulse.

 Aspect ratio:
The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between
its width and its height.
It is commonly expressed as two numbers separated by a colon, as in 16:9. For
an x:y aspect ratio, no matter how big or small the image is, if the width is divided
into x units of equal length and the height is measured using this same length unit,
the height will be measured to be y units. For example, consider a group of images,
all with an aspect ratio of 16:9. One image is 16 inches wide and 9 inches high.
Another image is 16 centimeters wide and 9 centimeters high. A third is 8 yards
wide and 4.5 yards high.
The most common aspect ratios used today in the presentation of films in
cinemas are 1.85:1 and 2.39:1.Two common video graphic aspect ratios are 4:3
(1.33:1).

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 References:
1. R R Gulati_ Monochrome and color television_ Revised second edition.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_of_television
3. http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/tv7.htm
4. http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/tv8.htm
5. http://www.electronicsandcommunications.com/2014/05/sequential-and-
interlaced-scanning.html
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_television
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_blanking_interval
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_blanking_interval
9. http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/tv10.htm
10. http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/tv11.htm
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28image%29

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