Static Equipment in Oil and Gas - Baher

Introduction to Static Equipment in
Oil and Gas Industry

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BAHER ELSHEIKH
JULY 2020
Career Timeline Baher Elsheikh
2002 - 2008 Cairo Oil Refining Company
Mechanical Design Engineer Mechanical Engineer
2008 - 2016 Methanex
Static Equipment Specialist
Senior Mechanical Engineer
2016 - Present Sabic - Safco

Senior Mechanical Engineer
Certifications Publications
API 580 Thermal Cycling Damage in Reformer Tubes
Risk Based Inspection Nitrogen + Syngas 2016 (CRU) – March 2016
API 571 Effective Reliability and Safety Management of Steam Reformer Tubes
Damage Mechanisms in Fixed Equipment NACE Conference – Jubail - 2019
CRE Steam Reformer Tubes; Lifecycle and Integrity Management

Certified Reliability Engineer Stainless Steel World Magazine – March, 2020
CRL Comprehensive Integrity Management Program for Reformer Tubes

Certified Reliability Leader Inspectioneering Journal – April, 2020
Collar Bolts in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger World Magazine – May, 2020
Contact me @
STATIC EQUIPMENT IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
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STATIC EQUIPMENT IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY OPERATIONS OIL AND GAS FACEBOOK GROUP – FREE WEBINAR BAHER ELSHEIKH – JULY 2020
STATIC EQUIPMENT IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Area of knowledges for technical static equipment engineer
in operating companies
Main static equipment in oil and gas industry
Materials, heat treatment and corrosion

Contents
Stresses and mechanical design of static equipment
Codes and Standards
Case Study on Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Static Equipment Engineer – Areas of Knowledge
Knowledge Pool
Competent Qualified Static Engineer
Main Static Equipment
Q1
How to differentiate
between pressure
vessel, shell and tube
heat Exchanger and
Deaerator at site
Pressure Vessels Heat Exchangers Deaerator
Q2
Which of the 3
equipment requires
frequent temperature
monitoring by
pyrometer and why?
Steam Reformer and Fired

Secondary Reformer Reactors and Converter
Heaters
Q3
How RGB differs from
Fired Boiler and what
are the common
aspects
Fired Boiler Reformed Gas / Waste Heat Boiler HRSG
Q4
What is the main difference
between storage tanks and
pressure vessels
Storage Tanks Piping Systems Valves and PRVs
Materials
STATIC EQUIPMENT IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY OPERATIONS OIL A ND GAS FACEBOOK GROUP – FREE WEBINAR BAHER ELSHEIKH – JULY 2020
Material Selection
Mechanical
Properties
Toughness
Cost Material Corrosion

& Resistance
Availability Selection
Fabrica-
bility Brittleness
Classification of Steels
Manufacturing Finishing Deoxidation Required Heat

Composition Microstructure
Method Method Practice Strength Treatment
Such as Such as such as such as such as As specified in Such as

ASTM
Carbon Steel Open hearth Hot Rolling killed Ferritic Annealing
High strength
Low Alloy Basic Oxygen Cold Rolling Semikilled Pearlitic Tempering
Steels Process, Intermediate
Capped Martensitic strength Quenching
Stainless Electric
Steels Furnace Rimmed steel Low strength
methods
Source: ASM Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection:

Irons, Steels, and High Performance Alloys
Thickness Required
Plain Carbon Steel
From Differnt Grades of
+Mo for Creep Resistance Cr-Mo Steel
Grade 1
Steam Pipe temperature
1/2 Mo Steels
600 °C, pressure 30MPa
+Cr & Mo for Creep Resistance
+V for Creep ½ to 3% Chrome-Moly-

Grade 11 (1Cr-0.5 Mo)
Resistance Vanadium Steels
Grade 22 (2.25Cr-1 Mo)
0.5-3Cr;1Mo;0.25 V1
Creep +Cr for Hydrogen
Resistance And Corrosion Resistance
Grades 23 & 24 steels
Cr-Mo Low Grade 5 (5Cr-0.5 Mo)
micro-alloyed
Alloy Steels Grade 9 (9Cr-1 Mo) 2.5Cr–0.2Mo–0.25V–1.5W–B
+Nb, V & N for improved 2.5Cr–1Mo–0.25V–B–Ti
Creep Resistance
Grades 91 Grades X20
(0.1C-9Cr-1Mo-Nb-V-N) (0.2 C-12Cr-1Mo-0.5W-0.3V)
+ 1-2% W for even greater
Creep Resistance
Grade 92 (9Cr-0.5Mo-1.8W) Grades HCM12A/122
Grade 911 (9Cr-1Mo-1W) Advanced 12% Cr steels
Tungsten-Bearing (% Cr-Steel 0.C-11Cr-Nb-V-N(up to 3Co)
SOURCE: THE ALLOY TREE - J. C. M. FARRAR BAHER ELSHEIKH

Stainless Steel Families
Austenitic This group contains at least 16% chromium and 6% nickel

Stainless Steels (the basic grade 304 is referred to as 18/8
Stainless steel families

Ferritic Stainless Plain chromium (10.5 to 18%) grades such as Grade 430 and
Steels 409
Shaeffler Diagram (A-austenite; M – Martensite; F – ferrite)

Duplex Stainless Have microstructures comprising a mixture of austenite and
Steels ferrite. Duplex ferritic. Examples : 2205 and 2304
Chromium as the major alloying element but with a higher

Martensitic
carbon and generally lower chromium content (e.g. 12% in
Stainless Steels
Grade 410 and 416) than the ferritic types
Chromium and nickel containing steels that can develop very

PH Stainless
high tensile strengths. The most common grade in this group
Steels
is "17-4 PH"
Reative Mechanical and Physical Properties of Stainless Steel
Typical Tensile Properties
Thermal Expansion and Thermal Conductivity
Typical Impact Properties
Toughness
Material
Thickness
and
Temperature
Transition Temp. Effect
References:
- API 579-1 Part 9
- ASM Handbook volume 11 - Failure analysis and prevention
- ASME BPVC Sec. VIII Div.1 - UCS 66
- API 650
Dissimilar Metal Weld
DMW
References:
AWS – Welding Handbook, Volume 4 Part 1

Austenitic Stainless-Steel Families
304 202
General N and Mn Magnetic X
Purpose
18-8
Partly
replace Ni
Ni √
302B
Si added to
S30400 S20200 205 201 Cr √
N and Mn N and Mn
increase
scaling
partly partly
replace Ni replace Ni
resistance
S20500 S20100
- Corrosion Resistance
S30200
- good mechanical
319
properties
317 316 305 301
308 302 Suitable for High
More Mo and Mo added 309S Ni 303 Cr and Ni
Higher Cr Higher C for
Cr added for Cr and Ni increased S added to lowered to
better
to increase
increased for
and Ni used increased
to lower improve increase
Temp. Application
corrosion primarily for strength
corrosion resistance heat resistance work machinability work
Welding
resistance S31600 S30900 hardening S30300 hardening
S31700 S30905
S30800 S30200
S30500 S30100 - Susceptible to Cl SCC
316L 310 347 304L
and pitting
317L 321 303Se
C reduced for
C reduced 310S Nb and Ta
Ti added to
C reduced or 384
Se added for
- Lower oxidation
for better added to further better More Ni to
better
welded
More Cr and
Ni for better oppose Cr
oppose Cr corrosion lower work better resistance – prone to
welding Carbides machined
characteristic
corrosion heat resistance Carbides
precipitation
resistance in
welded parts
hardening
surfaces
oxide spalling
resistance S31000 precipitation S38400
S31703 S32100 S30403 S30323
S31603 S31008 S34700
316LN 314 348 S304430

317LMN Ta and Co 304N 304LN Cu added
C reduced; Si increased
restricted N added to N added to to improve
Mo added N added to for highest
for nuclear increase increase cold
N added increase heat
applications strength strength working
strength resistance
S34800 S30451 S30453 S30430
S31653 S31400 Al: Aluminum P: Phosphorous
C: Carbon S: Sulfur
Cr: Chromium Se: Selenium
316F 316N Cb: Columbium Si: Silicon
S and P added N added to Co: Cobalt Ta: Tantalum
to improve increase Cu: Copper Ti: Titanium
machinability strength Mn: Manganese V: Vanadium
S31620 S31651 Mo: Molybdenum W: Tungsten
N: Nitorgen
Ni: Nickel
Source: ASM- Stainless Steel for Design Engineers
Austenitic Stainless-Steel Families
Scaling Resistance
Q5
Why the Max. Temp. for intermittent service is less than
the allowed for continuous service in Austenitic SS
Source: NiDi- High Temperature Characteristics of Stainless Steels

Ferritic Stainless Steel Families
430
Magnetic √
General Purpose
Ni X
S43000 Cr √
-Corrosion
Resistance
- Not Suitable for High

446 442 444 429 439 405 409 430F 434
C reduced,
Temp. Application
Cr Cr Slightly less C reduced; Lower CR, Al Lower Cr; P and S Mo added for
increased Mo added to Cr for better Ti added to added to Primarily increased to improved (subject to 475
increased to
to improve improve
improve Weldability oppose prevent used for improve corrosion embrittlement)
corrosion hardening
scaling scaling carbide automotive machinability resistance in
resistance; Ti when cooled
resistance resistance and Nb added S42900 precipitation exhaust S43020 automotive
from elevated
systems trim
temperatures
S44600 S44400 S43035 S40500 S40900 S43400
S44200
436
430F Se
Mo, Nb and
Se added for
Ta added for
better
Al: Aluminum P: Phosphorous corrosion and
machined
C: Carbon S: Sulfur heat
surfaces
resistance
Cb: Columbium Si: Silicon S43023
S43600
Co: Cobalt Ta: Tantalum
Cu: Copper Ti: Titanium
Mn: Manganese V: Vanadium
Mo: Molybdenum W: Tungsten
N: Nitorgen
Ni: Nickel
Source: ASM- Alloying, Understanding the Basics
Martensitic Stainless Steel Families
410
General
Purpose Magnetic √
Ni X
S41000
Cr √
-Corrosion
Resistance
431 403 416 440C - Hardenable
414 420
Cr increased and Ni C increased for
Ni added for Select quality C P and S
added for better highest
better for turbines increased increased to
corrosion
corrosion and highly to improve improve
hardness; Cr - Hard to weld
resistance, good increased for
mechanical
resistance stressed parts mechanical machinability corrosion
properties S41400 S40300 properties S41600 resistance
S43100 S42000
S44004
422 416Se 440B

Strength and Se added for C decreased
toughness to slightly to improve
better machined
12000F via toughness
addition of surfaces
S44004
Mo, V, W S41623
S41400
Al: Aluminum P: Phosphorous
C: Carbon S: Sulfur
420F 440A Cr: Chromium Se: Selenium
P and S C decreased even Cb: Columbium Si: Silicon
more than for Co: Cobalt Ta: Tantalum
increased to
improve 440B to improve
machinability toughness Mo: Molybdenum W: Tungsten
S42020 S44002 N: Nitorgen
Ni: Nickel
Source: ASM- Alloying, Understanding the Basics
Duplex Stainless Steel Families
Duplex Stainless Steel
50/50 Magnetic √
Austenite / Ferrite Ni √
Cr √
-Corrosion
Resistance
Lean Standard Super Hyper
DSS DSS DSS DSS - Pitting resistance
Lower Ni, no Higher Ni, and 25 Cr and higher More Cr, Ni Ni, in Cl service (High
Mo and N
Mo Mo Ni, and Mo PREN)
- High strength
S32101 S31803 S32520 S32707
- Not suitable for
High T
S32202 S2205 S32550 applications
(subject to 475
S32304 S32750 embrittlement)
S32003 S32760
Al: Aluminum P: Phosphorous
C: Carbon S: Sulfur
S82011 S82906 Cb: Columbium Si: Silicon
Co: Cobalt Ta: Tantalum
Mo: Molybdenum W: Tungsten
S82441 N: Nitorgen
Ni: Nickel
Source: API 938C, Use of DSS in Oil Refinery Industry
PREN = %Cr + 3.3Mo + 16N

Grade PREN
304L 19
316L 24
2205
35
S3205
2507
43
S32750


Stainless Steels
Add Fe
50 Cr50Ni Alloys
Alloy 601
Alloy 825, G
Add Cr, lower C Add Cr, Al for

for resisting acids resistance to Add Mo, Cu for Resistance to
Oxidation acids Chlorides, reducing acids
Alloy 690
Alloy 800, 800H, 802
Add Cr, lower
C for resisting Add Fe for economy and Cr for
acids carburization, oxidation
resistance
Alloys Add Mo, Cr for

resistance, Alloy
Add Cr got high
Temp strength Nickel Nickel
625, C-276 600
C-4, X
chlorides, and
high Temp Ni-15Cr-8Fe
resistance
to oxidizing media
200 Alloys
environment
Add Ti, Al for Add Cu

Strengthening Add Mo for Resistance to
Resistance to Reducing
reducing acids
acids,
Alloy halogens
X-750
Alloys
Add Co, M,B, Zr, W, Cb
For gas turbine 400,
requirements Alloys
R-405,
B, B-2 Add Cu K-50
Source: ASM Corrosion of Weldments Superalloys
ASM Stress Corrosion Cracking Cupronickels
Materials Application – Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel is widely used in oil and gas industry mainly due to its cost, availability
and easy fabrication and welding.
Limitations:
Low corrosion resistance in many applications
Very low temperature < -29 C . CS loose toughness
High Temperature: > 425 C . CS low creep strength, high oxidation rate, and
susceptibility to carburization
Susceptible to FAC in condensate service
Materials Application – Low Alloy Cr-Mo Steel
Low alloy Chromium Molybdenum (Cr-Mo) Steels are replacing the Carbon steels as a
candidate material where:
- Temperature is higher than the maximum limits of carbon steels
- In application where Hydrogen is present at relative high temperature and partial

pressure to resist High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
Common Grades:
P11 (1.25 Cr- 0.5 Mo)
P22 (2.5 Cr – 0.5 Mo)
P5 (5 Cr- 0.5 Mo)
P91 (9 Cr- 1 Mo) Steam Pipe
temperature 600 °C,
Note: Cr-Mo steel is usually require application of Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) pressure 30MPa
during fabrication or repair, which sometimes are difficult to apply at site
Materials Application – Stainless Steel
Stainless steels is a material of Cr > 11 % where Cr formed the distinguishing
surface oxide layer of the stainless steels.
Austenitic stainless steels is applied widely where:
- Higher Corrosion resistance is required

- Temperature is higher than the maximum limits of Cr-Mo Steels
- Temperature is lower than the lower limit of CS to avoid brittle fracture and
toughness loss
A main concern of austenitic SS is the susceptibility to pitting and cracking in Cl

services, Where DSS is preferred for this aspect
Duplex stainless steels limited for Temp. <=316 C to avoid 475 embrittlement
Materials Application – Nickel Based Alloys
Ni Based alloys (Incoloy, Inconel, Monel,…..) are replacing Stainless steels when:
- Higher Corrosion resistance is required

- Temperature is higher than the maximum limits of stainless Steels (oxidation, metal dusting, Nitriding,
carburization,..)
Ni Alloys are of much higher cost compared to stainless steels which limits its application.
Alloys with Ni >42% is almost immune for chloride SCC. Alloy 825 (42% Ni) is often specified for applications
requiring resistance to chloride SCC.
Materials Application – Refractory Lined
Refractory lining is applied where the metals cannot withstand the operating temperature and / or to
reduce the cost of the equipment by using lower design temperature and hence lower material grade
Materials Application – Non Metallic Piping and Vessels
Non metallic materials include wide range of different materials like: FRP, PVC, PE, Cement, lined equipment
Usually applied where corrosion resistance is required
Limited in temperature application
Special precautions ( Protection from UV, vent holes for PTFE lined, ……..)
Preferred application for underground piping to have good corrosion resistance without need of Cathodic
Protection
Recommended
Readings for
SS and Ni Alloys
https://www.nickelinstitute.org/library
Heat
Treatment
Iron-Carbide Phase Diagram
Area of Focus
Heat Treatment
Annealing 980
Heat treatment with furnace Austenite
cooling from Austenitizing range
900 Acm
Annealing is used to reduce
hardness, obtain a relatively
Annealing
Temperature, ° C
near-stable microstructure, 820 and
refine grain size, improve A3 Hardening
machinability, and facilitate cold
working.
740 723 °C
A1
For Hypoeutectoid steels (C<
0.80%), full annealing consists of
660
heating to 90 to 180 °C A3 temp.
For Hypereutectoid steels (C >

0.80%), heating above the A1 580
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
temperature, followed by very
Composition (wt, C)
slow cooling.
Reference: Heat Treating, Vol 4, ASM Handbook, ASM International
Heat Treatment
Normalizing
Annealing 980
Steel
Heatistreatment
normalizedwithby furnace
heating Austenite
160 to 200
cooling °C into
from the austenite-
Austenitizing range
phase field at temperatures 900 Normalizing Acm
somewhat
Annealing higher
is usedthan those
to reduce
used by annealing,
hardness, obtain afollowed
relativelyby
Annealing
Temperature, ° C
cooling at a medium
near-stable rate (Air
microstructure, 820 and
Cooling for CS).
refine grain size, improve A3 Hardening
machinability, and facilitate cold
Steels
working.are normalized to establish
740 723 °C
a uniform microstructure and
A1
refine grain size. steels (C<
For Hypoeutectoid
The fasterfull
0.80%), cooling rate consists
annealing results inofa
660
much
heatingfiner
to microstructure,
90 to 180 °C A3 which
temp.
is harder and stronger than the
coarser microstructure
For Hypereutectoid produced
steels (C >
by full annealing.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Composition (wt, C)
slow cooling.
Heat Treatment
Spheroidizing
Normalizing
Annealing 980
Steel
Heatistreatment
normalized with by furnace
heating Austenite
To
160 produce
to 200
cooling from a steel
°C into in its
the softest
austenite-
Austenitizing range
possible
phase condition
field with minimum
at temperatures 900 Normalizing Acm
hardness
Annealingand
somewhat maximum
higher
is used than ductility,
those
to reduce
ithardness,
canby
used beannealing,
spheroidized
obtain afollowed by heating
relatively by
Annealing
Temperature, ° C
just above
cooling at aormedium
near-stable just belowratethe
microstructure, (AirA1 820 and
eutectoid
Cooling fortemperature
refine grain CS).
size, improve and then Hardening
A3
holding at that temperature
machinability, and facilitate for cold
an extended
Steels
working. period ofto
are normalized time.
establish
740 723 °C
a uniform microstructure and
A1
refine grain size. steels (C<
For Hypoeutectoid
The fasterfull
0.80%), cooling rate consists
annealing results inofa Spheroidization
660
much
heatingfiner
to microstructure,
90 to 180 °C A3 which temp. and
Ref.:
is Heat Treating
harder Subjectthan
and stronger Guide
the- Stress Relief
ASM
For International
coarser microstructure
Hypereutectoid produced
steels (C >
by full annealing.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Composition (wt, C)
slow cooling.
Post Weld Heat Treatment
• When weld is applied it is molten metal

and thermally expanded when filling a Weld Metal Hot
groove.
Base Metal Base Metal
• When weld metal cools, it will shrink a
lot. Yield Strength is low for much of the
cooling range.
Restraint
• Surrounding metal that was not heated to Restraint
molten temperatures will constrain or
keep the weld from shrinking as it cools.
• Post Weld Heat Treatment is a procedure Weld Metal under
to reduce residual stress, temper the Tension
HAZ, and remove hydrogen from the weld
region after a seam weld is made.
Post Weld Heat Treatment
• Weld and HAZ heated below the transition temperature for several hours and then
gradually allowed to cool.
• Can Global (entire vessel)
• Can be Local (weld seam and surrounding metal
Q6
Think and Answer
What are the main pros and cons of each PWHT
technique Global / Local
Recommended Readings: WRC 452
Corrosion
Corrosion
Corrosion a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material

and its environment that produces a deterioration (change) of the
material and its properties
Why do metals corrode?

Most metals are found in nature as ores. The manufacturing process of converting these
ores into metals involves the input of energy.
During the corrosion reaction the energy added in manufacturing is released, and the
metal is returned to its oxide state.
Metal Ore Reduction (add Electron) Metal Oxidation (strip electron) Corrosion Products
Corrosion Consequence:
1. Downtime 2. Product Loss 3. Efficiency Loss 4. Contamination 5. Overdesign
Corrosion Forms – Classic Fontana & Green Forms
Uniform
Corrosion Corrosion attack that is more or less distributed over the entire exposed surface of a metal.
Galvanic
accelerated corrosion of a metal because of contact with a more noble metal in an electrolyte
Corrosion
Intergranular Localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries, with relatively little corrosion of the grains, is
Corrosion intergranular corrosion. The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out) and/or loses its strength.
Crevice a localized attack on a metal adjacent to a crevice between two joining surfaces (two metals or metal-
Corrosion nonmetal crevices)
a localized phenomenon confined to smaller areas. Pitting corrosion are normally found on passive metals
Pitting Corrosion
and alloys
Selective Removal of one element from a solid alloy by corrosion processes Examples are dezincification in Brass,
Leaching dealuminification
Erosion deterioration of metals and alloys due to relative movement between metal surfaces and corrosive fluids.
Corrosion Depending on the rate of this movement, abrasion takes place.
Stress Corrosion
Cracking (SCC) refers to failure under simultaneous presence of a corrosive medium and a tensile stress.
Uniform Corrosion
Uniform Corrosion is also called general corrosion. The

surface effect produced by most direct chemical attacks
(e.g., as by an acid) is a uniform etching of the metal
Control
• Selection of a more corrosion resistant alloy (i.e.
higher alloy content or more inert alloy)
• Utilize coatings to act as a barrier between metal and
environment.
• Modify the environment or add chemical inhibitors to
reduce corrosion rate.
• Apply cathodic protection.
• Replace with corrosion resistant non-metallic
material.
Reference: Inspector Knowledge – Corrosion Basics, By Mok Check Min
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion is an
electrochemical action of two
dissimilar metals in the presence
of an electrolyte and an electron
conductive path.
It occurs when dissimilar metals

are in contact.
Control
• Use of galvanically compatible
materials
• Avoid unfavorable area effects
of a small anode and large
cathode
• Use of electrical insulation
between dissimilar materials
Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion is an attack on or adjacent to the grain

boundaries of a metal or alloy. A highly magnified cross section
of most commercial alloys will show its granular structure.
This structure consists of quantities of individual grains, and

each of these tiny grains has a clearly defined boundary that
chemically differs from the metal within the grain center.
Control
• Heat treatment of alloy to remove phases from grain
boundary regions which reduce corrosion resistance (i.e.
solution annealing).
• Use modified alloys which have eliminated such grain

boundary phases through stabilizing elements or reduced
levels of impurities
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion is an intense localized corrosion frequently
occurs within crevices and other shielded areas on metal surfaces
exposed to corrosives. This type of attack is usually associated
with small volumes of stagnant solution caused by holes, gasket
surfaces, lap joints, surface deposits, and crevices under bolt and
rivet heads
Control
• Redesign of equipment to eliminate crevices.
• Close crevices with non-absorbent materials or incorporate a
barrier to prevent of moisture penetration into crevice.
• Prevent or remove builds-up of scale or solids on surface.
• Use of one-piece or welded construction versus bolting or
riveting.
• Select more corrosion resistant or inert alloy
Reference: NALCO Guide to Cooling Water System Failure Analysis
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting is a form of extremely localized attack that results in holes in
the metal. These holes may be small or large in diameter, but in most
cases they are relatively small. Pits are sometimes isolated or so close
together that they look like a rough surface.
For stainless steels, pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN) is equal

to:
PREN = Cr + 3.3 (Mo + 0.5 W) + 16N
Control
• Choose the material most appropriate for the service conditions
• Avoid stagnant zones and deposits
• Reduce the aggressivity of the medium (using inhibitors)
• Maintain the protective film of the material
• Use cathodic protection.
Selective Leaching
Selective Leaching is the removal of one element from a solid alloy by
corrosion processes. The most common example is the selective removal of
zinc in brass alloys (dezincification). Similar processes occur in other alloy
systems in which aluminum; iron, cobalt, chromium, and other elements
are removed
Control
• Select “inhibited” versions of copper alloys.
• Use alternative materials that are not susceptible to dealloying in the
environment(s)
• Reduce severity of environment through environmental control or
addition of effective chemical inhibitors
• Cathodic protection
• Use of coating to act as a barrier between the environment and the
alloy
Erosion-Corrosion
Erosion-corrosion is a description for the damage that occurs when
particle erosion and/or high flow velocity contributes to corrosion by
removing protective films or scales or otherwise accelerating the
corrosion rate.
Control
• Changes in shape, geometry, and materials can help mitigate erosion
and erosion-corrosion. Examples include increasing the pipe
diameter to reduce velocity
• Improved resistance to mechanical erosion is usually achieved by
increasing component hardness
• Heat exchangers utilize impingement plates and occasionally tube
ferrules
• Ensure proper operation to avoid water droplets in the steam
system.
• Use abrasion resistance coating
Stress Corrosion Cracking
SCC is Cracking caused by the simultaneous presence of tensile stress

and a specific corrosive medium. Usually lead to unexpected sudden
failure.
Examples: (Chloride SCC, Carbonate SCC, Caustic SCC, Ethanol SCC,
HF SCC and Polythionic acid SCC)
Control
• Use resistant material
• Properly apply coating if applicable
• Residual stress release application when applicable
• Design to avoid stagnant conditions of species causing SCC
• Proper application of NDE and inspection techniques for early
detection of cracks
Stresses in Pressure Vessels
Design Codes and Standards
Codes: Examples: ASME BPVC, API 650
Regulations: Federal Laws
Standards:
Example ASME B16.5 (standard flanges dimensions).
Specifications: Company specifications; shell, Aramco, BP,…
Recommended Practices: Guidelines
Careful Use of
Standards
ASME B36.19 M ASME B36.10 M
Pipe dimensions and wall thickness of
12.7 21.44
steel pipes covered under
ASME B36.10M and stainless steel SS -16” CS -16”
pipes under ASME B36.19M Sch. 80S Sch. 80
Make sure you have identified the SS - 6.02 SS - 6.02

correct pipe schedule 4” 4”
Sch. Sch.
40S 40
Careful Use of
Standards
▪ Specifying Standard Flange per ASME B16.5
▪ Standard: ASME B16.5
▪ Type: WN/SW / SO / Thr. /Blind / Lap
▪ Class / Rating: 150# / 300# / 600# ………
▪ Facing: Raised Face, Flat Face, Ring Joint
▪ Material: CS ASTM A105, ……..
▪ Schedule/Hub thk.: in case of WN Flange
Careful Use of
Standards
• Maximum size of 2500 class is
NPS 12. There is no 2500 flange
of NPS 14 and larger
• Smallest size of class 400 is NPS

4. There is no class 400 of NPS
3.5 and smaller.
• Smallest size of class 900

flanges is NPS 3. There is no
class 900 flanges of NPS 2.5 and
smaller.
SEC. I Power Boilers
Sec II Materials
Sec III Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
Sec IV Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers

ASME BPVC
Sec V Nondestructive Examination
Sec VI Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
Sec VII Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers
Sec VIII Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels
Sec IX Welding, Brazing, and Fusing Qualifications
Sec X Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
Sec XI Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
Sec XII Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks
ASME B 31 CODES FOR PRESSURE PIPING
B 31.1 Power Piping
B 31.3 Process Piping

ASME B31 CODES
B 31.4 Pipeline Transportation systems for liquids and Slurries
B31.5 Refrigeration Piping
B 31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
B31.9 Building Service Piping
B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines
API Design and construction Codes and Standards
API Std 650: Welded Tanks for Oil Storage [P <= 2.5 Psi]
API 620: Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-pressure Storage Tanks [P<= 15 psi]
API Std 660: Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
API Std 661: Air-cooled Heat Exchangers
API Std 662: Plate Heat Exchangers
API Std 530: Calculation of Heater-tube Thickness
API Std 976: Refractory Installation Quality Control
Post Construction, Inspection and Repair Codes
National Board Inspection Code
ASME PCC 2 – Repair of Pressure Equipment and Piping
Guidelines for Pressure Boundary Bolted Flange joint

Assembly
API 571 For Damage Mechanisms in Fixed Equipment
Inspection codes: API 510, 570, 653, 573, …….
Internal Pressure stresses on cylindrical shell
Consider the forces acting on the Shell from Pressure
P D
From pressure
Area = D x L
Here is the pressure
This is resisted by the internal stress
Stress S
Area = 2 x t x L
Stress S
Force = Stress x Area

F=SxLxtx2
= 2SLt
For equilibrium - Forces must be Equal
From pressure : F = PDL This is known as the HOOP STRESS Sh

From internal stress: F = 2SLt
Equating therefore : PDL = 2SLt
PD
Finally : Sh =
2t
Consider now the Axial or Longitudinal Stress
Force = Pressure x Area

π.D2
Area =
4
Pressure
P.π.D2
F = 4
Consider now the Axial or Longitudinal Stress
Force = Stress x Area Stress
Area = π.D.t (approx)
F = S.π.D.t
P.π.D2
Equate F = S.π.D.t =
4
P.D
Thus SL =
4t
S
This is kown as the Axial or Longitudinal Stress
P.D
SL =
4t
Sh is twice SL
PD
Sh =
2t
We have PD In reality
Sh = it is like
assumed 2t
the stress this: Greater
is like than Sh
this:
This is the formula per UG-27 in the code:

P.R
t =
S.E - 0.6.P
P = Pressure psi
R = Radius inches
S = Design Stress psi
R+c
E = Welded Joint Efficiency
R
Calculations are done the CORRODED condition
Internal Pressure stresses on cylindrical shell – Shell Openings
Area = 2 x t x L – a x t
Stress S
a
Area Replacement Calculations

ASME BPVC Sec. VIII div. 1 – UG 37
Design Code is
not a
Handbook
How it works
Shell and tube heat exchangers are one of the most common equipment found in all plants
Function and Classification
Heat Exchanger: Both sides single phase and process stream
Cooler: One stream process fluid and the other cooling media (water / air)
Heater:
Heater: One
One stream
stream process
process fluid
fluid and
and the
the other
other heating
heating utility
utility (steam)
(steam)
Condenser: One stream condensing vapor and the other cooling media (water / air)
Reboiler: One stream bottom stream from distillation column and the other a hot
utility of process stream
Design Codes and Standards Used for Design of S&T Exchangers
Codes
ASME BPVC – TEMA
Standards
API 660 – HEI – PIP VESST001 - ASME B16.5 – ASME B36.10M – ASME B16.9 – ASME B16.11
Specifications
Contractor or Owner specifications
Main Components
1- Channel Cover 8- Shell

2- Channel 9- Baffles
3- Channel Flange 10- Floating Head backing Device
4- Pass Partition 11- Floating Tubesheet
5- Stationary Tubesheet 12- Floating Head
6- Shell Flange 13- Floating Head Flange
7- Tube 14 –Shell Cover
Fluid Allocation
▪ Fluids to be passed in shell side :
▪ Fluids of which pressure drop should be low.
▪ Highly viscous fluids
▪ Fluids which exhibit a low heat transfer rate
▪ Fluids which undergo the phase change
▪ Fluids to be passed in Tube side :

▪ Dirty Fluids
▪ Fluids at higher pressure
▪ Corrosive Fluids
▪ Fluids which contain solids
▪ Cooling water
Tube Pattern
▪ Triangular pitch (30 deg) is better for heat transfer
and surface area per unit length (greater tube density)
▪ Square pitch is needed for mechanical cleaning
Baffle Design
To promote ideal shellside flow, baffle design must balance the baffle cut and baffle spacing
geometry. This encourages the fluid to fully enter the baffle space and direct the majority of the
ow stream around each baffle
Window velocity is affected by baffle cut, and crossflow velocity is affected by baffle spacing.
Using a rule of thumb, the window and crossflow velocities of the shellside flow should be roughly
equal to achieve ideal ow
A - Type B - Type C - Type
Front Head
Shell Types
F - Type K - Type
E - Type J - Type
Rear End Head Types
M - Type S - Type T - Type

Fixed Tubesheet Floating Head Pull-Through
Floating Head
Example
AES
Example
AKT
ASME Classification- ASME BPVC Sec. VIII Div.1 Part UHX
Design
Data
Sample Calculations
Internal Pressure Calculations – ASME BPVC Sec. VIII Div.1 UG-27.
t= PR . + CA + UT
SE – 0.6 P
Tube-To-Tubesheet Joints (TTS)
Expanded
Process of expanding a tube to a fully plastic state into contact
with tube hole that creates residual interface pressure between
the tube and tubesheet
Note: Duplex SS is usually prohibited of rolled joints, except light

rolling (<2 %) for positioning (due to possible high hardness)
Strength Welded
Weld design strength is equal to or greater than the axial tube
strength
Seal Welded
Weld is used to supplement an expanded tube to tubesheet joint
10/13 Rule for over pressure Design Pressure
protection of S&T Exchangers Determination
for Both sides
Loss of containment of the low-pressure side of shell and tube
heat exchangers to atmosphere is unlikely to result from a
tube rupture where the pressure in the low-pressure side
during the tube rupture DOES NOT EXCEED the CORRECTED
hydrotest pressure.
PT2= 1.3 Pd2
Pd1 Pd2
PT2 > Pd1

Reference: [API 521 para. 4.4.14.2]
CASE
STUDY
FAILURE ANALYSIS AND

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS OF CW HEAT
EXCHANGER CORROSION
Identify
Determine
Standardize
Root Cause
Problem
Solving Model
Validate and
Develop
Verify
Corrective
Corrective
Actions
Actions
Source: ASM Metals Handbook Volume 11- Failure Analysis

Materials Characterized
Failure Mechanism Identified
Investigation for in
Environmental Factors Established Service Failure
Analysis
Fitness For Service
Root Cause Identified Fit For Service Not Fit For Service
Identify Next Repair or Restrict

Corrective Actions Service Remove From Replace With New
Inspection Interval Service Equipment
(Alteration,..)
Customized From: ASM Metals Handbook Volume 11- Failure Analysis

Conditions and Findings
Description Unit Shell Side Tube Side
Findings
Fluid Cooling Water Process Gas Sever corrosion in the tubes from shell
(non corrosive) side; pitting and under deposits
Pressure barg 6 / 12 15
Operating/Design
85 tubes out of 300 tubes plugged led to
Temperature °C 40/80 240/150 …. Limited load
Operating/Design
Material Carbon Steel Carbon Steel

Other tubes found with thinning to
different extent < 20 % of the tube thk.
Tube to Tubesheet Chloride traces detected in the pits in a
Expanded , 2 grooves sample taken from one of the plugged
tube
Discussions
Q7
What are the possible causes / Root Cause of the exchanger failure
Decision taken to replace / upgrade the exchanger
Q8
What should be the recommended actions and/or upgradations in the new exchanger
Q9
In case tube material to be upgraded what would be the recommended material:
Austenitic SS or Duplex SS or other material and why
Q 10
In case tube materials upgraded, is the thermal design of the exchanger need to
be revised. What are the expected changes in the exchanger configurations
Open
Discussions

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Introduction to Static Equipment in

Oil and Gas Industry

2016 - Present Sabic - Safco

CRE Steam Reformer Tubes; Lifecycle and Integrity Management

CRL Comprehensive Integrity Management Program for Reformer Tubes

Collar Bolts in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Mute your device, switch off your camera

Notice this sign, can be used in case study at end

We will focus on some parts and others will provided

Main static equipment in oil and gas industry

Materials, heat treatment and corrosion

Codes and Standards

Case Study on Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Competent Qualified Static Engineer

Pressure Vessels Heat Exchangers Deaerator

Steam Reformer and Fired

Fired Boiler Reformed Gas / Waste Heat Boiler HRSG

Storage Tanks Piping Systems Valves and PRVs

Cost Material Corrosion

Manufacturing Finishing Deoxidation Required Heat

Such as Such as such as such as such as As specified in Such as

Source: ASM Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection:

+V for Creep ½ to 3% Chrome-Moly-

SOURCE: THE ALLOY TREE - J. C. M. FARRAR BAHER ELSHEIKH

Austenitic This group contains at least 16% chromium and 6% nickel

Stainless steel families

Shaeffler Diagram (A-austenite; M – Martensite; F – ferrite)

Chromium as the major alloying element but with a higher

Chromium and nickel containing steels that can develop very

Typical Impact Properties

AWS – Welding Handbook, Volume 4 Part 1

316LN 314 348 S304430

Source: ASM- Stainless Steel for Design Engineers

Source: NiDi- High Temperature Characteristics of Stainless Steels

- Not Suitable for High

422 416Se 440B

Source: ASM- Alloying, Understanding the Basics

Source: API 938C, Use of DSS in Oil Refinery Industry

PREN = %Cr + 3.3Mo + 16N

Source: API 938C, Use of DSS in Oil Refinery Industry

Source: API 938C, Use of DSS in Oil Refinery Industry

Add Cr, lower C Add Cr, Al for

Alloys Add Mo, Cr for

Add Ti, Al for Add Cu

Low corrosion resistance in many applications

Very low temperature < -29 C . CS loose toughness

Susceptible to FAC in condensate service

- Temperature is higher than the maximum limits of carbon steels

- In application where Hydrogen is present at relative high temperature and partial

Austenitic stainless steels is applied widely where:

- Higher Corrosion resistance is required

A main concern of austenitic SS is the susceptibility to pitting and cracking in Cl

- Higher Corrosion resistance is required

Usually applied where corrosion resistance is required

Limited in temperature application

For Hypereutectoid steels (C >

• When weld is applied it is molten metal

Corrosion a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material