Optoelectronic devices

Fabrizio Bonani

Dipartimento di Elettronica
Politecnico di Torino

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Contents

1 Optoelectronics and applications

Geometrical optics

2 Optical fibers

3 Absorption and emission

4 LED

5 LASER

6 Photodetectors

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Optoelectronic applications

Optoelectronic devices are

exploited whenever it is
necessary to couple electrical
and optical signals
 optical communication systems
 mass storage: CD, DVD, ...
 printers and xerox
 lighting, LCD displays
 night vision
 quality control
 ...

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Optical communication system: scheme

Optical communication systems include: a transmitter

(LED o LASER), repeaters on the optical channel
(semiconductor or EDFA), a receiver (photodetector +
electronics)
TX
Modulated Source RX
(internally or externally) optical amplifier
Modulator (semiconductor or EDFA) Detector Preamplifier

amplification,
Light Source equalization,
(LED, LASER) Fiber Fiber reshaping, etc.
Receiver
Electronics

Signal Source
(base band, RF, ...)

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Optical communication system: advantages

Optical communication systems are favourable because of:

 immunity to electromagnetic interference

 high speed and bandwidth (potentially up to 10 Tb/s)
 high parallelism thanks to non-interfering “nearby” rays
 integration of electronic, optoelectronic and optical devices
on same chip feasible
 “beam steering” through lenses or holograms possible

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Electromagnetic spectrum
Frequency, Hz
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3000 THz 3 THz 3 GHz 3 MHz
Visible

gamma X rays U.V. I.R. (InfraRed) millimeter waves,

rays microwaves,
Radio Frequencies (RF)

1 A 1 nm 1mm 1 mm 1m 1 km
-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Wavelength, m

U.V. Visible InfraRed

Near Medium Far

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 2 3 45 9 Wavelength, m

3.1 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 Energy, eV

(wavelength)(frequency)=c/n Energy=h(frequency) h=6.626 10-34 J/s

=4.136 10-15 ev/s

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Geometrical optics
Optical signal are electromagnetic waves
Can be studied through Maxwell equations following the
wave propagation theory
 free propagation
 guided propagation: dielectric waveguides. Electric field is
confined into materials with higher refractive index
I planar waveguides (dielectric slabs), circular guides (optical
fibers)
When the propagation medium exhibits refractive index
variations negligible on a scale comparable to the
wavelength, the classic theory of geometrical optics can be
exploited
 Fresnel formulas for the amplitude of reflected and
refracted waves (from a discontinuity in the refractive index)
 Snell law for the angles of the incident, reflected and
refracted rays
 total reflection if the incident angle (from material with
higher refractive index) exceeds the critical angle
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Contents

1 Optoelectronics and applications

Geometrical optics

2 Optical fibers

3 Absorption and emission

4 LED

5 LASER

6 Photodetectors

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Optical fibers

Optical fibers are dielectric waveguides with circular

cross-section, mostly made of doped SiO2
From the geometrical optics standpoint, signal propagation
follows the total reflection effect
If the inner (core) is sufficiently thin, the propagation is
single mode
 NB: if the core diameter is of the same order of magnitude
as λ, a full wave propagation approach is necessary
Both step index and graded index guides are possible

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Optical fiber types

n n n
n1 n1 n1
n2 n2 n2

Cladding Core

single mode fiber multiple mode fiber multiple mode fiber

step index step index graded index

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Optical fibers: pros and cons

Pros:
 low attenuation in atmosphere (minimum in III window)
 low dispersion (ideally zero in II window)
 realization of passive (filters) and active (repeaters)
components within the fiber feasible
Problems:
 interface losses when coupling the fiber with semiconductor
devices (fiber-planar waveguide transition)

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Optical fibers: minimum attenuation windows
OH
I window
Attenuation, dB/km

10 Infrared
Rayleigh scattering Absorption

1 OH

~0.5 dB/km
~0.2 dB/km
0.1 II window, 1.3 mm
III window, 1.55 mm
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Wavelength, mm
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Communication system specs

A transmission system is characterized by the transmission

speed (in terms of bandwidth or bit rate in Gb/s) and the
propagation length
 the two being inversely proportional
Foundamental limitations:
 long-distance links are limited by attenuation: exploit single
mode waveguides, repeaters and high spectral purity
sources
 short-distance links are limited by dispersion: exploit
multimode guides and lower cost sources

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Fibers and sources specs

High quality quarz fibers (SiO2 ) are necessary in the

second window to minimize dispersion or in the third
window to minimize losses
Single mode transmission and color multiplexing (WDM)
require highly stable sources with linewidth of the order of
MHz
Lower quality fibers can be exploited on short-distance
links; if multimode, the specs on the sources are less strict
Sources are LASER diodes and LED diodes

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Modulator specs

Modulation can be:

 internal, when the electrical current driving the light source
is direcly modulated by the signal: fluctuations in emitted
frequency are observed (chirp) and band is limited up to 20
GHz
 external, when the optical carrier from the source is
modulated by an external device (electro-optic modulator,
Mach Zender, ...): bandwidth can exceed 100 GHz. The
system comprising source + modulator can be integrated
for lower coupling losses and cost

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Receiver specs

The receiver must convert an incoming optical signal

(characterized by its optical power) into an electrical signal,
usually an electrical current
The receiver must absorb the incoming optical power, and
must be thus realized with materials compatible with the
incident wavelength
Characteristic parameters are
 the sensitivity: minimum optical power required to detect a
signal with a given S/N or BER
 the modulation bandwidth: capability of detecting signals
with high bit-rate (Gbps ⇔ GHz)

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Contents

1 Optoelectronics and applications

Geometrical optics

2 Optical fibers

3 Absorption and emission

4 LED

5 LASER

6 Photodetectors

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Absorption and emission: dependency on Eg

The emission of a photon in a semiconductor corresponds

to the recombination of an electron/hole pair
The absorption of a photon in a semiconductor
corresponds to the generation of an electron/hole pair
The optical (radiative) generation-recombination processes
are more favourable within direct bandgap semiconductors
(GaAs, InP, III-V alloys, II-VI alloys, etc.).
It is required that:

1.24
Eg < Photon Energy = hf = [eV if λ is in µm]
λ
Nowadays available semiconductors can absorb/emit
photons with λ ranging from infrared to UV

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Absorption and emission: band diagram
Indirect-bandgap Direct-bandgap
semiconductor semiconductor
Silicon GaAs
4 4

3 3
3.4
2 1.1 2 0.3 0.48

Energy, eV
Energy, eV

1 1
1.1 1.43
0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
L G X L G X
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Absorption coefficient

Absorption is characterized by the absorption coefficient α

[cm−1 ], which in turn depends on the incoming photon
energy, i.e. on f
The incident optical power (per unit area) is absorbed
following the law:

Pop (x) = Pop (0) e−αx

Incident Optical
Power Pop(0)

x
L

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Optical absorption in semiconductors
Absorption is null for
hf < Eg Wavelength, mm
Si and Ge have 2 1 0.5 0.2
107
sufficient absorption
for photodetector 10
6

applications Ge
105
High efficiency

a, cm-1
4
devices need to be 10
GaAs Si
realized on direct 10
3

bandgap materials
102
Optical properties T = 300 K
can be enhanced by 10
1

doping (e.g. in Si 0
10
and Ge) 0.6 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Photon Energy hf, eV

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Materials for optoelectronics applications

Direct bandgap compound semiconductors allow for the

realization of efficient and high quality sources (LASER);
lower quality sources (LED in the visible spectrum) can be
fabricated also with indirect bandgap materials
Si (at 0.8 µm) and Ge (at 1.3 and 1.5 µm) are suited for the
realization of photodetectors for the wideband behavior of
α, but with high absorption length and comparatively low
frequency (below 1 GHz)
High speed transmission systems require photodectors on
InP alloys

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Absorption and emission: model I

From the model standpoint, the absorption of photons

corresponds to a generation process with generation rate
Gop
The optical power variation (i.e. the absorbed power) per
unit area in a slice of thickness dx is (for dx → 0):

Pop (x + dx) − Pop (x) = Pop (0) e−α(x + dx)

h

− e−α(x) ≈ −Pop (0) e−αx αdx = −αPop (x)dx

i

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Absorption and emission: model II

Each absorbed photon of energy hf generates an e/h pair

The generation rate is the number of e/h pairs generated
per unit volume and time
Gop is therefore the absorbed optical power per unit
volume divided by the photon energy:

αPop (x) αPop (x)

Gop (x) = − =− = αΦ0 (x)
hf ~ω
where Φ0 (x) is the photon flux incident the cross-section
located at x

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Spontaneous and stimulated emission

Ec Ec Ec
hf hf hf hf

Ev Ev Ev

photon absorption: e/h pair recombination: e/h pair recombination:

e/h pair generation photon spontaneous photon stimulated
emission emission

Both spontaneous and stimulated emission can occur

Stimulated emission is a quantum phenomenon upon
which the concept of laser is founded: the emission
probability is proportional to the density of photons in the
system

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Contents

1 Optoelectronics and applications

Geometrical optics

2 Optical fibers

3 Absorption and emission

4 LED

5 LASER

6 Photodetectors

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Heterostructure LED

A LED is a forward biased p-type

pn junction within which electron
the current is dominated by diffusion
the radiative recombination
Ec
and therefore by the EFn
hf
emission of photons
Fabricated on GaAs (0.8 EFp hf
µm) or InP (1.3 e 1.5 µm)
The presence of a QW
hole
enhances the ratio diffusion Ev
between the emitted
n-type
optical power and injected
current
Active LED region

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LED features

LEDs are dominated by spontaneous emission: emission

spectrum bandwidth is of the order of ∼ kB T , i.e. ∆λ = 1
µm and ∆f = 6 THz at 300 K (compare to best LASER
peformances: 100 kHz)
The emitted optical power is proportional to the diode
current:
photons e/h pairs I 
Pop = hf × = hf × ≈ hf ≈ Eg eV I
time time q

The actual coefficient is reduced due to not emitted

photons (reflected or re-absorbed): efficiency can be down
to 1% in indirect bandgap materials!

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Modulation bandwidth

With direct modulation, the bandwith is:

1
B= where τr is the radiative lifetime
2πτr
τr decreases with increasing free carrier concentration, i.e.
with increasing current. The minimum value is approx. 1
ns, therefore the maximum B value is around 200 MHz
LASERs exhibit much faster response thanks to stimulated
emission

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Vertical (surface emitting) LED

LED in the visible spectrum Optical

for specific applications Fiber
(display, lighting, ...)
Ohmic
LED for optical Contact
communication systems Ev Ec

directly coupled to fibers

n AlGaAs
In advanced structures, +
n AlGaAs
p GaAs
coupling efficiency with p AlGaAs
p+ GaAs
fibers is enhanced through
micro-lenses Ohmic Contact

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Horizontal (edge-emitting) LED

The structure is similar to a LASER diode, but lacks the

mirros (see next)
In some cases, at high driving currents stimulated
emission can onset, giving rise to a non-zero, albeit low,
gain, and an increase of the emitted power (superradiant
LED or superluminiscent LED)
Ohmic Contact
Ev Ec

Optical Fiber Electric Field Profile

n AlGaAs
n+ AlGaAs
p GaAs
p AlGaAs
p+ GaAs
p GaAs

Ohmic Contact

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Contents

1 Optoelectronics and applications

Geometrical optics

2 Optical fibers

3 Absorption and emission

4 LED

5 LASER

6 Photodetectors

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LASER: operation principle

LED:
spontaneous
emission
in a junction
Velocity limited
Limited spectral
by radiative
purity
lifetime tr

Resonating cavity Stimulated

enhances stimulated emission
emission decreases tr

LASER: stimulated
emission in a pn
junction in a
resonating cavity

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LASER: scheme

pn junction
Pout Optical output
Photons
power @f0 (~1%)
Spontaneous (wide spectrum)
Isp Emission
Diode Optical cavity
Current @ f0
I=Isp+Ist Ist Stimulated Pout
Emission Photons @ f0
proportional to
Ist, P0
P0 I
Optical power Ith
density in cavity (~99%)

I < Ith : below threshold ⇒ spontaneous emission

I > Ith : above threshold ⇒ stimulated emission

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Fabry-Perot LASER

Input current I
A double heterostructure
Polished face
confines the field vertically p type,
wide bandgap
Active layer
An optical cavity is p-i-n type,
narrow bandgap
obtained by polishing the
edge surfaces (mirros) n type,
wide bandgap
Linewidth of the order of
Resonating cavity length
20 ÷ 30 Å
Optical ouput Polished face
power Pop

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LASER evolution

J Better current confinement

I I I
J Transverse mode
suppression

Fabry-Perot LASER Stripe LASER Buried LASER

J Better frequency
stability, linewidth
I of few MHz I
J Tunable grating J Better carrier
J Direct modulation Internal confinement in QW,
External grating lower Ith
up to ~30 GHz
grating J More selective mirrors,
emission linewidth
reduced to 2 Å

Distributed Bragg Distributed-feedback

Reflector LASER LASER (DFB)
(DFB)

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Contents

1 Optoelectronics and applications

Geometrical optics

2 Optical fibers

3 Absorption and emission

4 LED

5 LASER

6 Photodetectors

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Photodetectors

avalanche
n type or n type n type n type
intrinsic intrinsic p type

absoption
depleted p type
hf depleted
hf depletion hf
hf

pp type
type p type p type

Photo-conductor pn Photodiode pin Photodiode Avalanche Photodiode

Aim: obtain a current directly proportional to the incident

optical power
Generation can take place in a conductor or in a reverse
biased diode

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Heterostructure photodetectors

Photoconductors and pn photodiodes are limited by the

low minority carrier lifetime
Fast photodetectors are the pin (limited by transit time) and
avalanche (APD) photodiodes
The main parameter to be optimized is the responsivity:

e/h pairs
I q× q e/h pairs q
R= = time = = η
Pop photons hf photons hf
hf ×
time
where η is the quantum efficiency

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Heterostructure photodetectors: example

Eg hf

J Layer i with high absorption

n material
Ec Ev J n and p layers transparent to
n-InGaAs 200 Å
n-InAlAs 2000 Å optical signal
i-InAlAs 200 Å
J Increase h
i-InGaAs 10000 Å
p
i-InAlAs 200 Å
p-InAlAs 4500 Å
i-InGaAs/InAlAs SL
buffer

InP S.I.

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Optoelectronic integrated circuits

E
Insulating
Aim (difficult): integration of driver, layer
OE
laser and control circuits
Easier: integration of photodetector
and preamp, e.g. pin + transistor Substrate
(HEMT or HBT) E
OE
E and OE devices have different
material properties, doping,
Substrate
dimensions, ...
Most common solution: epitaxial Re-growth
E
re-growth OE

Often hybrid solution still allow for

better performances than OEICs
Substrate

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