7.

Flexure Members [Refer to Section Eight]

Structural member subjected to shear and moments due to transverse load or due to
member end deformation is called flexure member. Behaviour of flexure member is
principally governed by bending moment and shear force. All types of beams used in
steel structures are flexure members.

7.1 Types of Beams

Based on size, location, shape, importance and purpose of structure, beam may be
Joist, Stringer, Purlin, Girt, Lintel, Built-up Beam, Plate Girder, Composite Beam and
Box Girder.

Type of Beam Area of Employment Commonly Used Section

Joist Floor

Stringer Bridge deck

Purlin Roof

Girt Cladding

Lintel Door’s and window’s opening

Built-up Beam Moderate span

Plate Girder Large span

Composite Beam Moderate to large span

Box Girder Large/ curvilinear span

Depending upon the support to compression flange of beam, beam may be laterally
restrained (laterally supported) or laterally unrestrained (laterally unsupported).
Beam is said to be laterally restrained when compression flange of beam is
embedded in concrete or connected with floor slab through shear connectors. When
compression flange of beam is not embedded in concrete or not rigidly connected
with floor slab, beam is laterally unrestrained.

Shear RC Slab
Connector

Laterally Restrained Beam Laterally Unrestrained Beam

Depending upon the type of steel section used, steel beam may be of

i. Single Rolled Steel Section (Simple Beam)

ii. Built-Up Section (Built-Up Beam)

iii. Steel Plates (Plate Girder)

Behaviour of beam under loading

I Behaviour of beam in flexure

Laterally restrained beam:

Flexural behaviour of beam basically depends on its support condition of compression

flange. Lateral supports to compression flange increase the performance of beam on
flexure. Continuous lateral support to compression flange prevents beams from flexural
torsional buckling.

In laterally restrained beam, there may be shear buckling of web, which may affect the
flexural behaviour. Shear buckling depends on the magnitude of shear on the section of
beam. In lower value of shear i.e. V < 0.6Vd, flexural behaviour of laterally restrained beam
is not affected. But in the higher value of shear i.e. V ≥ 0.6Vd, web of laterally restrained
beam buckles due to shear and this shear buckling reduces the bending strength of beam
(Md).

Laterally restrained beam behaves either elastically, elasto-plastically or plastically on

progressive loading. Bending stress distribution across the depth of laterally restrained
beam in different stages of loading will be as follows.

f ≤ fy
Bending Stress Dia. in 1-2 stress range

Stress (f) M=Me

2 3 4
fy f= fy
Bending Stress Dia. in 2-3 stress range
M>Me range
M<Mp

f= fy
Bending Stress Dia. in 3-4 stress range
1 Strain M=Mp

Idealized Stress -Strain diagram

 Where,
Me, Mp – Elastic and plastic moment resisting capacity of beam
Ze, Zp – Elastic and plastic section modulus of beam
Vd – Design shear strength of beam

In 1 - 2 stress range, beam exhibits elastic behaviour. In this stage, value of maximum
bending stress in the fibres of beam does not exceed the yield stress of steel.

In 2 - 3 stress range, beam exhibits elasto-plastic behaviour. In this stage, value of maximum
bending stress reaches to the yield stress in extreme fibres of beam. But stresses in lower
fibres of beam remain less than yield stress.

In 3 - 4 stress range, beam exhibits plastic behaviour. In this stage, value of bending stresses
reach to the yield stress in all fibres of beam.

Laterally unrestrained beam:

Laterally unrestrained beams do not have continuous lateral support to its compression
flange. Such types of beams may suffer from lateral torsional buckling. Lateral torsional
buckling reduces the bending strength of beam. Lateral torsional buckling occurs when the
value of bending moment reaches to Mcr [Ref. to cl. 8.2.2.1]

√( )* +

Where,

Mcr – Elastic critical moment

LLT – Effective length of lateral torsional buckling [Refer to cl. 8.3 and Table 15]

– Moment of inertia of section about minor axis of beam; G – Shear modulus

– Torsional constant ; ∑ ; bi, ti – width and thickness of flange of beam

– Warping constant; ( )

–Ratio of M.I. of compression flange and Sum of M.I. of compression and tension flange
( ); ; - Centre to centre distance between flanges
 Position of beam section in lateral torsional buckling of beam

Axis of
bending

Bending of beam Bending of beam Bending of beam about Lateral torsional

about major axis about minor axis minor axis and twisting buckling of beam

II. Behaviour of beam in shear

Under transverse loading, beam is subjected to transverse and longitudinal shear. Usually
transverse shear does not affect the shear behaviour of beam as the beam will fail due to
web crippling/buckling prior to transverse shear failure. Longitudinal shear may cause the
shear failure of beam. Longitudinal shear is expressed by

tw
d1 d

Shear stress Shear stress Idealized Shear Stress

distribution at distribution at Distribution Diagram
elastic state plastic state

In shear stress diagram, it can be seen that flanges of beam resist a very small portion of
shear and the significant portion of shear is resisted by web. So for all practical purposes
shear stress in steel beam is given by

Shear strength of beam (Vd) is affected by the slenderness of web (d1/tw) of beam. If
slenderness increases, the tendency of shear buckling of web also increases. And shear
buckling always decreases the shear strength of beam.

It is comprehended that, when d1/tw ≤ 67 , shear strength of beam is governed by plastic

shear resistance of web and when d1/tw ˃ 67 , shear strength of beam is governed by shear
buckling of web.
 Where,
V – Shear force

S – Static moment of area above the layer of beam to be considered

I – Moment of inertia about the axis of bending
b – Width of beam at the layer of consideration

tw – Thickness of web; d – Depth of beam d1 – Effective depth of beam

- Yield stress ratio; √

III. Buckling behaviour of beam

Web of simple and built-up beam behaves like a column, when placed under concentrated
load. Concentrated load develops high localized compressive stress in web. The web of
beam is quite thin and is therefore subjected to buckling i.e. web buckling and web
crippling. In web buckling, maximum local compressive stress is developed at neutral axis of
beam. In web crippling, maximum local compressive stress is developed at the root of web
of beam.

Web of plate girder is more slender than web of simple and built-up beam. Due to the high
slenderness of web of plate girder, loads on plate girder causes instability of plate girder
very easily. So plate girders shall compulsorily design for their lateral stability.

Load on beam Web Buckling Web Crippling

Main Consideration in the Design of Simple and Built-up Beam

 Beam should be designed for shear keeping in view the slenderness of web of beam.
 Beam should be designed for bending keeping in view the restrained of compression
flange and shear strength of beam.
 Beam should be designed for buckling keeping in view the lateral stability of beam.
 Beam should be designed for its stiffness keeping in view their deflections and
deformation under service condition.
 Beam should be designed for economy paying attention to the size and grade of steel
to yield the most economical design.
7.2, 7.3 Design of Simple and Built-up Beam
Simple and built-up beams are designed for shear, bending, serviceability and buckling.
Besides, in the case of built-up beam, connection of steel plates with flange of beam shall
also be designed.

I. Design for Shear

Design Principle

At limit state of strength, design shear force subjected to beam shall be less or equal to the
design shear strength of beam.

[Refer to cl.8.4]

Vn may be governed by plastic shear

resistance, when d/tw ≤ 67 and shear buckling, when d/tw > 67

Vn = V p [Ref. cl 8.4.1] as governed by plastic shear resistance

√

For Vn as governed by shear buckling, refer to cl. 8.4.2, Design of Plate Girder

II. Design for Bending

Design Principle

At limit state of strength, design bending moment subjected to beam shall be less or equal
to the design bending strength of beam.

[Refer to cl.8.2]
Design bending strength of laterally restrained beam

i. Design bending strength of laterally restrained beam under low shear case
(V < 0.6Vd)

Ze , Zp – Elastic and plastic section modulus of beam

ii. Design bending strength of laterally restrained beam under high shear case
(V ≥ 0.6Vd)

( )

( )

Design bending strength of laterally unrestrained beam

 √ √ √

( ⁄ )
[ ( ) ]

III. Design for Lateral Stability of Web

(Check for Web Buckling and Web Crippling of Beam)

Design principle

At limit state of strength, maximum local compressive stress developed due to

concentrated load at the neutral axis level of beam (in case of web buckling) and at
root of web (in case of web crippling) shall be within the limiting value of design
stresses.

[Ref. Cl.7.1.2.1]
 In web buckling

F
b
B 1:1 B d
1:1

b
R

In web crippling

F
b
1:2.5 t f + R1
B 1:2.5 B
t f + R1
b
R

Where,
F – Concentrated load; R – Support reaction;
b – Bearing length of load/support
B – Dispersed width of load/support reaction
B = b+d for web buckling under concentrated load

= b+d/2 for web buckling at support

= b+2.5 (tf + R1) ×2 for web crippling under concentrated load
= b+2.5 (tf + R1) ×2 for web crippling at support
R1 – Radius of root of web; tf – Thickness of flange of beam
tw – Thickness of web of beam; d – Depth of beam

IV. Design of Beam at Limit State of Serviceability

(Check for Deflection)
Design Principle

Beam designed for limit state of strength should be checked for limit state of serviceability. At limit
state of serviceability in deflection, maximum deflection of beam shall be within the limiting value of
deflection.
Design Steps of Simple and Built-Up Beam

i. Find approximate plastic section modulus required for beam.

⁄ for laterally restrained beam

⁄ for laterally unrestrained beam

ii. Select appropriate steel section of beam.

In simple beam, beam is selected from steel section book in such a way so
that .
In built-up beam, usually steel plates are connected with the flange of beam
of I section. So required section modulus of built-up beam shall be
Ap

̅
h z
z
tp
bp
iii. Define the beam section as either plastic, compact or semi compact section
depending upon the limiting width to thickness ratio of beam elements as
given in Tab. 2

iv. Check beam section for shear

[Refer to cl.8.4]

v. Check beam section for bending

[Refer to cl.8.2]

vi. Check beam section for web buckling and web crippling
[Ref. Cl.7.1.2.1]

vii. Check beam at limit state of serviceability in deflection

viii. Design connection between steel plate and flange of beam.

In the case of built-up beam, connection is designed for longitudinal shear
acting on the interface of plate and flange of beam.
 For safe connection, longitudinal shear per unit length or pitch acting on the
interface of plate and flange of beam shall be less or equal to the design
strength of connection per unit length or pitch.

Pitch of bolts in bolted connection is found by

̅

Length of weld in welded connection is found by

̅

Where, p – pitch of connection, Iz – moment of inertia of built-up beam about axis of

bending, Ap – sectional area of a steel plate, V – design SF

7.4 Design of Plate Girder (Introduction)

Large steel beams required for covering large span of structure and for resisting heavy loads
are made up of steel plates called plate girder. Depending upon the connection of steel
plates, plate girder may be welded or bolted. Main components of plated girder are web
plate, flange plate, vertical stiffeners, horizontal stiffeners, web splice and flange splice.

Components of Welded Plate Girder

Flange Plate Intermediate V. Stiffener Additional Flange Plate

Web Plate
Point of Curtailment
X

X
Horizontal Stiffener Horizontal Stiffener
Bearing V. Stiffener
at 0.2 d from Compression Flange at Neutral Axis

Additional Flange Plate

Intermediate V.
Stiffener Horizontal Stiffener
at 0.2 d from Compression Flange

Horizontal Stiffener
at Neutral Axis

Section at X-X
Design Steps of Plate Girder

i. Analyse Plate Girder.

Assess loads and determine responses at the critical sections of Plate Girder.
ii. Proportion sizes of the elements of Plate Girder. [Refer to cl.8.6]

Find the approximate depth of plate girder (D), thickness of web plate (t w), thickness
of flange plate (tf), width of flange plate (bf). bf
tf
tw
d D

iii. Define the beam section as either plastic, compact or semi compact section depending
upon the limiting width to thickness ratio of beam elements as given in Tab. 2

iv. Check beam section for shear

[Refer to cl.8.4]

v. Check beam section for bending

[Refer to cl.8.2]

vi. Check beam section for lateral stability.

Design vertical stiffeners i.e. bearing stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners, design
horizontal stiffeners i.e. horizontal stiffener at 0.2d and horizontal stiffener at neutral
axis of beam according to the requirements of plate girder. [Ref. Cl.8.5, 8.6, 8.7]

vii. Check plate girder at limit state of serviceability in deflection

viii. Design connection between web plate and flange plate, web plate and stiffeners.

ix. Curtail additional flange plates if exists, design web splices and design flange splices
Design Exercise

1. In a floor system, ISMB 400 is used as the main beam to resist the floor loads. Beam is
subjected to maximum shear force of 75 KN. Find

i. The shear and moment resisting capacity of beam if the compression flange of
beam is laterally restrained.
ii. The shear and moment resisting capacity of beam if the compression flange of
beam is laterally restrained.

2. A simply supported beam of effective span of 5 m carries a uniformly distributed load

of 40 KN/m exclusive of self-weight and a point load of 60 KN at mid span.

i. Design the beam, when compression flange of beam is laterally unsupported.

ii. Design the beam, when compression flange of beam is laterally supported.
iii. Design the built-up beam of maximum height, when compression flange of
beam is laterally supported.

3. The floor of an office building is supported by main beams and sub beams as shown in
fig. The sub beams are connected to the main beam at the same level. The floor
consists of 120 mm thick reinforced concrete slab and 25 mm thick marble flooring
resting on the flange of the beam. If all the connections of beams to beams and
beams to columns are simple connection and live load to floor is 4 KN/m2

i. Design sub-beam and its connection to main beam.

ii. Design centrally located main beam and its connection to column flange.

Main beam

Sub beam

2x6m

Column

3x4m

Floor Plan
4. A built-up beam as shown in figure is used in a floor system. If the beam is subjected
to 150 KN shear force, find

i. The shear strength of beam

ii. The bending strength of beam
iii. The resisting capacity of beam to web crippling and web buckling

M 16 of 4.6 pr.cl. NPB 300 × 200 × 59.56

100 mm
ISF 300 × 16