Failure Modes Introduction: Landslides

Failure Modes Introduction
Slope failures are essentially natural hazards that occur in many areas over the
world. Popularly known as landslides, slope failures describe a wide variety of
mechanisms that cause the outward or downward movement of slope-forming
materials like rock, soil or landfills. Landslide can result either from rock failure or
soil failure. While in rock the failure plane is predetermined, in soil failure,
the failure plane occurs along the line of maximum stress.
Sliding Failure of Soil
There is a theory that all slopes are inherently unstable and it is only a matter of
geologic time that slope failure occurs. Apart from external triggers like heavy rains,
earthquakes, construction projects, there are also internal causes for slope failures.
Slopes lose strength over time through numerous events and certain lithologies lend
itself more to specific types of failure.
Rock Slope Failure
In this type of failure, the failure plane is predetermined. The orientation and spacing
of the discontinuities plane with respect to the slope face are the determinants
of rock slope failure. Failure could arise from a single discontinuity, a pair of
intersecting discontinuities or a pattern of multiple discontinuities that form a failure
mode.
Plane Failure
The failure surface in planar failures are resulted by structural discontinuities like

bedding planes, faults or the interface between weathered rock and the underlying
bedrock. This kind of failure leads to sliding action along the failure surface. Hence,
planar failure occurs in response to a single discontinuity.
Plane Failure in Soil
Conditions for plane failure are as follows:
 The strikes of both the sliding plane and the slope face lie parallel (±20°) to
each other.
 The dip angle of the failure plane should be less than the dip angle of the
slope face. This is called Daylight.
 the dip of the sliding plane is greater than φ’ (angle of friction)
Keywords:
Dip is the acute angle that a rock surface makes with a horizontal plane.
Strike is the direction of the line formed by the intersection of a rock surface with a
horizontal plane.
Strike and dip are always perpendicular to each other.
Wedge Failure
This kind of failure causes a rock mass to slide along two intersecting discontinuities.
This mode of failure needs the dip angle of at least one joint intersection to be
greater than the angle of friction of the joint surface. Favorable lithology for the
development of wedge failure includes inclined bedding, foliation and well defined
cleavages. Rocks such as Shale, limestones and slate are more prone to this kind of
failure due to its internal form.
Having said that, certain structural conditions are also necessary for the propagation
of wedge failure. The conditions are as follows:
 The plunge line of the intersection should be greater than the friction angle
of the slope.
 The line of intersection should ‘daylight’ on the slope. This means that the dip
angle of the intersection should be less than the dip angle of the slope .
Wedge failures could occur very rapidly in a matter of seconds or it could happen
slowly and gradually over a period of several months. The size of the wedge could be
a few cubic meters to enormous landslides that could cause a large scaled natural
disaster.
Wedge Failure in Soil
In civil engineering, one of the main objectives in slope design is to identify the
unstable wedges and develop scientific methods to support it.
Toppling Failure
Toppling failure occurs due to steep discontinuities in the rock which eventually
leads to slippage of the layers and the outward and downward movement of a
column of rock. Here the column of rock rotates about a fixed point at the base of
the slope. This toppling action is due to the column’s center of gravity lying outside
the base dimensions.
Toppling Failure
Prerequisites for toppling failure include closely spaced jointed rock mass with steep
discontinuities dipping away from the slope face. Sometimes the removal of an
overburden load, that was previously imparting constraining stresses in the rock
structure, could instigate toppling.
Rock Fall
Rock fall – Rock Failure
In this type of failure, a rock mass of any size is detached from a steep slope or cliff
where there is very little shear resistance. One detached, it descends mostly by air
and could cause significant damage. It could dislodge and collide with other rocks in
its trajectory, further initiating other falls and landslides. Rock falls are usually
initiated by a change in the forces acting on the rock. This is triggered by climatic or
biologic events such as rainfall. Rainwater infiltration causes an increase in the pore
water pressure. Heavy rains could also erode the surrounding materials, releasing
constraining pressure on the rock. Chemical degradation or weathering gives rise to
the same effect.
Stabilization and Protection Methods
Stabilization of slopes is very important and hence the expenditure on these

programs is justified as unstable slopes can be hazardous. Slope engineering gives
little space to cut corners to save cost. Factor of safety is raised for slopes near
highways, railway tracks and other important structures through various stabilization
methods. Selection of suitable method depends not only the technical feasibility but
on the cost and ease of installation. Another important requirement is for the
stabilization to be effective over a long period of time.
There are some methods that reduce the driving force behind slope failure, like pore
water pressure. Drainage is provided to reduce this pressure and reduce the
likelihood of slope failure. Providing drainage is less expense than support
stabilization techniques when it comes to covering large slopes. Excavation or
removal of the upper portion of the slope is another way to provide stability.
Stability of all slope types depends on height of the slope. Height is a key parameter
that dictates the stability of slopes. Hence, unloading the crest reduces the driving
force of slope failure.
There are other methods that use support systems and reinforcements to provide
stability. Lastly, there are protection techniques, usually employed where there is
high risk of rock falls or landslides and where stabilization is insufficient or not
feasible.
Below are some of these methods:
Rock Bolts-installed across failure surfaces . This can be used for smaller failure
planes or smaller rock masses.
Cables-installed across failure surfaces to increase its strength. These can be used for
large rocks as cables have higher strength than rock bolts
Dowels-these are reinforcement bars or blocks of reinforced concrete that is

installed at the toe of the unstable blocks so as to give passive support. The shear
and bending strength of reinforced steel is leveraged to provide this kind of support.
Retaining Walls– these are usually reinforced concrete structures constructed at the
toe of the slopes. This gives a kind of passive resistance against sliding.
Fences-these can be used to intercept rocks rolling down slopes with an angle less
than 40 degrees. Fences may be inadequate for larger rock masses and it may not be
a good method to counter rocks falling at greater angles.
Rock shed– In areas where hazard from rock fall is frequent but stabilization is not
feasible, rock sheds provide good protection for highways. Tunnel is also another
option to circumvent the hazards of unstable slopes.
Rotational Failure
Sliding of a material along a curved surface is called rotational failure. There are two
types of rotational failure, namely circular and non-circular. In circular failure, the
mechanical properties of the slope are assumed to be homogenous and the particles
in the soil or rock mass are very small when compared to the size of the slope.
Failure Modes in Soil

Basically, this occurs when the slope dimensions are substantially larger than the
individual rock sizes. The failure surface produced is a circular surface passing
through the toe of the slope. If soil conditions are not homogenous, then slope
failure occurs with non-circular shear surface.

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Failure Modes Introduction

Sliding Failure of Soil

Rock Slope Failure

The failure surface in planar failures are resulted by structural discontinuities like

Plane Failure in Soil

Conditions for plane failure are as follows:

Wedge Failure in Soil

Rock fall – Rock Failure

Stabilization and Protection Methods

Stabilization of slopes is very important and hence the expenditure on these

Dowels-these are reinforcement bars or blocks of reinforced concrete that is

Failure Modes in Soil

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