60 Engineering Mathematics 1 (AQB10102)

CHAPTER 3: GEOMETRY

3.1 COORDINATES SYSTEM

• Rectangular Coordinate
Graphs provide a visual representation of data
and show, in many cases, the variation of one
quantity with another. The most common form
of graph is one which uses a pair of straight
lines, known as axes that are drawn at right
angles to each other. Such a pair of axes is Many relationships between two quantities are
known as rectangular or Cartesian axes. two quantities are directly proportional and
when plotted produce a straight line graph.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the x-axis, That is, if one quantity (independent variable) is
and the vertical axis as the y-axis (y for high). changed then the other quantity (dependent
The point where these two axes meet or cross is variable) is changed in proportion, eg double
called origin and is given the symbol ‘0’. one and the other also doubles.
Conventionally, values along the x-axis and to • Polar Coordinate
the right of the origin are considered positive,
whilst those to the left are negative. With the y- There is another way of locating a point on a
axis, values above the origin are considered graph and this uses the distance (r) from the
positive, whilst those below negative. origin and an angle (Ɵ) measured anticlockwise
from the x axis to the line joint the point to the
To locate a point on the graph a value of both x origin. Such coordinates (r, Ɵ) are known as
and y are required. These are often written in ‘polar coordinates’ and are shown below.
brackets with in brackets with the x – value
always written first (x,y)

It is also useful to be able to convert from polar

coordinates to rectangular coordinates and vice
versa.
Values of x and y that locate a point on a graph
are called the ‘coordinate’ of the point. Further,
the x-distance from the y-axis is called its
‘abscissa’ and the y-distance from the x-axis is
called its ordinate.

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Using the trigonometrically ratios NATURE AND USES OF GRAPHS

r = (x + y
2 2 2
)
An example is the results obtained from a
2 2
r= x +y tensile test on a metal test piece. This involves
the slow extension of the test piece by the
application of a gradually increasing load.
y
tan θ =
x
As the load is applied so the test piece behaves
y −1
θ = tan elastically and it gets longer. At intervals the
x extension is recorded (using a micrometer,
vernier or dial test indicator) and at the same
The standard form of polar form is (r, θ) . time the load is also recorded (indicated on the
testing machine)
Example:

Express in polar coordinates the point

expressed in rectangular coordinates as (4, 2)
Test Piece Extension

Comparing the values of load against extension

shows that for every unit of load applied the
test piece extends one unit of length (say 1kN
for every 0.05mm)

Plotting values of applied load against the

corresponding extension (while the material
Using Pythagoras’ theorem remains elastic) produces the type of graph
shown below.
r = 42 + 22
= 20 The graph is a straight line which passes
= 4.472 through the origin. This shows that values of
load are directly proportional to the extension
2
tanθ = = 0.5 produced (Hooke’s law – Robert Hooke English
4
physicist 1635 – 1703)
θ = 26.57o
Example:
Thus in polar coordinates the point is located at load α extension or load = extension x constant
(4.472, 26.57o)
Rearranging this:
load
= cons tant
extension

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DEFINITIONS, TERMS AND BASIC

CONSTRUCTION

• Distance

Straight Line Graph Passing Through Origin

That is, if any load is selected and is divided by

the extension it produces, then a value will be
determined that will be the same for any other
load divided by its corresponding extension ie, a
constant value will be obtained.

The above only remains true if the test piece is

not loaded too much such that it is stretched
beyond its elastic limit. Once this happens it will
take on a permanent set (and the graph will not
be a straight line any more). If the load The distance between the points A(x1, y1) and
continues to be increased then the test piece B(x2, y2) in the plane is
will break.

On a straight line graph this constant (value) is

often achieved by selecting any two points on
the graph.

or we can write it as

Example:
Load/Extension Graph
Which of the points P(1, -2) or Q(8, 9) is closer
In a general sense, with the x and y axes, the to the point A(5, 3) ?
y
relationship of = constant is similarly By the distance formula we have
x
obtained. This constant is a measure of the
slope of the graph and is given the symbol ‘m’.

This shows that d(P,A) < d(Q,A) , so P is closer to

A.

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• Perpendicular distance of a point from • Midpoint

a line

The perpendicular distance, d of P(h,k) and the

line ax+by+c = 0 is given by If point R is a mid-point of line AB, the
coordinate of point R is

Example: Example:

Find the perpendicular distance of the point Find the mid-point coordinate for the straight
(10,-2) from the line 3x+4y-7=0 line joining point A(6, 3) and point B(4, -1).
Let the perpendicular distance denoted as d.

Where a = 3, b = 4, c = -7, d = 10, k = -2

• The point which divide a straight line

into segment with the ratio of m : n

Therefore, the perpendicular distance is 3

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If P is a point which divide the line AB with ratio Example:

m:n, hence coordinate of P is
Find the slope of the line that passes the points
P(4,8) and Q(7,9) .

Since any two different points determine a line,

there is only one line passes through these two
When m : n = 1: 1, P is a midpoint of straight
points. From the definition, the slope is
line AB.

Example:

Find the coordinate of P point which divide the This says that for every 3 units we move to the
straight line joining point A(5, 3) and point B(-4, right, the line raises 1 unit.
-6) with ratio 3:2.
• Equation of straight line

• Gradient
Point-slope form of the equation of a line

An equation of the line that passes through the

point (x1, y1) and has slope m is

y – y1 = m(x – x1)

Example:

The gradient or slope of a non-vertical line that Find the equation of the straight line joining
passes through the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) A(1,4) and B(3,7).
is
Let x1 = 1, y1 = 4, x2 = 3 and y2 = 7

The gradient of the line AB,

The slope of a vertical line is not defined.

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Therefore, the equation of a straight line AB, • Parallel and perpendicular lines

Parallel lines

Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if

they have the same slope, where
m1 = m2

Suppose a non-vertical line has slope m and y-

intercept b. This means the line intersects the y-
axis at the point (0,b) , the point-slope form of
equation of the line, with x = 0 and y = b ,
becomes
Example:
y – b = m(x – 0)
The straight line joining the point A(a,3) to the
This simplifies to y = mx + b , which is called the
point B(5,7) is parallel to the straight line joining
slope-intercept form of the equation of a line.
the point B to the point C(-3,-1). Calculate the
value of a.
Slope-intercept form of the equation of a line
Gradient for line AB = Gradient for line BC
An equation of the line that has slope m and y- Where mAB = mBC
intercept b is

y = mx + b

Therefore,
Example:

Find the equation of the straight line with

gradient 3 which passes through the y-intercept
at (0,2)

The general equation of the line is y = mx + b,

where m = 3 and b = 2

Therefore, the equation of the straight line is y

= 3x + 2

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Perpendicular lines SIMPLE GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION

Two lines with slope m1 and m2 are Introduction

The word geometry is derived from two Greek
perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = - 1 , that is,
words .The word ge means earth and the word
their slopes are negative reciprocals: metron means measure. Therefore, geometry is
the measurement of earth.

Basic Term Of Geometry

The most basic terms of geometry are point,
line and plane.
Also, a horizontal line (slope 0) is perpendicular i) Points
to a vertical line (no slope).
A point is a dot on a piece of paper or a point on
the number line or a point on the Cartesian
plane. A geometric point has no dimension (no
length, no breadth or thickness) A geometric
point has a position. We represent a point by a
dot.

ii) Lines

A line is formed by the intersection of two flat

surfaces. A line in geometry has only one
Example: dimension which is length and it has no width.
A line can also be considered as a set of points.
The straight line joining the point P(5, 7) to the The points are on the line and the line passes
point Q(9, -1) is perpendicular to the straight through the points. A line has no endpoints and
can be extended indefinitely in either direction.
line joining the point Q to the point R(r, 2).
Calculate the value of r.
Collinear points are points that lie on the same
line.
Line PQ is perpendicular with line QR. So,

A point on a line separates the line into three

sets: the given point and two half-lines. A half-
line is a set of points.

If the point is included with the set of points

that constitute a half-line, we get a ray. A ray
has only one endpoint and may be extended
indefinitely in only one direction.

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When we have two different lines that contain

the same point, these lines are said to be
intersect at that point.

A right angle is an angle whose sides are

perpendicular.
The geometric figure formed by two rays drawn
from the same point is called an angle. The rays An obtuse angle is an angle that is wider than a
are called the sides of the angle and the right angle but narrower than a straight angle.
common endpoint is called the vertex of the (Ex: angle ABD)
angle.
An acute angle is an angle that is narrower than
a right angle. (Ex: angle DBC)

iii) Planes

A plane is a flat surface such as floor of a room.

It divides one portion of space from another. It
has two dimensions, length and width. In
Adjacent angles are angles with the same geometry, a plane has no thickness. It is endless
vertex and a common side between them. (Ex: or infinite.
angle ACD and angle ACB)
A plane is a set of points. The points are on the
Vertical angles are angles where the side of one
plane and the plane contains the points. Points
angle extend through the vertex and form the
that are on the same plane are called coplanar
sides of the other. (Ex: angle ACD and angle
points.
BCE)

A straight angle is an angle where its sides form

a straight line. (Ex: angle ACE)

A unique plane is determined by any three

noncollinear points.

Two lines that intersect so as to form a pair of

congruent adjacent angles are called
perpendicular lines

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of points: the points on the angle, the points on

one half-plane and the points on the other half-
plane.

Points ABD are not on the same line and they

determine a unique plane.

Since lines and planes are both composed of

P , A , T are points on the angle .
points, we can make the following observations:
Angle
(i) If two different points of a line are on a
plane, then all the points on the line are also on An angle is the union of two rays that have a
the plane. The line must also be on the plane common endpoint. The rays are the sides of
the angle and the common endpoint is the
(ii) Any line on a given plane divides that plane
vertex of the angle.
into two half-planes. The result is three sets of
points: the points on the line, the points on one I) TYPES OF ANGLES
half-plane and the points on the other half-
plane.
Two different planes must meet in a line or
they must be parallel.

Adjacent angles: angles that have the same

vertex and a common side between them

Vertical angles: two angles such that the

Planes ABCD and EFGH are parallel planes but
sides of one angle are extended through the
planes ABCD and BGHC intersect in a line.
vertex to form the sides of the other angle.

Two lines that are on the same plane and do not Straight angle: an angle whose sides lies on
intersect, however far they are extended, are the same straight line and extend in opposite
called parallel lines. (Ex: lines BC and AD) directions from the vertex.

Two non-parallel lines will not intersect no A right angle: an angle whose sides are
matter how far we extend them, because they perpendicular
are not on the same plane. They are called skew
lines. (Ex: lines AB and GH) .
Angles are usually measured in degrees ( ° ) . A
degree can be divided into 60 smaller units
An angle on a plane divides the plane into two
half-planes. And that angle produces three sets

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called minutes ( ‘ ) . A minute is also divided An acute angle: an angle whose measure is
into 60 smaller units called seconds ( “ ) . greater than 0° and less than 90°

An obtuse angle: an angle whose measure is

1° = 60 ‘ and 1’ = 60 “ greater than 90° and less than 180° .

What is the measure of a straight angle?

180o

What is the measure of a right angle?
90°

When the measure of an angle is given, we can

find the measure of its supplement and its
complement.
A right angle is equal to 90°.
II) SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLE,
COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES A reflex angle is greater than 180°.

Supplementary angles: two angles whose

measures sum to that of a straight angle

Complementary angles: two angles whose

measures sum to that of a right angle.

Example:

Find the measure of the supplement of an angle

that measures 60°

Solution:

Let x = 60° and x + y = 180° then y = 120°

Find the measure of the complement of an

angle measuring 60° Iii) Properties of Angles And Straight Lines

Solution: Consider the following lines:

Let x = 60° and x + y = 90° then y = 30°

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Lines AB and CD are parallel and they are cut by When two parallel lines are cut by a transversal
a transversal line EF.
(a) The corresponding angles are equal
A transversal line: a line that intersects two or
a=1; b=m; c=p;d=q.
more lines.
(b) The alternate angles are equal
There are other types of angles in the given
figure. d=m; c=l.

Interior angles: angles formed by a transversal (c) The interior angles are supplementary
and a line and which are inside the lines cut by a d + l = 180°; c + m= 180°.
transversal (angles 3, 6, 4, 5)

Alternate interior angles: pair of nonadjacent

interior angles on opposite sides of the
transversal (angles 3 and 5 or angles 4 and 6)

Corresponding angles: angle that have the

same position with respect to their lines and
the transversal (angles 1 and 5 or angles 4 and 7
or angles 2 and 6 or angles 3 and 8)

The total angle on a straight line is 180°. The

Conversely if the two straight lines are cut by a
angles A and B are called adjacent angles. They
transversal the lines are parallel if any one of
are also supplementary. the following is true:

(a) Two corresponding angels are equal.

(b)Two alternate angles are equal.

(c) Two interior angles are supplementary.

When two straight lines intersect the opposite Polygons

angles are equal. The angles A and C are called
I) CLASSIFICATION OF POLYGONS
the vertically opposite angles. Similarly the
angles B and D are also vertically opposite Polygons are classified according to the number
angles. of sides they have.

Polygon Number Polygon Number

of sides of sides
Triangle 3 Octagon 8
Quadrilateral 4 Nonagon 9
Pentagon 5 Decagon 10
Hexagon 6 Dodecagon 12
Heptagon 7 Icosagon 20

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ii) Triangle

A triangle is a polygon with three sides.

Triangle Classified According To Their Sides

One of the angles is an obtuse angle

The measures of all the angles in a triangle are

equal

One of the angles is a right angle

Pythagoras Theorem

Consider the right triangle ABC

Triangle Classified According To Their Angles

The sides of this triangle that form the right

angle are called the legs of the right triangle
and the side opposite the right angle is called
the hypotenuse.

One of the most famous theorems in geometry

dealing with the right triangle is called
All the angles in the triangle are acute angles
Pythagoras Theorem

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Example: BASIC CONSTRUCTION

All straight lines should be drawn using a rule
and all arcs drawn using a compass. To draw
parallel lines as in dividing a line into a number
of equal divisions two set squares are used.

• To construct a parallel line to another

The compass radius (r) is set to the required

distance apart for the parallel line and two arcs
are constructed (a and b) at the longest
reasonable distance apart on line 1. A line (line
iii) Quadrilateral 2) is drawn to just touch the top of the arcs.
Line 2 will be parallel to Line 1.

• To bisect a line

The compass radius (r) is set to greater than half

the line (A,B) length and arcs are constructed
(arc 1 and arc 2) above and below the line from
each end of the line A and B, leaving the radius
unaltered. A line perpendicular to line A, B is
drawn through the arc intersections. This line
bisects line A, B.

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• To construct a perpendicular from a • To bisect an angle (CAB)

point on a line

The compass is opened to any radius and with

the compass point placed at A where the
perpendicular is to be erected. Two arcs (1st arc)
are struck on each side on the line. These then
form the centers of two further arcs (arcs 2 and
3), drawn with the compass radius increased.
Where these intersect a line can be drawn to A Using the point where the two lines intersect as
which will be perpendicular to the line. a center ‘A’, an arc is drawn cutting both lines at
B and C. These form the centers of two
additional arcs (2nd and 3rd) drawn with the
same but reduced radius that intersect at D. A
line drawn through this point to A, bisects the
angle CAB.
Using the point where the two lines intersect as
a center ‘A’, an arc is drawn cutting both lines at
B and C. These form the centers of two
additional arcs (2nd and 3rd) drawn with the
• To erect a perpendicular from a point
same but reduced radius that intersect at D. A
to a line line drawn through this point to A, bisects the
angle CAB.

• To construct an angle of 60o to a line

An arc is drawn from the point (A) with the

compass set at a radius greater than the
distance to the line, to cut the line at C and D.
The radius of the compass is now reduced and The compass point is centered at the point ‘A’
two further arcs (3rd and 4th) are drawn with the to which the angle is to be drawn and set to any
compass point at C and D to intersect at E. A radius AB. An arc BC is drawn. Without changing
line drawn from ‘A’ through E and drawn to the the radius, the compass is now centered at B
line will form a perpendicular to the line. and an arc is drawn to cut CB at D. A line drawn
through D to A will form an angle of 60o with
AB.

30o can be obtained by bisecting the 60o

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• To divide a line into a number of equal 3.2 AREAS OF PLANE FIGURE

parts
Area is a measurement of the amount of
surface of an object. Area is usually expressed in
such units as square inches or square
centimeters for small surface or in square feet
or square meters for larger surfaces.

• Rectangle

A rectangle is a four-sided figure with opposite

To the required line (AB), a second construction
line (AD), is drawn at any angle. Using a sides of equal length and parallel. All of the
compass set at any radius the number of angles are right angles. A right angle is a 90o
required divisions (in this case 9) is stepped off angle. The rectangle is a very familiar shape in
equally along the construction line. The final mechanics. The formula for the area of a
point ‘D’ is then joined to the end of the original rectangle is:
line (B). Parallel lines are then drawn to this line
from each of the stepped-off points, dividing Area = Length x Width = L x W
the line into the required number of equal
parts.

• To divide a line proportionally

Example:

An aircraft floor panel is in the form of a

rectangle having a length of 24 inches and a
width of 12 inches. What is the area of the
panel expressed in square inches?
The same method, as in the previous construct,
may be used. For this example the line is A = 24 x 12 = 288 square inches
required to be divided proportionally into a
ratio of 2:3:5. The construction line AD is • Square
therefore divided into 10 parts (2 + 3 +5 = 10)
and parallel lines drawn in the same ratio as A square is a four-sided figure with all sides of
that required. equal length and parallel. All angles are right
angles. The formula for the area of a square is:

Area = Length x Width = L x W

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Example: • Parallelogram

What is the area of a square access plate whose A parallelogram is a four – sided figure with two
side measures 25 inches? pairs of parallel sides. The formula for the area
of a parallelogram is:
A = 25 x 25 = 625 square inches
Area = Length x Height = L x H
• Triangle

A triangle is a three-sided figure. The sum of the

three angles in a triangle is always equal to
180o. The formula for the area of the triangle is:

Area = ½ x (Base x Height) = ½ x (B x H)

Example:
• Trapezoid

A trapezoid is a four – sided figure with one pair

of parallel sides. The formula for the area of a
trapezoid is:

Area = ½ (Base1 + Base2) x Height

Find the area of the obtuse triangle and give

your final answer in inches. [Hint: 1 ft = 12 in]

Area = ½ x (B x H) = ½ x (2’6” x 3’2”)

Next, convert all dimensions to inches:

2’6” = (2 x 12”) + 6” = 30 inches Example:

3’2” = (3 x 12”) + 2” = 38 inches What is the area of a trapezoid whose bases are
14 inches and 10 inches, and whose height (or
Therefore,
altitude) is 6 inches?
Area = ½ x (30” x 38”) = 570 square inches

Area = ½ (14” + 10”) x 6” =72 square inches

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3.3 THE CIRCLE AND ITS PROPERTIES Example:

• Circle The bore, or “inside diameter” of a certain

aircraft engine cylinder is 5 inches. Find the area
A circle is a closed, curved, plane figure. Every of a cross section of the cylinder.
point on the circle is an equal distance from the
center of the circle. The diameter is the distance A = π x r2 = 19.635 square inches
across the circle (through the center). The
radius is the distance from the center to the • Ellipse
edge of the circle. The diameter is always twice An ellipse is a closed, curved, plane figure and is
the length of the radius. The chord is a line commonly called an oval. In a radial engine, the
segment that joins two points on the circle. The articulating rods connect to the hub by pins,
circumference, or distance around, is equal to which travel in the pattern of an ellipse (i.e an
the diameter times π elliptical or orbital path)

chord

• Wing Area
• Sector of circle
To describe the shape of a wing, several terms
are required. To calculate wing area, it will be
necessary to know the meaning of the terms
“span” and “chord”. The wingspan, S, is the
length of the wing from wingtip to wingtip. The
chord is the average width of the wing from
θ 1 2 leading edge to trailing edge. If the wing is
Area =
360°
(π r ) 2
or
2
rθ tapered wing, the average width, known as the
mean chord, C, must be known to find the area.
[θ in rads ] The formula for calculating wing area is:

Area of a wing = Span x Mean Chord

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3.4 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF

COMMON SOLIDS

Rectangular Solid

Example:

Find the area of a tapered wing whose span is

50 feet and whose mean chord is 6’8”

A = S x C = 50 x 6.67 = 333.5 square feet

Volume = l × b × h
The summary of the formulas for computing the
area of two – dimensional solids as follow: Surface area = 2 ( bh + hl + lb )
Example:
A rectangular baggage compartment measures
5 feet 6 inches in length, 3 feet 4 inches in
width and 2 feet 3 inches in height. How many
cubic feet of baggage

• Cube

Volume = s × s × s
Surface area = 6 ( s × s )
Example:
A large, cube – shaped carton contains a
shipment of smaller boxes inside of it. Each of
the smaller boxes is 1ft x 1ft x 1ft.

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The measurement of the large carton is 3 ft x 3

ft x 3 ft. How many of the smaller boxes are in
the large carton?

• Cylinder

Example:
Find the piston displacement of one cylinder in
a multi – cylinder aircraft engine. The engine
Volume = π r 2 h
has a cylinder bore of 5.5 inches and a stroke of
Total surface area = 2π rh + 2π r 2
5.4 inches.

One of the most important applications of the

volume of a cylinder is finding the piston
displacement of a cylinder in a reciprocating
engine. Piston displacement is the total volume
(in cubic inches, cubic centimeters or liters) • Sphere
swept by all of the pistons of a reciprocating
engine as they move in one revolution of the
crankshaft. The formula for piston displacement
is given as:

Piston Displacement
= π x (bore divided by 2)2 x stroke x (no of
cylinders) 4 1
Volume = π r 3 or π D3
3 6
The bore of an engine is the inside diameter of Surface area = 4π r 2
the cylinder. The stroke of the engine is the
length the piston travels inside the cylinder.

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Example: Example:
Determine the volume and total surface area of
1. A pressure tank inside the fuselage of a cargo
a cone of radius 5 cm and perpendicular height
aircraft is in the shape of a sphere with a is 12cm

diameter of 34 inches. What is the volume of 1

Volume = π r 2 h
3
the pressure tank?
1
= × π × 52 × 12
3
= 314.2cm 3

Total surface area = π rl + π r 2

2. Find the volume and surface area of a sphere l = 122 + 52 = 13cm
of diameter 8cm

Diameter = 8cm, so radius, r = 4cm ∴Total surface area

= π ( 5)(13) + π ( 52 ) = 282.7cm2
4
Volume = π r 3
3
4
= π ( 43 )
3
= 268.1cm3

Surface area = 4π r 2
= 4π ( 42 )
= 201.1cm2

• Cone

1
Volume = π r 2 h
3
Curve surface area = π rl
Total surface area = π rl + π r 2

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EXERCISE 5. The line BF bisects ∠ABC. Find the value of

the angle α .
1. In the figure below, straight line AS and HR
intersect at point O and ON is perpendicular
to HR . Using this information, find each of
the following:

6. Find x

(a) an acute angle

(b) an obtuse angle

(c) a right angle

(d) a straight angle

(e) adjacent angles

(f) vertical angles 7. Find A

(g) complementary angles

(h) supplementary angles

2. Two angles are complementary and the

measure of one angle is 20° larger than the
measure of the other. How many degrees are
there in each angle?
8. Find x
3. Two angles are supplementary and the
measure of one angle is 60° less than the
measure of the other. How many degrees are
there in each angle?

4. Find the angle A

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9. Find a, b ,c & d. 14. Find A

15. The lines AB, CD and EF are parallel. Find the

values of x and y.

10. Find the angle x

16. The minute hand of a clock is 15 cm. What is

the distance that the tip of the minute hand
moves in one hour?

11. Find x
17. How much fencing would be needed to
enclose a circular garden that has a diameter of
10 cm?

18. Calculate the area of a regular octagon, if

each side is 5 cm and the width across the flats
is 12 cm.

12. Find A 19. A cycling track is the form of an ellipse, the

axes being 250m and 150m respectively for the
inner boundary, and 270m and 170m for the
outer boundary. Calculate the area of the track.

20. Calculate the volume of the metal tube

those outside diameters is 8 cm and whose
inside diameter is 6 cm, if the length of the tube
is 4 m.
13. AB is parallel to ED. Find the angle x.
21. Find the total surface area of a hemisphere
of diameter 50 mm.

SES