Chapter 3.

Steady-State Equivalent Circuit

Modeling, Losses, and Efficiency

3.1. The dc transformer model

3.2. Inclusion of inductor copper loss
3.3. Construction of equivalent circuit model
3.4. How to obtain the input port of the model
3.5. Example: inclusion of semiconductor conduction
losses in the boost converter model
3.6. Summary of key points

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 3.1. The dc transformer model

Ig I
Basic equations of an ideal
dc-dc converter: + Switching +
Power Power
Pin = Pout input
Vg dc-dc V output
(η = 100%) – converter –
Vg I g = V I

D
V = M(D) Vg
(ideal conversion ratio)
I g = M(D) I control input

These equations are valid in steady-state. During

transients, energy storage within filter elements may cause
Pin ≠ Pout

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 Equivalent circuits corresponding to
ideal dc-dc converter equations

Pin = Pout Vg I g = V I V = M(D) Vg I g = M(D) I

dependent sources Dc transformer

Ig I Ig 1 : M(D) I

+ + + +
Power Power Power Power
+ Vg V
Vg M(D) I M(D)Vg – V output
input output input
– – – –

control input

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 The dc transformer model

Ig 1 : M(D) I

+ + Models basic properties of

Power Power
Vg V ideal dc-dc converter:
input output
– – • conversion of dc voltages
and currents, ideally with
100% efficiency
D
• conversion ratio M
controllable via duty cycle
control input

• Solid line denotes ideal transformer model, capable of passing dc voltages

and currents
• Time-invariant model (no switching) which can be solved to find dc
components of converter waveforms

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 Example: use of the dc transformer model

1. Original system 3. Push source through transformer

R1 M 2(D)R1

+
+ Switching + +
+
V1 Vg dc-dc V R M(D)V1 V R
– –
– converter – –

2. Insert dc transformer model 4. Solve circuit

R1 1 : M(D) R
V = M(D) V1
+
+ + R + M 2(D) R 1
V1 Vg V R
–
– –

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 3.2. Inclusion of inductor copper loss

Dc transformer model can be extended, to include converter nonidealities.

Example: inductor copper loss (resistance of winding):
L RL

Insert this inductor model into boost converter circuit:

L RL 2
i +
1
Vg + C R v
–

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 Analysis of nonideal boost converter

L RL 2
i +
1
Vg + C R v
–

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

L RL i L RL
i
+ vL – + + vL – +
iC iC

Vg + C R v + C R v
– Vg –

– –

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 Circuit equations, switch in position 1

Inductor current and L RL

i
capacitor voltage: + vL – +
iC
vL(t) = Vg – i(t) RL +
Vg C R v
–
iC(t) = –v(t) / R
–

Small ripple approximation:

vL(t) = Vg – I RL
iC(t) = –V / R

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 Circuit equations, switch in position 2

i L RL

+ vL – +
iC

Vg + C R v
–

vL(t) = Vg – i(t) RL – v(t) ≈ Vg – I RL – V

iC(t) = i(t) – v(t) / R ≈ I – V / R

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 Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms

Average inductor voltage: vL(t)

Vg – IRL
sT

vL(t) = 1 v (t)dt DTs D' Ts

Ts 0 L
t
= D(Vg – I RL) + D'(Vg – I RL – V) Vg – IRL – V

Inductor volt-second balance: iC (t) I – V/R

0 = Vg – I RL – D'V

-V/R
Average capacitor current:
iC(t) = D ( – V / R) + D' (I – V / R)

Capacitor charge balance:

0 = D'I – V / R

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 Solution for output voltage

We now have two 5

RL / R = 0
equations and two 4.5

unknowns: RL / R = 0.01
4

0 = Vg – I RL – D'V 3.5

0 = D'I – V / R 3
RL / R = 0.02
V / Vg
Eliminate I and 2.5

solve for V: 2
RL / R = 0.05

V = 1 1 1.5

Vg D' (1 + RL / D' 2R)

1 RL / R = 0.1

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

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 3.3. Construction of equivalent circuit model

Results of previous section (derived via inductor volt-sec balance and

capacitor charge balance):

vL = 0 = Vg – I RL – D'V
iC = 0 = D'I – V / R

View these as loop and node equations of the equivalent circuit.

Reconstruct an equivalent circuit satisfying these equations

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 Inductor voltage equation

vL = 0 = Vg – I RL – D'V

L RL
• Derived via Kirchoff’s voltage
law, to find the inductor voltage + <vL> – + IRL –
during each subinterval =0
Vg + + D' V
• Average inductor voltage then – I –
set to zero
• This is a loop equation: the dc
components of voltage around
a loop containing the inductor • IRL term: voltage across resistor
sum to zero of value RL having current I
• D’V term: for now, leave as
dependent source

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 Capacitor current equation

iC = 0 = D'I – V / R
node

• Derived via Kirchoff’s current V/R

law, to find the capacitor <iC> +
current during each subinterval =0

• Average capacitor current then D' I C V R

set to zero
–
• This is a node equation: the dc
components of current flowing
into a node connected to the • V/R term: current through load
capacitor sum to zero resistor of value R having voltage V
• D’I term: for now, leave as
dependent source

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 Complete equivalent circuit

The two circuits, drawn together: Dependent sources and transformers

I1
RL +
+
nV2 + nI1 V2
+ D' V + D' I V R –
Vg – I –
–
–
n:1
The dependent sources are equivalent I1 +
to a D’ : 1 transformer:
V2
RL D' : 1
I + –

Vg + V R • sources have same coefficient

–
• reciprocal voltage/current
–
dependence

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 Solution of equivalent circuit

Converter equivalent circuit

RL D' : 1
I +

Vg + V R
–

Refer all elements to transformer Solution for output voltage

secondary: R / D' 2 using voltage divider formula:
L

+
D' I Vg Vg
V= R = 1
Vg / D' + V R
D' RL D' RL
– R+ 1+
D' 2 D' 2 R
–

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 Solution for input (inductor) current

RL D' : 1
I +

Vg + V R
–

I=
Vg
=
Vg 1 1
D' R + RL D' 1 + RL
2 2
R
D' 2 R

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 Solution for converter efficiency

RL D' : 1
Pin = (Vg) (I) +
I

Vg + V R
–
Pout = (V) (D'I)
–

Pout (V) (D'I) V

η= = = D'
Pin (Vg) (I) Vg

η= 1
RL
1+
D' 2 R

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 Efficiency, for various values of RL
100%

1 0.002
η= 90%
RL 0.01
1+
D' 2 R 80%

70% 0.02

60% 0.05

η 50% RL/R = 0.1

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

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 3.4. How to obtain the input port of the model

Buck converter example —use procedure of previous section to

derive equivalent circuit

ig 1 iL L RL

+ vL – +
2
Vg + C vC R
–

Average inductor voltage and capacitor current:

vL = 0 = DVg – I LRL – VC iC = 0 = I L – VC/R

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 Construct equivalent circuit as usual

vL = 0 = DVg – I LRL – VC iC = 0 = I L – VC/R

RL

+ <vL> – + VC /R
=0 <iC>
=0
DVg + VC R
– IL

What happened to the transformer?

• Need another equation

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 Modeling the converter input port

Input current waveform ig(t):

ig(t)
iL (t) ≈ IL

area =
DTs IL
0 t
0 DTs Ts

Dc component (average value) of ig(t) is

Ts

Ig = 1 ig(t) dt = DI L
Ts 0

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 Input port equivalent circuit

Ts

Ig = 1 ig(t) dt = DI L
Ts 0

Vg + Ig D IL
–

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 Complete equivalent circuit, buck converter

Input and output port equivalent circuits, drawn together:

Ig IL RL
+

Vg + D IL + DV VC R
– g
–

Replace dependent sources with equivalent dc transformer:

Ig 1:D IL RL
+

Vg + VC R
–

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 3.5. Example: inclusion of semiconductor
conduction losses in the boost converter model

Boost converter example

i L
+
iC

Vg + C R v
– +
–
DTs Ts
–

Models of on-state semiconductor devices:

MOSFET: on-resistance Ron
Diode: constant forward voltage VD plus on-resistance RD
Insert these models into subinterval circuits

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 Boost converter example: circuits during
subintervals 1 and 2

i L
+
iC

Vg + C R v
– +
–
DTs Ts
–

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

L RL i L RL RD
i

+
–
+ vL – + + vL – +
iC iC
VD
+ Ron C R v Vg + C R v
Vg – –

– –

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 Average inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL(t)
Vg – IRL – IRon

DTs D' Ts
t
Vg – IRL – VD – IRD – V
iC (t)
I – V/R

-V/R

vL = D(Vg – IRL – IRon) + D'(Vg – IRL – VD – IRD – V) = 0

iC = D(–V/R) + D'(I – V/R) = 0

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 Construction of equivalent circuits

Vg – IRL – IDRon – D'VD – ID'RD – D'V = 0

D' VD
RL D Ron D' RD

+
–
+ IRL - + IDRon- + ID'RD -

Vg + + D' V
– –
I

D'I – V/R = 0
V/R
+

D' I V R

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 Complete equivalent circuit

D' VD
RL D Ron D' RD

+
–
+

Vg + D' V + D' I V R
– I –

D' VD
RL D Ron D' RD D' : 1
+
–

Vg + V R
– I

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 Solution for output voltage

D' VD
RL D Ron D' RD D' : 1

+
–
+

Vg + V R
– I

V= 1 Vg – D'VD D' 2R
D' D' 2R + RL + DRon + D'RD

V = 1 D'VD 1
1–
Vg D' Vg R + DRon + D'RD
1+ L
D' 2R

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 Solution for converter efficiency

D' VD
RL D Ron D' RD D' : 1

+
Pin = (Vg) (I)

–
+

Vg + V R
– I
Pout = (V) (D'I)
–

D'VD
1–
Vg
η = D' V =
Vg RL + DRon + D'RD
1+
D' 2R

Conditions for high efficiency:

Vg / D' >> VD
and D' 2R >> RL + DRon + D'RD

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 Accuracy of the averaged equivalent circuit
in prediction of losses

• Model uses average MOSFET current waveforms, for various

currents and voltages ripple magnitudes:

• To correctly predict power i(t)

2I
loss in a resistor, use rms (c)
values (b) 1.1 I
I
(a)
• Result is the same,
provided ripple is small 0 t
0 DTs Ts

Inductor current ripple MOS FET rms current Average power loss in R on

(a) ∆i = 0 I D D I2 R on
(b) ∆i = 0.1 I (1.00167) I D (1.0033) D I2 R on
(c) ∆i = I (1.155) I D (1.3333) D I2 R on

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 Summary of chapter 3

1. The dc transformer model represents the primary functions of any dc-dc

converter: transformation of dc voltage and current levels, ideally with
100% efficiency, and control of the conversion ratio M via the duty cycle D.
This model can be easily manipulated and solved using familiar techniques
of conventional circuit analysis.
2. The model can be refined to account for loss elements such as inductor
winding resistance and semiconductor on-resistances and forward voltage
drops. The refined model predicts the voltages, currents, and efficiency of
practical nonideal converters.
3. In general, the dc equivalent circuit for a converter can be derived from the
inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge balance equations.
Equivalent circuits are constructed whose loop and node equations
coincide with the volt-second and charge balance equations. In converters
having a pulsating input current, an additional equation is needed to model
the converter input port; this equation may be obtained by averaging the
converter input current.
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